# document

id: 4739504560fce0f7bdee337d2a77c525
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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content:
"In addition to climate change, Dooley and Kartha (2018) also note \r\nthat technological and social factors could ultimately limit the \r\nfeasibility of agricultural and forestry mitigation options, especially \r\nwhen deployed at large scale. Concern is greatest with widespread \r\nuse of bioenergy crops, which could lead to forest losses (Harper \r\net al. 2018). Deployment of BECCS and forest-based mitigation \r\ncan be complementary (Favero et al. 2017; Baker et al. 2019), but \r\ninefficient policy approaches could lead to net carbon emissions if \r\nBECCS replaces high-carbon content ecosystems with crops."


id: 27074807d57081786785139cabadbd2c
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"Specific soil conditions, water availability, GHG emission\u0002reduction potential as well as natural variability and resilience.\r\nRecent analysis by (Cook-Patton et al. 2020) illustrates large \r\nvariability in potential rates of carbon accumulation for afforestation \r\nand reforestation options, both within biomes/ecozones and across \r\nthem. Their results suggest that while there is large potential for \r\nafforestation and reforestation, the carbon uptake potential in \r\nland-based climate change mitigation efforts is highly dependent \r\non the assumptions related to climate drivers, land use and land \r\nmanagement, and soil carbon responses to land-use change. Less \r\nanalysis has been conducted on bioenergy crop yields, however, \r\nbioenergy crop yields are also likely to be highly variable, suggesting \r\nthat bioenergy supply could exceed or fall short of expectations in \r\na given region, depending on site conditions."


id: d34d180bf89f1bfc73d873e597678a40
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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content:
"Adaptation benefits and biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity \r\nmay improve resilience to climate change impacts as more-diverse \r\nsystems could be more resilient to climate change impacts, thereby \r\nmaintaining ecosystem function and preserving biodiversity (Hisano \r\net al. 2018). However, losses in ecosystem functions due species \r\nshifts or reductions in diversity may impair the positive effects of \r\nbiodiversity on ecosystems. Forest management strategies based on \r\nbiodiversity and ecosystems functioning interactions can augment \r\nthe effectiveness of forests in reducing climate change impacts \r\non ecosystem functioning (high confidence). In spite of the many \r\nsynergies between climate policy instruments and biodiversity \r\nconservation, however, current policies often fall short of realising \r\nthis potential (Essl et al. 2018)."


id: db6b9b45e40e7ce5174335965fc179b0
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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content:
"The effects of climate change on ecosystems, including changes in \r\ncrop yields, shifts in terrestrial ecosystem productivity, vegetation \r\nmigration, wildfires, and other disturbances also will affect the \r\npotential for AFOLU mitigation. Climate is expected to reduce crop \r\nyields, increase crop and livestock prices, and increase pressure on \r\nundisturbed forest land for food production creating new barriers and \r\nincreasing costs for implementation of many nature-based mitigation \r\ntechniques (medium confidence) (IPCC AR6 WGII Chapter 5)."


id: c1b2097372e0429e498b91123f684f62
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"The observed increase in the terrestrial sink over the past half century \r\ncan be linked to changes in the global environment, such as increased \r\natmospheric CO2 concentrations, N deposition, or changes in climate \r\n(Ballantyne et al. 2012), though not always proven from ground-based \r\ninformation (Vandersleen et al. 2015). While the terrestrial sink relies \r\non regrowth in secondary forests (Houghton and Nassikas 2017), \r\nthere is emerging evidence that the sink will slow in the Northern \r\nHemisphere as forests age (Nabuurs et al. 2013), although saturation \r\nmay take decades (Zhu et al. 2018). Forest management through \r\nreplanting, variety selection, fertilisation, and other management \r\ntechniques, has increased the terrestrial carbon sink over the last \r\ncentury (Mendelsohn and Sohngen 2019). Saturation of the sink in \r\nsitu may not occur when, for example, substitution effects of timber \r\nusage are also considered."


id: 64dff3b8fd65035e44bb0b6b3eeab194
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"Monitoring, reporting, and verification. Development of satellite \r\ntechnologies to assess potential deforestation has grown in recent \r\nyears with the release of 30 m data by Hansen et al. (2013), however, \r\nthis data only captures tree cover loss, and increasing accuracy over \r\ntime may limit its use for trend analysis (Ceccherini et al. 2020; Palahi \r\net al. 2021). Datasets on forest losses are less well developed for \r\nreforestation and afforestation. As Mitchell et al. (2017) point out, \r\nthere has been significant improvement in the ability to measure \r\nchanges in tree and carbon density on sites using satellite data, but \r\nthese techniques are still evolving and improving and they are not yet \r\navailable for widespread use."


id: 4977a615c2d619eccce9635613093940
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"Ground-based forest inventory measurements have been developed \r\nin many countries, most prominently in the Northern Hemisphere, \r\nbut more and more countries are starting to develop and collect \r\nnational forest inventories. Training and capacity building is going on \r\nin many developing countries under UNREDD and FAO programmes. \r\nAdditional efforts to harmonise data collection methods and to make \r\nforest inventory data available to the scientific community would \r\nimprove confidence in forest statistics, and changes in forest statistics \r\nover time. To some extent the Global Forest Biodiversity Initiative fills \r\nin this data gap (https://gfbi.udl.cat/)."


id: 96532ce98aa99af1cb0a25922cd8be70
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"Increasing concentrations of CO2 are expected to increase carbon \r\nstocks globally, with the strongest effects in the tropics (Schimel et al. \r\n2015; Kim et al. 2017a) (IPCC AR6 WGII Chapter 5) and economic \r\nmodels suggest that future sink potential may be robust to the \r\nimpacts of climate change (Tian et al. 2018). However, it is uncertain \r\nif this large terrestrial carbon sink will continue in the future (Aragao \r\net al. 2018), as it is increasingly recognised that gains due to CO2\r\nfertilisation are constrained by climate and increasing disturbances \r\n(Schurgers et al. 2018; Duffy et al. 2021) (IPCC AR6 WGII Chapter 5). \r\nFurther, negative synergies between local impacts like deforestation \r\nand forest fires may interact with global drivers like climate change \r\nand lead to tipping points (Lovejoy and Nobre 2018). Factors that \r\nreduce permanence or slow forest growth will drive up costs of "


id: a87077fb3140eb7e644071bcfd11ccab
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"impacts on biodiversity, air and water quality, water distribution, \r\nand on human health (Section 7.3). Freshwater ecosystems equally \r\nface a series of combined threats including from land-use change, \r\nwater extraction, exploitation, pollution, climate change and invasive \r\nspecies (IPBES 2019a)."


id: 18c0b037f6df694fc66adbb75125a7b6
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"The increasing trend in aquaculture production especially in South \r\nand South-East Asia through intensive methods affects existing food \r\nproduction and ecosystems by diverting rice fields or mangroves \r\n(Bhattacharya and Ninan 2011). Although extensive traditional \r\nfish farming of carp in central Europe can contribute to landscape \r\nmanagement, enhance biodiversity and provide ecosystem services, \r\nthere are several barriers to scale up production due to strict \r\nEU environmental regulations, vulnerability to extreme weather \r\nevents, and to avian predators that are protected by EU laws, and \r\ndisadvantages faced by small-scale enterprises that dominate the \r\nsector (European-Commission 2021). Bioenergy production may have \r\nhigh opportunity costs in land-scarce areas and compete with land \r\nused for food production which threatens food security and affects \r\nthe poor and vulnerable. But these impacts will differ across scale, \r\ncontexts and other factors."


id: 69400277a571d032f5cb1d534f4f0278
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"Currently, land degradation is estimated to have reduced productivity \r\nin 23% of the global terrestrial area, and between USD235 billion \r\nand USD577 billion in annual global crop output is at risk because \r\nof pollinator loss (IPBES 2019a). The global trends reviewed above \r\nare based on data from 2000 studies. It is not clear whether the \r\nassessment included a quality control check of the studies evaluated \r\nand suffer from aggregation bias. For instance, a  recent meta\u0002analysis of global forest valuation studies noted that many studies \r\nreviewed had shortcomings such as failing to clearly mention the \r\nmethodology and prices used to value the forest ecosystem services, \r\ndouble counting, data errors, and so on (Ninan and Inoue 2013). \r\nFurthermore, the criticisms against the paper by (Costanza et al. "


id: 1ba1b30d1540cb6325764e1895a656cb
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"Although numerous studies have estimated the value of ecosystem \r\nservices for different sites, ecosystems, and regions, these studies \r\nmostly evaluate ecosystem services at a  single point in time \r\n(Costanza et al. 1997; Xue and Tisdell 2001; Nahuelhual et al. 2007; "


id: 90f18efb8c0813118b64d9fac1f1cc04
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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content:
"The role assigned to local government mechanisms such as Ghana's Community Resource Management Area Mechanisms (CREMAs) \r\nwas expected to give a  voice to smallholders who are an important stakeholder in Ghana's cocoa sector. CREMAs are inclusive \r\nbecause authority and ownership of natural resources are devolved to local communities who can thus have a voice in influencing CSC \r\npolicy thereby ensuring equity and adapting CSC to local contexts. However, ensuring the long-term sustainability of CREMAs will help \r\nto make them a reliable mechanism for farmers to voice their concerns and aspirations, and ensure their independence as a legitimate \r\ngovernance structure in the long run. The private sector was assigned an important role to popularise climate-smart cocoa production \r\nin Ghana. However, whether this will work to the advantage of smallholder cocoa producers needs to be seen."


id: 4aea3668d2135e4f7db97f2e768b5f74
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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content:
"Current negative trends in biodiversity and ecosystem services will \r\nundermine progress towards achieving 80% (35 out of 44) of the \r\nassessed targets of SDGs related to poverty, hunger, health, water, \r\ncities, climate, oceans and land (IPBES 2019a). However, Reyers and \r\nSelig (2020) note that the assessment by (IPBES 2019a) could only \r\nassess the consequences of trends in biodiversity and ecosystem \r\nservices for 35 out of the 169 SDG targets due to data and knowledge \r\ngaps, and lack of clarity about the relationship between biodiversity, \r\necosystem services and SDGs."


id: b2f6c5e96b458e06ab310713b8963ca3
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"mechanisms is critical to better understand the permanence of \r\nmitigation measures in land sector."


id: 8366f83afe7729d564a509f18fb6c850
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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content:
"Closing knowledge gaps and narrowing uncertainties are crucial to \r\nadvance AFOLU mitigation. Knowledge gaps exist across a  range \r\nof areas, from emissions accounting and mitigation measure \r\ndevelopment to integration of scientific and traditional knowledge \r\nand development and sustainable implementation strategies. The \r\nfollowing are identified as priorities:"


id: 3dda9c5948b96b29f099a177dcd0d91d
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"In contrast to other sectors, AFOLU can facilitate mitigation in several different ways. Specifically, AFOLU can (i) reduce emissions as \r\na sector in its own right, (ii) remove meaningful quantities of carbon from the atmosphere and relatively cheaply, and (iii) provide \r\nraw materials to enable mitigation within other sectors, such as energy, industry or the built environment."


id: b230f556fb19b9db5152f6ec2b7fcbe
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"The emissions profile of AFOLU differs from other sectors, with a greater proportion of non-CO2 gases (N2O and CH4). The impacts of \r\nmitigation efforts within AFOLU can vary according to which gases are targeted, as a result of the differing atmospheric lifetime of \r\nthe gases and differing global temperature responses to the accumulation of the specific gases in the atmosphere."


id: 6037c0badb146b0ec467421ce819f4d3
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"In addition to tackling climate change, AFOLU mitigation measures have capacity, where appropriately implemented, to help address \r\nsome critical, wider challenges, as well as contributing to climate change adaptation. AFOLU is inextricably linked with some of \r\nthe most serious challenges that are suggested to have ever faced humanity, such as large-scale biodiversity loss, environmental \r\ndegradation and the associated consequences. As AFOLU concerns land management and utilises a considerable portion of the \r\nEarth's terrestrial area, the sector greatly influences soil, water and air quality, biological and social diversity, the provision of natural \r\nhabitats, and ecosystem functioning, consequently impacting many SDGs."


id: 47206c86c171a34031310f9fcc6f6ea7
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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content:
"Coordinating Lead Authors: \r\nShuaib Lwasa (Uganda), Karen C. Seto (the United States of America)"


id: 3cb6ff464d5096c1e4d4b2136eb2d4f3
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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vector_id: 6915
content:
"Xuemei Bai (Australia), Hilda Blanco (the United States of America), Kevin R. Gurney (the United \r\nStates of America), Siir Kilkis (Turkey), Oswaldo Lucon (Brazil), Jin Murakami (Japan), Jiahua Pan \r\n(China), Ayyoob Sharifi (Japan/Iran), Yoshiki Yamagata (Japan)"


id: 7a64f250905dd43db468d4b5cdb75770
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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content:
"Lwasa, S., K.C. Seto, X. Bai, H. Blanco, K.R. Gurney, S. Kilkis, O. Lucon, J. Murakami, J. Pan, A. Sharifi, Y. Yamagata, 2022: \r\nUrban systems and other settlements. In IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution \r\nof Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [P.R. Shukla, \r\nJ. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, \r\nA. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. \r\ndoi: 10.1017/9781009157926.010"


id: 49858dcb2dbfac57e88aadfeba483bb9
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"5.1 tCO2-eq per person (71.7%); Eastern Europe and West-Central Asia \r\nincreased from 6.9 to 9.8 tCO2-eq per person (40.9%); Latin America \r\nand Caribbean increased from 2.7 to 3.7 tCO2-eq per person (40.4%); \r\nand Middle East increased from 7.4 to 9.6 tCO2-eq per person (30.1%). \r\nAlbeit starting from the highest level, Developed Countries had \r\na decline of 11.4 to 10.7 tCO2-eq per person (-6.5%). {8.3.3}"


id: c40d450a722ddad6486c6ebd03c9a330
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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content:
"Although urbanisation is a global trend often associated with \r\nincreased incomes and higher consumption, the growing \r\nconcentration of people and activities is an opportunity to \r\nincrease resource efficiency and decarbonise at scale (very \r\nhigh confidence). The same urbanisation level can have large \r\nvariations in per capita urban carbon emissions. For most regions, per \r\ncapita urban emissions are lower than per capita national emissions. \r\n{8.1.4, 8.3.3, 8.4, Box 8.1}"


id: 611ace3d9c06800e748a126701ff8510
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"Most future urban population growth will occur in developing \r\ncountries, where per capita emissions are currently low but \r\nexpected to increase with the construction and use of new \r\ninfrastructure and the built environment, and changes in \r\nincomes and lifestyles (very high confidence).  The drivers of \r\nurban greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are complex and include \r\nan interplay of population size, income, state of urbanisation, and \r\nhow cities are laid out (i.e. urban form). How new cities and towns \r\nare designed, constructed, managed, and powered will lock-in \r\nbehaviour, lifestyles, and future urban GHG emissions. Low-emission \r\nurbanisation can improve well-being while minimising impact \r\non GHG emissions, but there is risk that urbanisation can lead to \r\nincreased global GHG emissions through increased emissions outside \r\nthe city's boundaries. {8.1.4, 8.3, Box 8.1, 8.4, 8.6}"


id: e00afdb0b32d359e9430813a9f19dc94
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"The urban share of global GHG emissions (including carbon \r\ndioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4)) is substantive and continues \r\nto increase (high confidence). In 2015, urban emissions were \r\nestimated to be 25 GtCO2-eq (about 62% of the global share) and \r\nin 2020, 29 GtCO2-eq (67-72% of the global share).1\r\n About 100 of \r\nthe highest emitting urban areas account for approximately 18% of \r\nthe global carbon footprint. {8.1.6, 8.3.3}"


id: 68eaa89fefd8bde4a2661b12a549ac3f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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content:
"The urban share of regional GHG emissions increased between \r\n2000 and 2015, with much inter-region variation in the \r\nmagnitude of the increase (high confidence). Globally, the urban \r\nshare of national emissions increased 6 percentage points, from 56% \r\nin 2000 to 62% in 2015. For 2000 to 2015, the urban emissions share \r\nacross AR6 WGIII regions increased from 28% to 38% in Africa, from \r\n46% to 54% in Asia and Pacific, from 62% to 72% in Developed \r\nCountries, from 57% to 62% in Eastern Europe and West-Central \r\nAsia, from 55% to 66% in Latin America and Caribbean, and from \r\n68% to 69% in the Middle East. {8.1.6, 8.3.3}"


id: bbc85ff027d81c36ac9e504567c4b9e4
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"Per capita urban GHG emissions increased between 2000 \r\nand 2015, with cities in the Developed Countries region \r\nproducing nearly seven times more per capita than the lowest \r\nemitting region (medium confidence). From 2000 to 2015, global \r\nurban GHG emissions per capita increased from 5.5 to 6.2 tCO2-eq \r\nper person (an  increase of 11.8%); Africa increased from 1.3 to \r\n1.5 tCO2-eq per person (22.6%); Asia and Pacific increased from 3.0 to "


id: 3e080a33cf879a2127133f857d3adbda
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"The construction of new, and upgrading of, existing urban \r\ninfrastructure through 2030 will result in significant emissions \r\n(very high confidence). The construction of new and upgrading "


id: fba3014055f6d5eaa121535b7f3a8f99
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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"of existing urban infrastructure using conventional practices and \r\ntechnologies can result in significant committed CO2 emissions, \r\nranging from 8.5 GtCO2 to 14 GtCO2 annually up to 2030 and more \r\nthan double annual resource requirements for raw materials to about \r\n90 billion tonnes per year by 2050, up from 40 billion tonnes in 2010\r\n(medium evidence, high agreement). {8.4.1, 8.6}"


id: 654096ea216d6b6d252f50aa70f45852
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:37
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content:
"vehicles towards walking, cycling, and low-emissions shared and \r\npublic transportation, passive energy comfort in buildings, and urban \r\ngreen infrastructure can deliver significant public health benefits and \r\nhave lower GHG emissions. {8.2, 8.3.4, 8.4, 8.6}"


id: dbb53d35ff3618555aa0e46521823348
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"Given the dual challenges of rising urban GHG emissions and \r\nfuture projections of more frequent extreme climate events, \r\nthere is an urgent need to integrate urban mitigation and \r\nadaptation strategies for cities to address climate change \r\nand withstand its effects (very high confidence). Mitigation \r\nstrategies can enhance resilience against climate change impacts \r\nwhile contributing to social equity, public health, and human well\u0002being. Urban mitigation actions that facilitate economic decoupling \r\ncan have positive impacts on employment and local economic \r\ncompetitiveness. {8.2, Cross-Working Group Box 2, 8.4}"


id: 4d9c11abbff025fc8a760934bd120949
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"Cities can only achieve net-zero GHG emissions through deep \r\ndecarbonisation and systemic transformation (very high \r\nconfidence). Three broad mitigation strategies have been found to \r\nbe effective in reducing emissions when implemented concurrently: \r\n(i) reducing or changing urban energy and material use towards \r\nmore sustainable production and consumption across all sectors, \r\nincluding through compact and efficient urban forms and supporting \r\ninfrastructure; (ii) electrification and switching to net-zero-emissions \r\nresources; and (iii) enhancing carbon uptake and storage in the urban \r\nenvironment (high evidence, high agreement). Given the regional \r\nand global reach of urban supply chains, cities can achieve net-zero \r\nemissions only if emissions are reduced within and outside of their \r\nadministrative boundaries. {8.1.6, 8.3.4, 8.4, 8.6}"


id: 28e12c2b52a811330991afec7227de4f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Packages of mitigation policies that implement multiple urban\u0002scale interventions can have cascading effects across sectors, \r\nreduce GHG emissions outside of a  city's administrative \r\nboundaries, and reduce more emissions than the net sum \r\nof individual interventions, particularly if multiple scales of \r\ngovernance are included (high confidence). Cities have the \r\nability to implement policy packages across sectors using an urban \r\nsystems approach, especially those that affect key infrastructure \r\nbased on spatial planning, electrification of the urban energy system, \r\nand urban green and blue infrastructure. The institutional capacity \r\nof cities to develop, coordinate, and integrate sectoral mitigation \r\nstrategies within their jurisdiction varies by context, particularly \r\nthose related to governance, the regulatory system, and budgetary \r\ncontrol. {8.4, 8.5, 8.6}"


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created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"With over 880 million people living in informal settlements, \r\nthere are opportunities to harness and enable informal \r\npractices and institutions in cities related to housing, waste, \r\nenergy, water, and sanitation to reduce resource use and \r\nmitigate climate change (low evidence, medium agreement).\r\nThe upgrading of informal settlements and inadequate housing to \r\nimprove resilience and well-being offers a chance to create a low\u0002carbon transition. However, there is limited quantifiable data on "


id: e553518f8c6474e7db7cdace123c7a06
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Integrated spatial planning to achieve compact and resource\u0002efficient urban growth through co-location of higher residential \r\nand job densities, mixed land use, and transit-oriented \r\ndevelopment (TOD) could reduce GHG emissions between 23% \r\nand 26% by 2050 compared to the business-as-usual scenario\r\n(robust evidence, high agreement, very high confidence).\r\nCompact cities with shortened distances between housing and jobs, \r\nand interventions that support a modal shift away from private motor "


id: 5a629a9b33521aeba4973a9430211866
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"these practices and their cumulative impacts on GHG emissions. \r\n{8.1.4, 8.2.2, Cross-Working Group Box 2, 8.3.2, 8.4, 8.6, 8.7}"


id: f21d5d9b18afdf190423b39496630153
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"Achieving transformational changes in cities for climate \r\nchange mitigation and adaptation will require engaging \r\nmultiple scales of governance, including governments and \r\nnon-state actors, and in connection with substantive financing \r\nbeyond sectoral approaches (very high confidence). Large \r\nand complex infrastructure projects for urban mitigation are often \r\nbeyond the capacity of local municipality budgets, jurisdictions, and \r\ninstitutions. Partnerships between cities and international institutions, \r\nnational and regional governments, transnational networks, and \r\nlocal stakeholders play a  pivotal role in mobilising global climate \r\nfinance resources for a  range of infrastructure projects with low\u0002carbon emissions and related spatial planning programmes across \r\nkey sectors. {8.4, 8.5}"


id: e75aa60e425fb9d39f9a392fcbd76215
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"of SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities for 'inclusive, \r\nsafe, resilient and sustainable' cities and human settlements \r\n(United  Nations 2015; Queiroz et al. 2017; United Nations 2019). \r\nAdditionally, UN-Habitat's New Urban Agenda (NUA) calls for \r\nvarious measures, including integrated spatial planning at the \r\ncity-regional scale, to address the systemic challenges included in \r\ngreening cities, among which is emissions reduction and avoidance \r\n(United Nations 2017)."


id: f5f110cee52628994668a7ba3e825da1
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"The Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on \r\nClimate Change (IPCC) was the first IPCC report that had a standalone \r\nchapter on urban mitigation of climate change. The starting point for \r\nthat chapter was how the spatial organisation of urban settlements \r\naffects greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and how urban form and \r\ninfrastructure could facilitate mitigation of climate change. A main \r\nfinding in AR5 was that urban form shapes urban energy consumption \r\nand GHG emissions."


id: 7eba6408796a59f96046808ba8c1aaae
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"Since AR5, there has also been an increase in scientific literature \r\non urban mitigation of climate change, including more diversity of \r\nmitigation strategies than were covered during AR5 (Lamb et al. \r\n2018), as well as a growing focus on how strategies at the urban \r\nscale can have compounding or additive effects beyond urban areas \r\n(e.g., in rural areas, land-use planning, and the energy sector)."


id: d3c5ab1e6297c1195921ea32ec219783
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"There is more literature on using a systems approach to understand \r\nthe interlinkages between mitigation and adaptation, and situating \r\nGHG emissions reduction targets within broader social, economic, \r\nand human well-being contexts and goals (Bai  et al. 2018; Urge\u0002Vorsatz et al. 2018; Lin et al. 2021). In particular, the nexus approach, \r\nsuch as the water and energy nexus and the water-energy-food \r\nnexus, is increasingly being used to understand potential emissions \r\nand energy savings from cross-sectoral linkages that occur in cities \r\n(Wang and Chen 2016; Engstrom et al. 2017; Valek et al. 2017). There \r\nis also a growing literature that aims to quantify transboundary urban \r\nGHG emissions and carbon footprint beyond urban and national \r\nadministrative boundaries (Chen et al. 2016; Hu et al. 2016). Such \r\na scope provides a more complete understanding of how local urban \r\nemissions or local mitigation strategies can have effects on regions' \r\ncarbon footprint or GHG emissions."


id: 61fc56d740f3e225e8ae080a980fe6b9
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"Cities are also gaining traction within the work of the IPCC. The \r\nIPCC Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5degC (SR1.5 Chapter 4) \r\nidentified four systems that urgently need to change in fundamental \r\nand transformative ways: urban infrastructure, land use and \r\necosystems, industry, and energy. Urban infrastructure was singled \r\nout but urban systems form a pivotal part of the other three systems \r\nrequiring change (IPCC 2018a) (see 'infrastructure' in Glossary). The \r\nIPCC Special Report on Climate Change and Land (SRCCL) identified \r\ncities not only as spatial units for land-based mitigation options but \r\nalso places for managing demand for natural resources including \r\nfood, fibre, and water (IPCC 2019)."


id: 975b794c3a05f0a816ddb1e3fc2d2eba
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"Moreover, cities around the world are putting increasing focus on \r\ntackling climate change. Since AR5:"


id: f377ca4b337f5dc851d54b11865b204b
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"Other international frameworks are highlighting the importance of \r\ncities. For example, the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform \r\non Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) report on nature's \r\ncontribution to people is clear: cities straddle the biodiversity sphere in \r\nthe sense that they present spatial units of ecosystem fragmentation \r\nand degradation while at the same time contain spatial units where \r\nthe concentration of biodiversity compares favourably with some \r\nlandscapes (IPBES 2019a). Cities are also featured as a key element in \r\nthe transformational governance to tackle both climate change and \r\nbiodiversity and ecosystem challenges in the first-ever IPCC-IPBES \r\nco-sponsored workshop report (Portner et al. 2021) (Section 8.5 and \r\nsee 'governance' in Glossary)."


id: 670bc33ed8ee3577b2d061b5142a8797
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"facilitate reaching those targets, underscore the growing support for \r\nclimate action by city and other subnational leaders.\r\n8.1"


id: 5256dae8c931d89f2cb16681648242ac
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"This chapter takes an urban systems approach and covers the full \r\nrange of urban settlements, including towns, cities, and metropolitan \r\nareas. By 'urban system' (Figure  8.15), this chapter refers to two \r\nrelated concepts. First, an urban systems approach recognises \r\nthat cities do not function in isolation. Rather, cities exhibit strong \r\ninterdependencies across scales, whether it is within a  region, \r\na country, a continent, or worldwide. Cities are embedded in broader \r\necological, economic, technical, institutional, legal, and governance \r\nstructures that often constrain their systemic function, which cannot \r\nbe separated from wider power relations (Bai et al. 2016)."


id: 596d977e0dc83a5107f826336bfd0305
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"One major innovation in this Assessment Report is the inclusion of \r\nhistorical and future urban GHG emissions. Urban emissions based \r\non consumption-based accounting by regions has been put forth for \r\nthe time frame 1990-2100 using multiple datasets with projections \r\ngiven in the framework of the Shared Socio-economic Pathway \r\n(SSP)-Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) scenarios. \r\nThis advance has provided a  time dimension to urban footprints \r\nconsidering different climate scenarios with implications for urban \r\nmitigation, allowing a comparison of the way urban emissions and \r\ntheir reduction can evolve given different scenario contexts (see \r\nGlossary for definitions of various 'pathways' and 'scenarios' in the \r\ncontext of climate change mitigation, including 'SSPs' and 'RCPs')."


id: 26dfaa5bb1f1d2e3de828dfc1f5a7092
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"The notion of a system of cities has been around for nearly 100 years \r\nand recognises that cities are interdependent, in that significant \r\nchanges in one city, such as economic activities, income, or population, \r\nwill affect other cities in the system (Christaller 1933; Berry 1964; \r\nMarshall 1989). This perspective of an urban system emphasises the \r\nconnections between a city and other cities, as well as between a city \r\nand its hinterlands (Hall and Hay 1980; Ramaswami et al. 2017b; \r\nXu et al. 2018c). An important point is that growth in one city affects \r\ngrowth in other cities in the global, national or regional system of \r\ncities (Gabaix 1999; Scholvin et al. 2019; Knoll 2021)."


id: 1b77fe6abbef198cd1c10f00345935b8
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"Special emphasis is placed on the co-benefits of urban mitigation \r\noptions, including an evaluation of linkages with the SDGs based \r\non synergies and/or trade-offs. Urban mitigation options are further \r\nevaluated based on multiple dimensions according to the feasibility \r\nassessment (see Section  8.5.5 and Figure  8.19, and Section  8.\r\nSM.2) indicating the enablers and barriers of implementation. These \r\nadvances provide additional guidance for urban mitigation.  "


id: 7668c034a882eb7045819707808a22b2
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"Moreover, there is a hierarchy of cities (Taylor 1997; Liu et al. 2014), \r\nwith very large cities at the top of the hierarchy concentrating political \r\npower and financial resources, but of which there are very few. Rather, \r\nthe urban system is dominated by small and medium-sized cities \r\nand towns. With globalisation and increased interconnectedness of \r\nfinancial flows, labour, and supply chains, cities across the world \r\ntoday have long-distance relationships on multiple dimensions but \r\nare also connected to their hinterlands for resources."


id: 926386e1902452cce49b7eb7381c3dcd
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"At the 43rd Session of the IPCC in 2016, the IPCC approved a Special \r\nReport on Climate Change and Cities during the Seventh Assessment \r\nCycle of the IPCC (AR7). To stimulate scientific research knowledge \r\nexchange, the IPCC and nine global partners co-sponsored the IPCC \r\nCities and Climate Change Science Conference, which brought \r\ntogether over 700 researchers, policymakers, and practitioners \r\nfrom 80 countries."


id: 54dadd5f85f077573e49fb745bcc720e
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"The second key component of the urban systems lens identifies the \r\nactivities and sectors within a city as being inter-connected - that \r\ncities are ecosystems (Rees 1997; Grimm et al. 2000; Newman and \r\nJennings 2008; Acuto et al. 2019; Abdullah and Garcia-Chueca 2020; \r\nAcuto and Leffel 2021). This urban systems perspective emphasises \r\nlinkages and interrelations within cities. The most evident example of \r\nthis is urban form and infrastructure, which refer to the patterns and \r\nspatial arrangements of land use, transportation systems, and urban \r\ndesign. Changes in urban form and infrastructure can simultaneously \r\naffect multiple sectors, such as buildings, energy, and transport."


id: cacf3cb04ee8530facccf835b34ceb5a
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"The conference identified key research priorities including the \r\nneed for an overarching systems approach to understanding how \r\nsectors interact in cities as drivers for GHG emissions and the \r\nrelationship between climate and other urban processes, as well as \r\nachieving transformation towards low-carbon and resilient futures \r\n(Bai  et al. 2018). The subsequent report on the global research \r\nand action agenda identifies scale, informality, green and blue \r\ninfrastructure, governance and transformation, as well as financing \r\nclimate action, as areas for scientific research during the AR6 cycle \r\nand beyond (WCRP 2019)."


id: 1441eeaef7011b8e3e78b2682773e834
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"This chapter assesses urban systems beyond simply jurisdictional \r\nboundaries. Using an urban systems lens has the potential to accelerate \r\nmitigation beyond a single sector or purely jurisdictional approach \r\n(Section 8.4). An urban systems perspective presents both challenges \r\nand opportunities for urban mitigation strategies. It  shows that any \r\nmitigation option potentially has positive or negative consequences \r\nin other sectors, other settlements, cities, or other parts of the world, \r\nand requires more careful and comprehensive considerations on the \r\nbroader impacts, including equity and social justice (see Glossary for \r\na comprehensive definition of 'equity' in the context of mitigation and \r\nadaptation). This chapter focuses on cities, city regions, metropolitan \r\nregions, megalopolitans, mega-urban regions, towns, and other types "


id: d0d67185c0508dbeb42d28e8464759a4
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"of urban configurations because they are the primary sources of \r\nurban GHG emissions and tend to be where mitigation action can \r\nbe most impactful."


id: 2a2d6297e1cd6852988bbf4bf6283316
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"The 21st century will be the urban century, defined by a  massive \r\nincrease in global urban populations and a significant building up of \r\nnew urban infrastructure stock to accommodate the growing urban \r\npopulation. Six trends in urbanisation are especially important in the \r\ncontext of climate change mitigation."


id: daba389f7c82953fd18c8ef144e32ad1
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"There is no internationally agreed upon definition of 'urban', 'urban \r\npopulation', or 'urban area'. Countries develop their own definitions \r\nof urban, often based on a combination of population size or density, \r\nand other criteria including the percentage of population not \r\nemployed in agriculture, the availability of electricity, piped water, \r\nor other infrastructures, and characteristics of the built environment, \r\nsuch as dwellings and built structures. This chapter assesses \r\nurban systems, which includes cities and towns. It uses a  similar \r\nframework to Chapter 6 of AR6 WGII, referring to cities and urban \r\nsettlements as 'concentrated human habitation centres that exist \r\nalong a continuum' (Dodman et al. 2022) (for further definitions of \r\n'urban', 'cities', 'settlements' and related terms, see Glossary, and \r\nWGII Chapter 6)."


id: 21ecc83999bac5644f9c498467f47461
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"First, the size and relative proportion of the urban population is \r\nunprecedented and continues to increase. As of 2018, approximately \r\n55% of the global population lives in urban areas (about 4.3 billion \r\npeople) (UN DESA 2019). It is predicted that 68% of the world \r\npopulation will live in urban areas by 2050. This will mean adding \r\n2.5 billion people to urban areas between 2018 and 2050, with 90% \r\nof this increase taking place in Africa and Asia. There is a  strong \r\ncorrelation between the level of urbanisation and the level of \r\nnational income, with considerable variation and complexity in the \r\nrelationship between the two (UN DESA 2019). In general, countries \r\nwith levels of urbanisation of 75% or greater all have high national \r\nincomes, whereas countries with low levels of urbanisation under \r\n35% have low national incomes (UN DESA 2019). In general, there \r\nis a clear positive correlation between the level of urbanisation and \r\nincome levels (Figure 8.1 and Box 8.1)."


id: de4dba98dc5a13d21708c1b0f39a7041
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"Figure 8.14: Relationship between urbanisation level and gross national income (GNI). There is a positive and strong correlation between the urbanisation level \r\nand gross national income. High-income countries have high levels of urbanisation, on average 80%. Low-income countries have low levels of urbanisation, on average 30%. \r\nSource: UN DESA 2019, p. 42."


id: aebcf5b9f200b8f57759289414699227
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"climate change mitigation strategies include solutions appropriate \r\nfor cities of varying sizes and typologies (Section 8.6 and Figure 8.21)."


id: 21e23c37607aa793bbdd17285fdee523
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"Second, the geographic concentration of the world's current urban \r\npopulation is in emerging economies, and the majority of future \r\nurban population growth will take place in developing countries and \r\nleast-developed countries (LDCs). About half of the world's urban \r\npopulation in 2018 lived in just seven countries, and about half of \r\nthe increase in urban population through 2050 is projected to be \r\nconcentrated in eight countries (UN DESA 2019) (Figure 8.2). Of these \r\neight, seven are emerging economies where there will be a need for \r\nsignificant financing to construct housing, roads, and other urban \r\ninfrastructure to accommodate the growth of the urban population. \r\nHow these new cities of tomorrow will be designed and constructed \r\nwill lock-in patterns of urban energy behaviour for decades if not \r\ngenerations (Sections 8.3.4 and 8.4). Thus, it is essential that urban "


id: f1141efd31ff2cbd660296422cb1d49e
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"Third, small and medium-sized cities and towns are a dominant type \r\nof urban settlement. In 2018, more than half (58%) of the urban \r\npopulation lived in cities and towns with fewer than 1  million \r\ninhabitants and almost half of the world's urban population (48%) \r\nlived in settlements with fewer than 500,000 inhabitants (Figure 8.3). \r\nAlthough megacities receive a lot of attention, only about 13% of the \r\nurban population worldwide lived in a megacity - an urban area with \r\nat least 10 million inhabitants (UN DESA 2019). Thus, there is a need \r\nfor a wide range of strategies for urban mitigation of climate change \r\nthat are appropriate for cities of varying levels of development "


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"Figure 8.2: Urban population size in 2018 and increase in the projected urban population. In 2018, about half of the world's urban population lived in seven \r\ncountries, and about half of the increase in urban population through 2050 is forecasted to concentrate in eight countries. Source: UN DESA 2019, p. 44."


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"et al. 2021), but the challenges for these cities differ in scope and \r\nmagnitude from rapidly expanding cities."


id: c5c9fc15737b8d8ab883f83aa705f98f
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content:
"and size, especially smaller cities which often have lower levels of \r\nfinancial capacities than large cities."


id: dc7b09303163bc81817e383dc9730c60
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"Fourth, another trend is the rise of megacities and extended \r\nmetropolitan regions. The largest cities around the world are \r\nbecoming even larger, and there is a growing divergence in economic \r\npower between megacities and other large cities (Kourtit et al. 2015; \r\nHoornweg and Pope 2017; Zhao et al. 2017b). Moreover, there is \r\nevidence that the largest city in each country has an increasing share \r\nof the national population and economy."


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"Fifth, population declines have been observed for cities and towns \r\nacross the world, including in Poland, Republic of Korea, Japan, \r\nUnited States, Germany, and Ukraine. The majority of cities that \r\nhave experienced population declines are concentrated in Europe. \r\nMultiple factors contribute to the decline in cities, including declining \r\nindustries and the economy, declining fertility, and outmigration \r\nto larger cities. Shrinking urban populations could offer retrofitting \r\nopportunities (UNEP 2019) and increasing greenspaces (Jarzebski "


id: c24005d55e77e8c13fab535b209d4591
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"Urban areas concentrate GHG fluxes because of the size of the urban \r\npopulation, the size and nature of the urban economy, the energy \r\nand GHGs embodied in the infrastructure (see 'embodied emissions' \r\nin Glossary), and the goods and services imported and exported to \r\nand from cities (USGCRP 2018)."


id: 3c8dbe364ee190508a04ac148fdf6593
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"Urbanisation in the 21st century will be dominated by population \r\nand infrastructure growth in developing countries, and as such it is \r\nimportant to highlight three aspects that are unique and especially \r\nrelevant for climate change mitigation. First, urbanisation will \r\nincrease in speed and magnitude. Given their significant impact on \r\nemissions, mitigation action in Asian cities, especially the large and \r\nrapidly growing cities, will have significant implications on global \r\nambitions (Section 8.3.4)."


id: 7f3b51dd83204220c6628934ed4f5dab
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"Second, a number of cities in developing countries lack institutional, \r\nfinancial and technical capacities to enable local climate change \r\naction (Sharifi et al. 2017; Fuhr et al. 2018). While these capacities \r\ndiffer across contexts (Hickmann et al. 2017), several governance \r\nchallenges are similar across cities (Gouldson et al. 2015). These \r\nfactors also influence the ability of cities to innovate and effectively \r\nimplement mitigation action (Nagendra et al. 2018) (Chapter 17)."


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updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 2766
content:
"Third, there are sizable economic benefits in developing country cities \r\nthat can provide an opportunity to enhance political momentum and \r\ninstitutions (Colenbrander et al. 2016). The co-benefits approach \r\n(Section  8.2), which frames climate objectives alongside other \r\ndevelopment benefits, is increasingly seen as an important concept \r\njustifying and driving climate change action in developing countries \r\n(Sethi and Puppim de Oliveira 2018)."


id: 8a1204ec91533b39257e2864d651875
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 19251
content:
"Large-scale system transformations are also deeply influenced by \r\nfactors outside governance and institutions, such as private interests \r\nand power dynamics (Jaglin 2014; Tyfield 2014). In some cases, these \r\nprivate interests are tied up with international flows of capital. In \r\nIndia, adaptation plans involving networks of private actors and \r\nrelated mitigation actions have resulted in the dominance of private \r\ninterests. This has led to trade-offs and adverse impacts on the poor \r\n(Chu 2016; Mehta et al. 2019)."


id: 3ba510cd4e18221e5fa0d9a0eec5b358
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 6740
content:
"Urban GHG emissions accounting can determine critical conceptual \r\nand quantitative aspects of urban GHG emissions. The accounting \r\nframework chosen can therefore predetermine the emissions \r\nresponsibility, the mitigation options available, and the level of effort \r\nrequired to correctly account for emissions (Afionis et al. 2017)."


id: 499abcd4abcb6100ff96e4b8f6338ae3
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 8967
content:
"Two main urban carbon accounting advances have occurred since \r\nAR5. The first includes efforts to better understand and clarify how the \r\ndifferent urban GHG accounting frameworks that have emerged over "


id: 33d746b95cd0f436972558eb293132ff
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 5569
content:
"the past 15 years are interrelated, require different methodological \r\ntools, and reflect differing perspectives on emissions responsibility \r\nand quantification effort. The second main advance lies in a series \r\nof methodological innovations facilitating practical implementation, \r\nemissions verification, and scaling-up of the different GHG \r\naccounting approaches. This section provides an overview of the \r\nmost used GHG urban accounting frameworks followed by a review \r\nof the advances since AR5."


id: cecba483d65d2bd05daee283b61a97e0
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 30072
content:
"CBCF considers not only the supply-chain-related GHG emissions of \r\nkey infrastructure, but also emissions associated with all goods and \r\nservices across a city, often removing emissions associated with goods \r\nand services exported from a city (Wiedmann et al. 2016, 2021). The \r\ndistinction between the PCF and ACF variants of the CBCF is primarily \r\nassociated with whether the agents responsible for the final demand \r\nare confined to only city residents (PCF) or all consumers in a city \r\n(ACF), which can include government consumers, capital formation, \r\nand other final demand categories (Heinonen et al. 2020)."


id: bc686563e008d2f47c847eabb5fe898c
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"A recent synthesis of these frameworks in the context of a net-zero \r\nGHG emissions target suggests that the four frameworks contribute \r\nto different aspects of decarbonisation policy and can work together \r\nto inform the overall process of decarbonisation (Ramaswami \r\net al. 2021). Furthermore, the relative magnitude of GHG emissions \r\nfor a  given city resulting from the different frameworks is often \r\na  reflection of the city's economic structure as a  'consumer' or \r\n'producer' city (Chavez and Ramaswami 2013; Sudmant et al. 2018)."


id: feecf63f2e0f17dc454abf82eb0c1f1e
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"The TA framework is unique in that it can be independently verified \r\nthrough direct measurement of GHGs in the atmosphere, offering \r\na check on the integrity of emission estimates (Lauvaux et al. 2020; \r\nMueller et al. 2021). It is traditionally simpler to estimate by urban \r\npractitioners given the lower data requirements, and it can be \r\nrelevant to policies aimed specifically at energy consumption and \r\nmobility activities within city boundaries. However, it will not reflect \r\nelectricity imported for use in cities or lifecycle emissions associated \r\nwith in-city consumption of goods and services."


id: dd452ffb6691fc11df3280875bc0698a
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 32306
content:
"The CIF framework adds to the TA framework by including GHG \r\nemissions associated with electricity imports and the lifecycle \r\nGHG  emissions associated with key infrastructure provisioning \r\nactivities in cities, serving all homes, businesses, and industries. This \r\nwidens both the number of emitting categories and the responsibility \r\nfor those emissions by including infrastructure-related supply chain \r\nemissions. The CIF framework enables individual cities to connect \r\ncommunity-wide demand for infrastructure and food with their \r\ntransboundary production, strategically aligning their net-zero \r\nemissions plans with larger-scale net-zero efforts (Ramaswami and \r\nChavez 2013; Ramaswami et al. 2021; Seto et al. 2021)."


id: b213ecf01cf6809a664cff912539b6f6
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"All these approaches are foundationally rooted in the concept of \r\nurban metabolism, that is, the tracking of material and energy flows \r\ninto, within, and out of cities (Wolman 1965). These frameworks \r\nall aim to quantify urban GHG emissions but reflect different \r\nperspectives on where the emission responsibility is allocated in \r\naddition to how much and which components of the GHG emissions \r\nassociated with the import and export of goods and services to and \r\nfrom a  city ('transboundary embedded/embodied GHG emissions') \r\nare included in a given urban emissions account. The four frameworks \r\nshare some common, overlapping GHG emission quantities and their \r\ninterrelationships have been defined mathematically (Chavez and \r\nRamaswami 2013)."


id: aaec7ba7b58c0941015d666f39d61e4
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 24409
content:
"The PCF version of the CBCF shifts the focus of the consumption and \r\nassociated supply chain emissions to only household consumption of \r\ngoods and services (Jones and Kammen 2014). This both reduces the \r\nTA emissions considered and the supply chain emissions, excluding \r\nall emissions associated with government, capital formation, and \r\nexports. The ACF, by contrast, widens the perspective considerably, \r\nincluding the TA and supply chain emissions of all consumers in \r\na city, but often removing emissions associated with exports."


id: 94249342d49a310c16857eef27d9d305
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"A key advance since AR5 lies in understanding the different GHG \r\naccounting frameworks in terms of what they imply for responsibility - \r\nshared or otherwise - and what they imply for the depth and breadth \r\nof GHG emission reductions. TA focuses on in-city direct emission \r\nof GHGs to the atmosphere (e.g.,  combustion, net ecosystem \r\nexchange, methane (CH4) leakage) within a  chosen geographic \r\narea (Sovacool and Brown 2010; Gurney et al. 2019). CIF connects \r\nessential infrastructure use and demand activities in cities with their \r\nproduction, by combining TA emissions with the transboundary \r\nsupply chain emissions associated with imported electricity, fuels, \r\nfood, water, building materials, and waste management services \r\nused in cities (Ramaswami et al. 2008; Kennedy et al. 2009; Chavez \r\nand Ramaswami 2013)."


id: 4d741a628924bad3446ab9ebfae7245f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"An additional distinction is the ability to sum up accounts from \r\nindividual cities in a  region or country, for example, directly to \r\narrive at a regional or national total. This can only be done for the \r\nTA and PCF frameworks. The ACF and CIF frameworks would require \r\nadjustment to avoid double-counting emissions (Chen et al. 2020a)."


id: 40c28fd1975e32b228615065df85821
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"(United Nations 2015). The SDGs and related indicators can be an \r\nopportunity to improve cities by using science-based decision-making \r\nand engaging a diverse set of stakeholders (Simon et al. 2016; Klopp \r\nand Petretta 2017; Kutty et al. 2020)."


id: 6078034d5c97b47ab0468d80110a53b9
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"There are multiple ways that development pathways can be shifted \r\ntowards sustainability (Section  4.3.3, Cross-Chapter Box  5  in \r\nChapter  4, Chapter  17 and Figure  17.1). Urban areas can work \r\nto redirect development pathways towards sustainability while \r\nincreasing co-benefits for urban inhabitants. Figure 8.4 indicates that \r\nmitigation options for urban systems can provide synergistic linkages \r\nacross a wide range of SDGs, and some cases where linkages can \r\nproduce both synergies and trade-offs. While linkages are based \r\non context and the scale of implementation, synergies can be most \r\nsignificant when urban areas pursue integrated approaches where \r\none mitigation option supports the other (Sections 8.4 and 8.6)."


id: 28ec2861b9ac3067db8f940c63754868
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Co-benefits are 'the positive effects that a policy or measure aimed \r\nat one objective might have on other objectives, thereby increasing \r\nthe total benefits to the society or environment' (IPCC 2018b). AR5 \r\nWGIII Chapter  12 reported a  range of co-benefits associated with \r\nurban climate change mitigation strategies, including public savings, \r\nair quality and associated health benefits, and productivity increases \r\nin urban centres (Seto et al. 2014). Since AR5, evidence continues to \r\nmount on the co-benefits of urban mitigation. Highlighting co-benefits \r\ncould make a strong case for driving impactful mitigation action (Bain \r\net al. 2016), especially in developing countries, where development \r\nbenefits can be the argument for faster implementation (Sethi and \r\nPuppim de Oliveira 2018). Through co-benefits, urban areas can \r\ncouple mitigation, adaptation, and sustainable development while \r\nclosing infrastructure gaps (Thacker et al. 2019; Kamiya et al. 2020)."


id: 4f5d6e03b580e33140714cd2ceb9f1ca
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 9925
content:
"The urgency of coupling mitigation and adaptation is emphasised \r\nthrough a special Cross-Working Group Box on 'Cities and Climate \r\nChange' (Section  8.2.3 and Cross-Working Group Box  2  in this \r\nchapter). This section further addresses synergies and trade-offs for \r\nsustainable development with a focus on linkages with the SDGs and \r\nperspectives for economic development, competitiveness, and equity. "


id: 93d77024cc331fa8aff5189313600203
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Sustainable development is a  broad concept, encompassing socio\u0002economic and environmental dimensions, envisaging long-term \r\npermanence and improvement. While long-term effects are more \r\nrelated to resilience  - and hence carry co-benefits and synergies \r\nwith the mitigation of GHG emissions - some short-term milestones \r\nwere defined by the post-2015 UN Sustainable Development Agenda \r\nSDGs, including a specific goal on climate change (SDG 13) and one \r\non making cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable (SDG 11) "


id: 97a1e6a30a39bdfabe91a471fcfac192
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 21383
content:
"There is increasing evidence that climate mitigation measures can \r\nlower health risks that are related to energy poverty, especially among \r\nvulnerable groups such as the elderly and in informal settlements \r\n(Monforti-Ferrario et al. 2018). Measures such as renewable energy\u0002based electrification of the energy system not only reduce outdoor air "


id: d488a96981ce42e1ebf9e1c0b8d1e4a7
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"(Cole et al. 2018; Petit-Boix and Apul 2018; De la Sota et al. 2019) \r\n(Section 8.4.4, Figure 8.18 and Box 8.2)."


id: cf4c608e53fe733b0a43513a430ab787
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 30150
content:
"pollution, but also enhance indoor air quality by promoting smoke\u0002free heating and cooking in buildings (Kjellstrom and McMichael \r\n2013). The environmental and ecological benefits of electrification \r\nof the urban energy system include improved air quality based \r\non a  shift to non-polluting energy sources (Jacobson et al. 2018; \r\nAjanovic and Haas 2019; Bagheri et al. 2019; Gai et al. 2020). Across \r\n74 metropolitan areas around the world, an estimated 408,270 lives \r\nper year are saved due to air quality improvements that stem from \r\na  move to 100% renewable energy (Jacobson et al. 2020). Other \r\nstudies indicate that there is potential to reduce premature mortality \r\nby up to 7000 people in 53 towns and cities, to create 93,000 new \r\njobs, and to lower global climate costs and personal energy costs, \r\nthrough renewable energy transformations (Jacobson et al. 2018)."


id: 305d0d9806ec848cd3b6cedb220d20ac
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Sustainable management of urban ecosystems entails addressing \r\neconomic growth, equity, and good governance. In total, 102 SDG \r\ntargets (99 synergies and 51 trade-offs) are identified with published \r\nevidence of relationships with urban ecosystems - out of the 169 \r\nin the 2030 Agenda (Maes et al. 2019). The targets require action \r\nin relation to urban ecosystem management, environmental \r\nimprovements, equality related to basic services, long-term economic \r\ngrowth, economic savings, stronger governance, and policy \r\ndevelopment at multiple scales."


id: e4365d38c0d54692bf89ea75b2ba9f2d
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Across 146 signatories of a city climate network, local energy-saving \r\nmeasures led to 6596 avoided premature deaths and 68,476 years of \r\nlife saved due to improved air quality (Monforti-Ferrario et al. 2018). \r\nBetter air quality further reinforces the health co-benefits of climate \r\nmitigation measures based on walking and bicycling since evidence \r\nsuggests that increased physical activity in urban outdoor settings \r\nwith low levels of black carbon improves lung function (Laeremans \r\net al. 2018). Physical activity can also be fostered through urban \r\ndesign measures and policies that promote the development of ample \r\nand well-connected parks and open spaces, and can lead to physical \r\nand mental health benefits (Kabisch et al. 2016) (Section  8.4.4 \r\nand Figure 8.18)."


id: be46fb36888092ac3cc1198401ae55bf
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
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content:
"Mitigation measures related to different sectors can provide \r\nco-benefits and reduce social inequities. Transport-related measures, \r\nsuch as transportation demand management, transit-oriented \r\ndevelopment (TOD), and promotion of active transport modes provide \r\neconomic co-benefits through, for example, reducing health care \r\ncosts linked with pollution and cardiovascular diseases, improving \r\nlabour productivity, and decreasing congestion costs (including \r\nwaste of time and money) (Sharifi et al. 2021). As a case-in-point, \r\ndata from cities such as Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, Jakarta, Manila, \r\nBeijing, Mexico City, Dakar, and Buenos Aires indicate that economic \r\ncosts of congestion account for a considerable share of their gross \r\ndomestic product (GDP), ranging from 0.7% to 15.0% (Dulal 2017) \r\n(Section 8.4.2)."


id: a2a237c0b1023586332c5798db8f7632
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Cities in India, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Thailand show that reducing \r\nemissions from major sources (e.g.,  transport, residential burning, \r\nbiomass open burning, and industry) could bring substantial \r\nco-benefits of avoided deaths from reduced PM2.5 (fine inhalable \r\nparticulates) emissions and radiative forcing from black carbon \r\n(Pathak and Shukla 2016; Dhar et al. 2017; Permadi et al. 2017; Karlsson \r\net al. 2020), reduced noise, and reduced traffic injuries (Kwan and \r\nHashim 2016). Compact city policies and interventions that support \r\na  modal shift away from private motor vehicles towards walking, \r\ncycling, and low-emission public transport delivers significant public \r\nhealth benefits (Creutzig 2016; Urge-Vorsatz et al. 2018). Trade-offs \r\nassociated with compact development include the marginal health \r\ncosts of transport air pollution (Lohrey and Creutzig 2016) and stress \r\nfrom traffic noise (Gruebner et al. 2017) (Section 8.4.2.3)."


id: cf30cbe8dc12747fe087ce585ff301fb
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 30134
content:
"Since policy interventions can result in negative impacts or trade-offs \r\nwith other objectives, fostering accessibility, equity, and inclusivity \r\nfor disadvantaged groups is essential (Viguie and Hallegatte 2012; \r\nSharifi 2020; Portner et al. 2021). Anti-sprawl policies that aim to \r\nincrease density, or the introduction of large green areas in cities \r\ncould increase property prices, resulting in trade-offs with affordable \r\nhousing and pushing urban poor further away from cities (Reckien \r\net al. 2017; Alves et al. 2019). Deliberate strategies can improve \r\naccess of low-income populations to jobs, and gender-responsive \r\ntransport systems that can enhance women's mobility and financial \r\nindependence (Viguie and Hallegatte 2012; Lecompte and Juan Pablo \r\n2017; Reckien et al. 2017; Priya Uteng and Turner 2019)."


id: 8ed5b3336ef2a40c019c382fbe416c33
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Urban green and blue infrastructure  - a subset of nature-based \r\nsolutions (NBS)  - acts as both climate mitigation and adaptation \r\nmeasures by reducing heat stress (Kim and Coseo 2018; Privitera and \r\nLa Rosa 2018; Herath et al. 2021), improving air quality, reducing \r\nnoise (Scholz et al. 2018; De la Sota et al. 2019), improving urban \r\nbiodiversity (Hall et al. 2017b), and enhancing well-being, including \r\ncontributions to local development (Lwasa et al. 2015). Health \r\nbenefits from urban forestry and green infrastructure include \r\nreduced cardiovascular morbidity, improved mental health (van den \r\nBosch and Ode Sang 2017; Vujcic et al. 2017; Al-Kindi et al. 2020; \r\nSharifi et al. 2021), raised birth weight (Dzhambov et al. 2014), and \r\nincreased life expectancy (Jonker et al. 2014). Urban agriculture, \r\nincluding urban orchards, rooftop gardens, and vertical farming \r\ncontribute to enhancing food security and fostering healthier diets "


id: 8ea94ffe14a88745d8f61712dfe45dde
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 19968
content:
"Low-carbon urban development that triggers economic decoupling \r\nand involves capacity-building measures could have a  positive \r\nimpact on employment and local competitiveness (Dodman 2009; \r\nKalmykova et al. 2015; Chen et al. 2018b; Garcia-Gusano et al. \r\n2018; Hu et al. 2018; Shen et al. 2018). Sustainable and low-carbon \r\nurban development that integrates issues of equity, inclusivity, and \r\naffordability while safeguarding urban livelihoods, providing access \r\nto basic services, lowering energy bills, addressing energy poverty, \r\nand improving public health, can also improve the distributional \r\neffects of existing and future urbanisation (Friend et al. 2016; \r\nClaude et al.  2017; Colenbrander et al. 2017; Ma et al. 2018; \r\nMrowczynska et al. 2018; Puksec et al. 2018; Wiktorowicz et al. 2018; \r\nRamaswami 2020)."


id: 5622f846e170ed749bfc54169d12c807
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Depending on the context, green and blue infrastructure can also \r\noffer considerable economic co-benefits. For example, green roofs and \r\nfacades and other urban greening efforts such as urban agriculture \r\nand greening streets can improve microclimatic conditions and \r\nenhance thermal comfort, thereby reducing utility and health care \r\ncosts. The presence of green and blue infrastructure may also increase \r\nthe economic values of nearby properties (Votsis 2017; Alves et al. \r\n2019) (Section 8.4.4 and Figure 8.18)."


id: 32255f9fb7a83d1a71442b2b4fc4c196
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 5300
content:
"Studies in the UK show that beneficiaries are willing to pay (WTP) \r\nan additional fee (up to 2% more in monthly rent) for proximity to \r\ngreen and blue infrastructure, with the WTP varying depending on \r\nthe size and nature of the green space (Mell et al. 2013, 2016). Urban \r\nagriculture can not only reduce household food expenditure, but \r\nalso provide additional sources of revenue for the city (Ayerakwa \r\n2017; Alves et al. 2019). Based on the assessed literature, there is \r\nhigh agreement on the economic co-benefits of green and blue \r\ninfrastructure, but supporting evidence is still limited (Section 8.7)."


id: 62ce0f4835dc49c2012723a1c98abc9
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 13115
content:
"As for trade-offs, some mitigation efforts may increase exposure to \r\nstressors such as flooding and the urban heat island (UHI) effect \r\n(see  Glossary), thereby reducing the adaptive capacity of citizens. \r\nFor instance, in some contexts, high-density areas that lack adequate \r\nprovision of green and open spaces may intensify the UHI effect \r\n(Pierer and Creutzig 2019; Xu et al. 2019). There are also concerns \r\nthat some mitigation efforts may diminish adaptive capacity of urban \r\npoor and marginalised groups through increasing costs of \r\nurban  services and/or eroding livelihood options. Environmental \r\npolicies designed to meet mitigation targets through phasing out old \r\nvehicles may erode livelihood options of poor households, thereby \r\ndecreasing their adaptive capacity (Colenbrander et al. 2017). \r\nAmbitious mitigation and adaptation plans could benefit private \r\ncorporate interests resulting in adverse effects on the urban poor \r\n(Chu et al. 2018; Mehta et al. 2019)."


id: f89977be76a6478da7cf0609439fec3e
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 36624
content:
"Urban green and blue infrastructure such as urban trees, greenspaces, \r\nand urban waterways can sequester carbon and reduce energy \r\ndemand, and provide adaptation co-benefits by mitigating the UHI \r\neffect (Berry et al. 2015; Wamsler and Pauleit 2016; WCRP 2019) \r\n(Section 8.4.4, Figure 8.18 and Box 8.2)."


id: ccde2923cfadb5dea82dc6995453788
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 29769
content:
"Authors: Xuemei Bai (Australia), Vanesa Castan Broto (Spain/United Kingdom), Winston Chow (Singapore), Felix Creutzig (Germany), \r\nDavid Dodman (Jamaica/United Kingdom), Rafiq Hamdi (Belgium), Bronwyn Hayward (New Zealand), Siir Kilkis (Turkey), Shuaib Lwasa \r\n(Uganda), Timon McPhearson (the United States of America), Minal Pathak (India), Mark Pelling (United Kingdom), Diana Reckien \r\n(Germany), Karen C. Seto (the United States of America), Ayyoob Sharifi (Iran/Japan), Diana Urge-Vorsatz (Hungary)"


id: 974048325fac8127dda70364d341c28e
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"This Cross-Working Group Box on Cities and Climate Change responds to the critical role of urbanisation as a megatrend impacting \r\nclimate adaptation and mitigation. Issues associated with cities and urbanisation are covered in substantial depth within all three \r\nWorking Groups (including WGI Box TS.14, WGII Chapter 6 'Cities, Settlements and Key Infrastructure', WGII regional chapters, WGII \r\nCross-Chapter Paper 'Cities and Settlements by the Sea', and WGIII Chapter 8 'Urban Systems and Other Settlements'). This Box \r\nhighlights key findings from WGII and III and substantial gaps in literature where more research is urgently needed relating to \r\npolicy action in cities. It describes methods of addressing mitigation and adaptation in an integrated way across sectors and cities \r\nto advance sustainable development and equity outcomes and assesses the governance and finance solutions required to support \r\nclimate-resilient responses."


id: e9ce2bfd353dcf9707f85124b51ed0d0
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Urban settlements contribute to climate change, generating about 70% of global CO2-eq emissions (high confidence) (see \r\nWGI Box TS.14, WGII Sections 6.1 and 6.2, and WGIII Section 8.3). This global impact feeds back to cities through the exposure of \r\ninfrastructure, people, and business to the impacts of climate-related hazards. Particularly in larger cities, this climate feedback is \r\nexacerbated by local choices in urban design, land use, building design, and human behaviour (Viguie et al. 2020) that shape local \r\nenvironmental conditions. Both the local and global combine to increase hazardousness. Certain configurations of urban form and \r\ntheir elements can add up to 2degC to warming; concretisation of open space can increase run-off, and building height and orientation \r\ninfluences wind direction and strength (see WGII Section 6.3 and WGIII Section 8.4.2)."


id: 669da29e827c3ae264ed714238463c7f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"The benefits of actions taken to reduce GHG emissions and climate stressors diminish with delayed action, indicating the necessity \r\nfor rapid responses. Delaying the same actions for increasing the resilience of infrastructure from 2020 to 2030 is estimated to have \r\na median cost of at least USD1 trillion (Hallegatte et al. 2019) while also missing the carbon emissions reductions required in the \r\nnarrowing window of opportunity to limit global warming to 1.5degC (WGI). In contrast, taking integrated actions towards mitigation, \r\nadaptation, and sustainable development will provide multiple benefits for the health and well-being of urban inhabitants and avoid \r\nstranded assets (see WGII Section 6.3, WGII Chapter 17, Cross-Chapter Box on 'Feasibility' in WGII Chapter 18, WGIII Chapter 5, and \r\nWGIII Section 8.2)."


id: 6a1199b3e966d73453ebbd629aafb41e
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"While more cities have developed plans for climate adaptation and mitigation since AR5, many remain to be implemented (limited \r\nevidence, high agreement) (Araos et al. 2017; Aguiar et al. 2018; Olazabal and Ruiz De Gopegui 2021). A review of local climate \r\nmitigation and adaptation plans across 885 urban areas of the European Union suggests mitigation plans are more common than \r\nadaptation plans - and that city size, national legislation, and international networks can influence the development of local climate \r\nand adaptation plans with an estimated 80% of those cities with above 500,000 inhabitants having a mitigation and/or an adaptation \r\nplan (Reckien et al. 2018)."


id: 7bd624b094fc5e50a64c0f84d4c25e5d
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Effective climate strategies combine mitigation and adaptation responses, including through linking adaptive urban land use with \r\nGHG emission reductions (medium evidence, high agreement) (Xu et al. 2019; Patterson 2021). For example, urban green and blue \r\ninfrastructure can provide co-benefits for mitigation and adaptation (Urge-Vorsatz et al. 2018) and is an important entry point for \r\nintegrating adaptation and mitigation at the urban level (Frantzeskaki et al. 2019) (see WGIII Section 8.4.4 and WGIII Figure 8.18). \r\nGrey and physical infrastructure, such as sea defences, can immediately reduce risk, but also transfer risk and limit future options. \r\nSocial policy interventions including social safety nets provide financial security for the most at-risk and can manage vulnerability \r\ndetermined by specific hazards or independently."


id: 343d4590a711e609dc507a0ce6b51dc7
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Hazard-independent mechanisms for vulnerability reduction - such as population-wide social security - provide resilience in the face \r\nof unanticipated cascading impacts or surprise and novel climate-related hazard exposure. Social interventions can also support or \r\nbe led by ambitions to reach the SDGs (Archer 2016). Climate-resilient development invites planners to develop interventions and \r\nmonitor the effectiveness of outcomes beyond individual projects and across wider remits that consider sustainable development. \r\nCurbing the emission impacts of urban activities to reach net-zero emissions in the next decades, while improving the resilience of \r\nurban areas, necessitates an integrated response now."


id: d9769af6110e3b74a564070539542771
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Key gaps in knowledge include: urban-enabling environments; the role of smaller settlements, low-income communities, and informal \r\nsettlements, as well as those in rental housing spread across the city; and the ways in which actions to reduce supply chain risk can \r\nbe supported to accelerate equitable and sustainable adaptation in the face of financial and governance constraints (Birkmann et al. \r\n2016; Shi et al. 2016; Rosenzweig et al. 2018; Dulal 2019)."


id: d4fe0993bace86d123d94f932a49a1aa
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Increasing the pace of investments will put pressure on governance capability, transparency, and accountability of decision-making \r\n(medium confidence) (see WGII Section 6.4.5). Urban climate action that actively includes local actors is more likely to avoid unintended, \r\nnegative maladaptive impacts and mobilise a wide range of local capacities. In the long run, this is also more likely to carry public \r\nsupport, even if some experiments and investments do not deliver the intended social benefits. Legislation, technical capacity, and \r\ngovernance capability are required to be able to absorb additional finance."


id: 6cec6ac5e101f51053d22eeab1dd2fe4
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 14755
content:
"In recent years, about USD384 billion of climate finance has been invested in urban areas per year. This remains at about 10% of the \r\nannual climate finance that would be necessary for low-carbon and resilient urban development at a global scale (Negreiros et al. \r\n2021). Rapid deployment of funds to stimulate economies in the recovery from COVID-19 has highlighted the pitfalls of funding \r\nexpansion ahead of policy innovation and capacity building. The result can be an intensification of existing carbon-intensive urban \r\nforms - exactly the kinds of 'carbon lock-in' (see WGIII Glossary and WGIII Section 8.4.1) that have contributed to risk creation and its \r\nconcentration amongst those with little public voice or economic power."


id: 9e4eb03dbd13fb9888cf608ff0f79aee
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 22432
content:
"The diversity of cities' experiences of climate mitigation and adaptation strategies brings an advantage for those city governments and \r\nother actors willing to 'learn together' (limited evidence, high confidence) (Bellinson and Chu 2019; Haupt and Coppola 2019). While \r\ncontexts are varied, policy options are often similar enough for the sharing of experiments and policy champions. Sharing expertise \r\ncan build on existing regional and global networks, many of which have already placed knowledge, learning, and capacity building \r\nat the centre of their agendas. Learning from innovative forms of governance and financial investment, as well as strengthening \r\nco-production of policy through inclusive access to knowledge and resources, can help address mismatches in local capacities and \r\nstrengthen wider SDGs and COVID-19 recovery agendas (limited evidence, medium agreement). Perceptions of risk can greatly "


id: 10485768170d7f6834d4c95b49a2e70c
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"influence the reallocation of capital and shift financial resources (Battiston et al. 2021). Coupling mitigation and adaptation in an \r\nintegrated approach offers opportunities to enhance efficiency, increases the coherence of urban climate action, generates cost \r\nsavings, and provides opportunities to reinvest the savings into new climate action projects to make all urban areas and regions \r\nmore resilient."


id: 5452edfacc6ac45c0488e86f51e681f5
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Urban land use is one of the most intensive human impacts on \r\nthe planet (Pouyat et al. 2007; Grimm et al. 2008). Urban land \r\nexpansion to accommodate a growing urban population has resulted \r\nin the conversion of agricultural land (Pandey et al. 2018; Liu et al. \r\n2019), deforestation (van Vliet 2019), habitat fragmentation (Liu \r\net al. 2016b), biodiversity loss (McDonald et al. 2018, 2020), and \r\nthe modification of urban temperatures and regional precipitation \r\npatterns (Li et al. 2017; Krayenhoff et al. 2018; Liu and Niyogi 2019; \r\nZhang et al. 2019)."


id: e346ee786a65bd37240bc7225a06ae2a
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 33250
content:
"et al. 2014; Salat et al. 2014; Ramaswami et al. 2016; Seto et al. 2016; \r\nd'Amour et al. 2017). Thus, understanding trends in urban land use is \r\nessential for assessing energy behaviour in cities as well as long-term \r\nmitigation potential (Sections 8.4 and 8.6, and Figure 8.21)."


id: 4a3271afe856ccee35e986ab5f5663b5
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 9078
content:
"Urban land use and the associated built environment and \r\ninfrastructure shape urban GHG emissions through the demand \r\nfor materials and the ensuing energy-consuming behaviours. In \r\nparticular, the structure of the built environment (i.e.,  its density, \r\nform, and extent) have long-lasting influence on urban GHG \r\nemissions, especially those from transport and building energy use, \r\nas well as the embodied emissions of the urban infrastructure (Butler "


id: 26683636ef15a019290aea08f90f1bc5
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 3454
content:
"This section draws on the literature to discuss three key trends in \r\nurban land expansion, and how those relate to GHG emissions."


id: a9582b90517a631f56b0d0ef60d008d2
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Figure  8.6:  (a) Distribution of growth typologies across 10 cities, and (b) sample of 64 cities by region with different patterns of urban growth.\r\nThe empirical data is based on the Global Human Settlement Layer and backscatter power ratio for different patterns of urban growth across the sample of cities. In (b), the \r\nblue arrows indicate outward urban growth. Other urban patterns indicate stabilised (orange), mature upward (light blue), budding outward (green), and upward and outward \r\n(red). Note that with few exceptions, each city is comprised of multiple typologies of urban growth. Source: Mahtta et al. (2019)."


id: 3909e8191682df7c55aef61e92cdbf4a
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"First, urban land areas are growing rapidly all around the world. From \r\n1975 to 2015, urban settlements expanded in size approximately \r\n2.5 times, accounting for 7.6% of the global land area (Pesaresi \r\net al. 2016). Nearly 70% of the total urban expansion between 1992 \r\nand 2015 occurred in Asia and North America (Liu et al. 2020a). By \r\n2015, the extent of urban and built-up lands was between 0.5% and \r\n0.6% of the total 130 Mkm2\r\n global ice-free land use, taking up other \r\nuses such as fertile cropland and natural ecosystems."


id: 487ddbe7b9bb253742fa13740dde291d
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"appears to be relatively stable for all city sizes. While the larger cities \r\nin Africa and South-East Asia and Pacific exhibit slightly stable urban \r\npopulation densities, the small and medium-sized cities in those \r\nregions trend toward lower urban population densities. In large \r\nurban centres of Eastern Asia and North America, rapid decreases \r\nin earlier decades seem to have tapered. Compared to larger cities, \r\nsmall-medium urban areas with populations of less than 2 million \r\nhave more declines in urban population densities and higher rates of \r\nurban land expansion (Guneralp et al. 2020)."


id: f9b895721cf6ccf074497b1c58e2d41d
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Second, as Figure  8.5 shows, urban population densities are \r\ndeclining, with significant implications for GHG emissions. From \r\n1970 to 2010, while the global urban settlement extent doubled \r\nin size (Pesaresi et al. 2016), most regions (grouped by the AR6 \r\nWGIII 10-region aggregation) exhibited a trend of decreasing urban \r\npopulation densities, suggesting expansive urban growth patterns. \r\nUrban population densities have consistently declined in Australia, \r\nJapan and New Zealand, and Europe, North America, and Southern \r\nAsia regions, across all city sizes. North America consistently had \r\nthe lowest urban population densities. Notably, the Middle East \r\nregion appears to be the only region exhibiting an overall increasing \r\ntrend across all city-size groups, while Latin America and Caribbean "


id: fe0d6c0ec941804e2cb72653d0fb453
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content_type: text
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vector_id: 37496
content:
"This decline in urban densities is paralleled by an increase in 'sprawl', \r\nor 'outward' urban development. Urban expansion occurs in either \r\none of three dimensions: (i) outward in a  horizontal manner; (ii) \r\nupward, by way of vertical growth; or (iii) infill development, \r\nwhere unused, abandoned, or underutilised lands within existing \r\nurban areas are developed or rehabilitated (Figure  8.20). Outward \r\nexpansion results in more urban land area and occurs at the expense \r\nof other land uses (i.e., the conversion and loss of cropland or forests). \r\nVertical expansion results in more multi-storey buildings and taller \r\nbuildings, more floor space per area, and an increase in urban built\u0002up density. Every city has some combination of outward and upward "


id: 9bf33e40a28de56c0c66f413a7e32831
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Figure 8.7: Percent of total urban land expansion from other land covers, sorted by the AR6 WGIII 10-region aggregation (1970-2010). As urban land \r\nhas expanded outward, other forms of land cover, including agriculture, 'nature' (e.g., forest, grassland, shrubland, water, and bare soil, all of which are disaggregated to the \r\nbottom half of the plot), and other land covers, have been displaced. Globally, agriculture comprises the majority (about 60%) of the land displaced by urban expansion since \r\n1970. Forests and shrubland vegetation - important carbon stocks - also make up a significant proportion of displacement. The loss of carbon-sequestering land like forests \r\nand shrubland independently impacts climate change by reducing global carbon stocks. Eurasia is omitted because there are no case studies from that region that report land \r\nconversion data. Source: adapted from Guneralp et al. (2020)."


id: 1cb11fe7b4af75061ceb5c4ccc374c54
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"growth in varying degrees (Mahtta et al. 2019) (Figure 8.6). That each \r\ncity is comprised of different and multiple urban growth typologies \r\nsuggests the need for differentiated mitigation strategies for different \r\nparts of a single city (Section 8.6 and Figure 8.21). Recent research \r\nshows that the relative combination of outward versus upward growth \r\nis a reflection of its economic and urban development (Lall et al. 2021). \r\nThat is, how a city grows - whether upward or outward - is a function \r\nof its economic development level. Upward growth, or more tall \r\nbuildings, is a reflection of higher land prices (Ahlfeldt and McMillen \r\n2018; Ahlfeldt and Barr 2020)."


id: 11c558f063f9f44d3e17c40a2229204b
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 289
content:
"accelerate transitions to low-carbon urban development. There are \r\nseveral key reasons for their potential to mitigate GHG emissions. First, \r\ninformal urban areas may not require large investments in retrofitting \r\nas they have developed with minimal investment in large-scale \r\ninfrastructure. Second, these areas exhibit flexibility of development \r\nand can potentially be transformed into an urban form that supports \r\nlow- or carbon-neutral infrastructure for transportation, energy use \r\nin residential buildings, and other sectors (Baurzhan and Jenkins \r\n2016; Henneman et al. 2016; Byrne et al. 2017; Oyewo et al. 2019)."


id: f6e0fd75f359f9418eb57e09d66890eb
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
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content:
"An analysis of 478 cities with populations of more than 1  million \r\npeople found that the predominant urban growth pattern worldwide \r\nis outward expansion, suggesting that cities are becoming more \r\nexpansive than dense (Mahtta et al. 2019) (Figure 8.6). The study also \r\nfound that cities within a geographic region exhibit remarkably similar \r\npatterns of urban growth. Some studies have found a mix of urban \r\nforms emerging around the world; an analysis of 194 cities identified \r\nan overall trend (from 1990 to 2015) toward urban forms that are \r\na mixture of fragmented and compact (Lemoine-Rodriguez et al. 2020). \r\nThe exception to this trend is a group of large cities in Australia, New \r\nZealand, and the United States that are still predominantly fragmented. \r\nThe same study also identified small to medium-sized cities as the most \r\ndynamic in terms of their expansion and change in their forms."


id: d049092096b7a14780dcd2c5568f3fb7
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Non-networked and non-centralised urban services and infrastructure in \r\ninformal settlements, including sanitation, waste, water, and electricity, \r\nserve over 60% of the urban population in developing country cities \r\n(Lawhon et al. 2018). The alternatives of disruptive, hybrid, largely \r\nnon-networked multiplicity of technologies applicable at micro to \r\nmeso scales have potential for low-emissions development in urban \r\nareas of developing countries (Narayana 2009; Davila and Daste 2012; \r\nRadomes Jr and Arango 2015; Potdar et al. 2016; Grove et al. 2018). \r\nThese technologies can be applied in the short term as responses with \r\nlong-term influence on emissions reduction. The cumulative impact of \r\nthe disruptive technologies can reduce emissions by 15-25% through \r\nenhanced emissions sinks in small and medium-sized cities (Tongwane \r\net al. 2015; du Toit et al. 2018; Nero et al. 2018, 2019; Frantzeskaki et al. \r\n2019; Mantey and Sakyi 2019; Singh and G. 2019)."


id: ee4f5e9c3edbaa4288606924b6803655
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"One major innovation presented in AR6 - particularly in this chapter - \r\nis the inclusion of trend data on urban GHG emissions. Using \r\nmultiple datasets in conjunction with the SSP and RCP scenarios, \r\nthis chapter provides an estimate of urban GHG emissions from \r\n1990 through 2100, based on a consumption-based approach. This \r\ninnovation provides, for the first time, a temporal dimension to urban \r\nfootprints considering different climate scenarios with implications \r\nfor urban mitigation. The new analysis presents a  comparison of \r\nways urban emissions can evolve given different scenario contexts \r\n(Section 8.3.4.2). Additionally, new research has quantified trends in "


id: ac4ad630f9c18cb8b291af1c20eae9e
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"About 880 million people currently live in informal settlements  - \r\ndefined as unplanned areas operating outside of legal and regulatory \r\nsystems, where residents have no legal claim over their property and \r\nhave inadequate basic services and infrastructure (United Nations \r\n2018). Furthermore, upgrading informal settlements and inadequate \r\nhousing is essential for improving resilience to climate change and \r\nwell-being. Given the ubiquity of informal settlements in developing \r\ncountries and LDCs, there is potential to harness informality to "


id: 8f45a771aa432df13a91c3771a10eb66
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"Between 2000 and 2015, urban population, urban CO2-eq emissions, \r\nand national CO2-eq emissions increased as a share of the global total \r\nin the Asia and Pacific region while the share declined for Developed \r\nCountries. The urban share of total regional CO2-eq emissions decreased \r\nin Developed Countries from 58.2% (2000) to 40.0% (2015). Urban \r\nper capita CO2-eq and national per capita CO2-eq also increased in all \r\nregions except for the urban per capita CO2-eq value in the Developed \r\nCountries region, which declined slightly."


id: e40d953b3752cdf0b2a3397b27c13806
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
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content:
"urban CO2 emissions and their key drivers across 91 global cities from \r\n2000 to 2018 (Luqman et al. 2021)."


id: b210101432fca6f0d95acdbaffd344d4
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 25514
content:
"Figures 8.8 and 8.9 present key urban emission metrics and trends for \r\nsix regions (based on the AR6 WGIII regional breakdown) - the first \r\nfor the year 2015, and the latter for both 2000 and 2015."


id: 9a7111852633e72c7c983c196149ddd9
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 21824
content:
"The key trends are as follows. First, the urban share of global GHG \r\nemissions (including CO2 and CH4) is substantive and continues \r\nto increase (Figure  8.9). Total urban CO2-eq emissions based on \r\nconsumption-based accounting were estimated to be 25 GtCO2-eq, \r\nor 62% of the global total in 2015, and increased to an estimated \r\n29 GtCO2-eq in 2020, representing about 67-72% of global emissions. \r\nThis estimate includes all CO2 and CH4 emissions except aviation, \r\nshipping, and biogenic sources (i.e., land-use change, forestry, and \r\nagriculture). About 100 of the highest-emitting urban areas account \r\nfor approximately 18% of the global carbon footprint (Moran \r\net al. 2018). Globally, the urban share of national CO2-eq emissions \r\nincreased 6 percentage points, from 56% in 2000 to 62% in 2015."


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"Fourth, the global average per capita urban GHG emissions increased \r\nbetween 2000 and 2015, with cities in the Developed Countries \r\nregion producing nearly seven times more per capita than the \r\nlowest emitting region (medium confidence). From 2000 to 2015, \r\nthe global urban GHG emissions per capita increased from 5.5 to \r\n6.2 tCO2-eq per person (an increase of 11.8%), with increases across \r\nfive of the six regions: Africa increased from 1.3 to 1.5 tCO2-eq per \r\nperson (22.6%); Asia and Pacific increased from 3.0 to 5.1 tCO2-eq \r\nper person (71.7%); Eastern Europe and West-Central Asia increased \r\nfrom 6.9 to 9.8 tCO2-eq per person (40.9%); Latin America and \r\nCaribbean increased from 2.7 to 3.7 tCO2-eq per person (40.4%); \r\nand the Middle East increased from 7.4 to 9.6 tCO2-eq per person \r\n(30.1%). Albeit starting from the highest level, Developed Countries \r\nhad a decline of 11.4 to 10.7 tCO2-eq per person (-6.5%)."


id: fa9e7d25fc52da255a0e11695da8de8d
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content:
"Second, while urban CO2 emissions were increasing in all urban \r\nareas, the dominant drivers were dependent upon development level. \r\nEmissions growth in urban areas other than in Developed Countries \r\nwas driven by increases in area and per capita emissions. Across \r\nall cities, higher population densities are correlated with lower per \r\ncapita GHG emissions (Luqman et al. 2021)."


id: ed1004a404f624b9d981661ba07111c4
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"In 2015, regional urban per capita consumption-based CO2-eq \r\nemissions were lower than regional consumption-based national per \r\ncapita CO2-eq emissions in five of the six regions. These regions in \r\norder of the difference are: Developed Countries (lower by 1.0 tCO2-eq \r\nper capita); Latin America and Caribbean (lower by 0.8 tCO2-eq \r\nper  capita); Eastern Europe and West-Central Asia (lower by \r\n0.7 tCO2-eq per capita); Middle East (lower by 0.4 tCO2-eq per capita); \r\nand Africa (lower by 0.2 tCO2-eq per capita); while higher only in the \r\nAsia and Pacific region (higher by 0.9 tCO2-eq per capita). All regions \r\nshow convergence of the urban and national per capita CO2-eq, as \r\nthe urban share of national emissions increases and dominates the \r\nregional total."


id: d9095e02bc31f91c8f1d60c481f9e0e5
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 31656
content:
"Third, the urban share of regional GHG emissions increased between \r\n2000 and 2015, with much inter-region variation in the magnitude \r\nof the increase (high confidence) (Figure  8.9). Between 2000 and \r\n2015, the urban emissions share across AR6 WGIII regions (6-region \r\naggregation) increased from 28% to 38% in Africa, from 46% to 54% \r\nin Asia and Pacific, from 62% to 72% in Developed Countries, from \r\n57% to 62% in Eastern Europe and West-Central Asia, from 55% \r\nto 66% in Latin America and Caribbean, and from 68% to 69% in \r\nthe Middle East."


id: 8495e5666671846ae2ceb7216f1d1e7a
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 18385
content:
"Figure 8.8: 2015 average urban greenhouse gas emissions per capita, considering carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) emissions from a consumption\u0002based perspective, alongside urban population, for regions represented in the AR6 WGIII 6-region aggregation. The average urban per capita emissions are \r\ngiven by the height of the bars while the width represents the urban population for a given region, based on 2015 values for both axes. Provided within the bars are the \r\npercentage shares of the urban population by region as a share of the total urban population. Source: synthesised based on data from UN DESA (2019) and Gurney et al. (2022)."


id: 55eb3d4172e4d1e0fc1f3db1f9112e05
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 11001
content:
"Urbanisation can drive emissions if the process is accompanied by an income increase and higher levels of consumption (Sudmant et al. \r\n2018). This is typically observed in countries with a large urban-rural disparity in income and basic services, and where urbanisation is \r\naccompanied by economic growth that is coupled to emissions. In addition, the outward expansion of urban land areas often results \r\nin the conversion and loss of agricultural land (Pandey et al. 2018; Liu et al. 2019), forests (Austin et al. 2019), and other vegetated \r\nareas, thereby reducing carbon uptake and storage (Quesada et al. 2018) (Section 8.3.1). Furthermore, the buildup and use of urban \r\ninfrastructure (e.g., buildings, power, sanitation) requires large amounts of embodied energy and carbon (Figures 8.17 and 8.22). \r\nBuilding new and upgrading existing urban infrastructure could produce cumulative emissions of 226 GtCO2 by 2050 (Bai et al. 2018)."


id: 57cbb34f8cd56fe2469d165433528e6d
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"However, for the same level of consumption and basic services, an average urban dweller often requires less energy than their \r\nrural counterparts, due to higher population densities that enable sharing of infrastructure and services, and economies of scale. \r\nWhether and to what extent such emission reduction potentials can be realised depends on how cities are designed and laid out \r\n(i.e., urban form - see Section 8.4.2) as well as how urban infrastructure is built and powered, such as the energy intensity of the \r\ncity's transportation system, type and level of urban services, the share of renewable energy, as well as the broader national and \r\ninternational economic and energy structure that supports the function of the cities (Sections 8.4.3 and 8.6)."


id: 221c88565e852fc59dbbab959fe6b24f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Although population-dense cities can be more efficient than rural areas in terms of per capita energy use, and cities contribute less \r\nGHG emissions per person than low-density suburbs (Jones and Kammen 2014), there is some, albeit limited, evidence that larger \r\ncities are not more efficient than smaller ones (Fragkias et al. 2013; Ribeiro et al. 2019). A number of studies comparing urban and rural \r\nresidents in the same country have shown that urban residents have higher per capita energy consumption and CO2 emissions (Chen \r\net al. 2019a; Hachaichi and Baouni 2021). There is some evidence that the benefits of higher urban densities on reducing per capita \r\nurban GHG emissions may be offset by higher incomes, smaller household sizes, and, most importantly, higher consumption levels, \r\nthus creating a counter-effect that could increase GHG emissions with urbanisation (Gill and Moeller 2018)."


id: e017fec8c870f20579ff4482e5195585
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Many studies have shown that the relationship between urbanisation and GHG emissions is dependent on the level and stage of \r\nurban development, and follows an inverted U-shaped relationship of the environmental Kuznets curve (Wang et al. 2016, 2022; Zhang \r\net al. 2017; Xu et al. 2018a; Zhou et al. 2019) (Sections 8.3.1 and 8.6, and Figure 8.20). Considering existing trends, earlier phases of \r\nurbanisation accompanied by rapid industrialisation, development of secondary industries, and high levels of economic growth, are \r\ncorrelated with higher levels of energy consumption and GHG emissions. However, more mature phases of urbanisation, with higher \r\nlevels of economic development and establishment of the service sector, are correlated with lower levels of energy consumption and \r\nGHG emissions (Khan and Su 2021)."


id: ad8b22d5dfde4c6548024509541b265d
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"the two not included here (van Vliet et al. 2017) also forecasts land \r\ndisplacement due to urban land expansion."


id: 81871d2d830d4381dc905ac01b2188f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 17910
content:
"This section assesses scenarios of future urban land expansion and \r\nurban GHG emissions. These scenarios have implications for the \r\nurban climate change mitigation strategies discussed in Sections 8.4 \r\nand 8.6 - in particular, in the context of the potential mitigation and \r\ndevelopment pathways for urban areas under certain scenarios."


id: c641b0a4726504c7321643da7b6c6fc6
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"The uncertainties across urban land expansion forecasts, and \r\nassociated SSPs, highlight an opportunity to pursue compact, \r\nlow or net-zero GHG emissions development that minimises \r\nland-use competition, avoids carbon lock-in, and preserves carbon\u0002sequestering areas like forests and grasslands (Sections  8.4. and \r\n8.6, and Figure 8.21). Among the forecasts available are six global\u0002scale spatially explicit studies of urban land expansion that have \r\nbeen published since AR5; four of the six, which present forecasts \r\nfor each of the five SSPs, are considered in Table 8.1 and Figure 8.10 \r\n(Huang et al. 2019; Li et al. 2019b; Chen et al. 2020a; Gao and O'Neill \r\n2020). All four have forecasts to 2050 but only three to 2100. One of "


id: 9adb9836598f0e86846838d4b0e30a13
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 21896
content:
"1  million km2 (range of 0.9 to 2  million km2, a  49% increase) in \r\n2050. By 2100, the forecasted urban extents reach between 1.4 and \r\n3.6 million km2\r\n (median 2.5 million km2) under SSP5 and between \r\n1 and 1.5 million km2\r\n (median 1.3 million km2) under SSP3. Across \r\nthe studies, substantially larger amounts of urban land expansion are \r\nexpected after 2050 under SSP5 compared to other SSPs."


id: bd17c0a2689a8d23fc6cf7f11560757b
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 27316
content:
"Third, in spite of these general trends, there are differences in \r\nforecasted urban expansion in each region across the SSPs and \r\nstudies, with Huang et al. (2019) forecasting the most future \r\nurban land expansion between 2015 and 2050. The range across "


id: 4c46d9868d9267ae9ea177e2ea870b06
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 9428
content:
"Table 8.1: Forecasts of total urban land per AR6 WGIII region (6-region aggregation) in 2050 for each SSP, with the median and range of estimates from \r\nfour studies: Huang et al. (2019), Li et al. (2019), Chen et al. (2020), and Gao and O'Neill (2020). Median estimates for the 2015 urban extent are based on the \r\nmean/median of estimates in Huang et al. (2019) and Chen et al. (2020). Median and range of estimates for each SSP in 2050 are based on values derived from the four studies: \r\nHuang et al. (2019), Li et al. (2019), Chen et al. (2020), and Gao and O'Neill (2020). While each study and SSP forecast increases in urban land in each region, the range and \r\nmagnitude vary. Source: data compiled from Huang et al. (2019), Li et al. (2019), Chen et al. (2020), and Gao and O'Neill (2020)."


id: 84118ecc17dc2d8c2c26d1ce954fd5a3
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 18313
content:
"Figure 8.10: Forecasts of urban land expansion in 2050 and 2100 according to each SSP and AR6 WGIII 6-region aggregation, by study, where A: Gao \r\nand O'Neill (2020), B: Chen et al. (2020a), C: Li et al. (2019), D: Huang et al. (2019), E: mean across studies, and F: median across all studies. Three studies \r\n(Li et al. 2019b; Chen et al. 2020a; Gao and O'Neill 2020) report forecasts of urban land expansion to both 2050 and 2100. One study (Huang et al. 2019) reports the forecast \r\nonly to 2050. Global current urban extents and the respective initial years vary slightly among the four studies. Years for values of current urban extent range from 2010 to \r\n2020. See Table 8.1 for the range of data across the four studies and across SSPs. Source: data compiled form Huang et al. (2019), Li et al. (2019), Chen et al. (2020), and Gao \r\nand O'Neill (2020)."


id: 976165d33789928aed2b9edcc0caa25f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 21341
content:
"et al. 2019). Furthermore, this urban expansion-induced warming is \r\non average about half  - and in certain locations nearly twice  - as \r\nstrong as warming that will be caused by GHG emissions based on \r\nthe multi-model ensemble average forecasts in RCP4.5. In short, future \r\nurban expansion will amplify the background warming caused by GHG \r\nemissions, with extreme warming most pronounced during night-time \r\n(very high confidence) (Huang et al. 2019). These findings corroborate \r\nthose in the Technical Summary of AR6 WGI (Arias et al. 2021)."


id: 1f414333c61718dbf842f0009a5fac34
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 2356
content:
"The forecasted amounts and patterns of urban expansion presented \r\nhere bear significant uncertainty due to underlying factors beyond mere \r\nmethodological differences between the studies. These factors include \r\npotential changes in the social, economic, and institutional dynamics \r\nthat drive urban land development across the world (Guneralp and \r\nSeto 2013). Some of these changes may come in the form of sudden \r\nshocks such as another global economic crisis or pandemic. The \r\nforecasts presented here do not take such factors into account."


id: e1344d2dc4b89bf13dadae322d7f4ce9
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 32931
content:
"Figure 8.11: Reference scenario and mitigation potential for global urban \r\nareas in the residential and commercial building, transport, waste, and \r\nmaterial production sectors. The top red line indicates the reference scenario \r\nwhere no further emissions reduction efforts are taken, while the bottom dark line \r\nindicates the combined potential of reducing emissions across the sectors displayed. \r\nWedges are provided for potential emissions savings associated with decarbonising \r\nresidential buildings, commercial buildings, transport, waste, and materials as \r\nindicated in the legend. The shaded areas that take place among the wedges with \r\nlines indicate contributions from decarbonisation of electricity supply. Source: Re-used \r\nwith permission from Coalition for Urban Transitions (2019)."


id: 1eb271e61b3d7f8140c6f8abcc94a724
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 2274
content:
"There remains little globally comprehensive literature on projections \r\nof future baseline GHG emissions from urban areas or scenarios \r\ndeploying urban mitigation actions on the part of city or regional \r\ngovernments. This dearth of research rests on limited urban emissions \r\ndata that are consistent and comparable across the globe, making \r\nreview and synthesis challenging (Creutzig et al. 2016b). Some research \r\nhas presented urban emissions forecasts and related projections, \r\nincluding estimated urban energy use in 2050 (Creutzig et al. 2015), \r\nenergy savings for low-carbon development (Creutzig et al. 2016b), \r\nemission savings from existing and new infrastructure (Creutzig et al. \r\n2016a) (Figure 8.12), and urban emissions from buildings, transport, \r\nindustry, and agriculture (IEA 2016a)."


id: fea818b0f3115ce12fdc817d9afbf708
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 37611
content:
"the urban portion of global GHG emissions, including the residential and \r\ncommercial building, transport, waste, and material production (focusing \r\non cement, aluminium, and steel) sectors, along with mitigation \r\nwedges aimed at staying below a 2degC level of atmospheric warming \r\n(Figure 8.11). Starting in 2015 with a global urban emissions total of \r\nalmost 14 GtCO2-eq, the study projects an increase to 17.3 GtCO2-eq \r\nby 2050 - but this reduces to 1.8 GtCO2-eq by 2050 with the inclusion \r\nof mitigation wedges: 58% from buildings, 21% from transport, 15% \r\nmaterials efficiency, and 5% waste, with decarbonisation of electricity \r\nsupply as a cross-cutting strategy across the wedges."


id: 75da98f411b56c8cb9c978364ea20a96
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
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vector_id: 16135
content:
"Figure 8.12: Urban infrastructure-based CO2-eq emission mitigation wedges. Urban infrastructure-based CO2-eq emission mitigation wedges across categories of \r\nexisting (yellow/green), new (blue), and construction (grey) of urban infrastructure. The wedges include low-carbon energy systems and infrastructure, modal shift, tolls/tax, or \r\nbehavioural change, and reductions from construction materials. Source: re-used with permission from Creutzig et al. (2016a)."


id: 1f37ffb62c09fa8c496aa559c611b60e
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 2351
content:
"os have been assessed b\r\n1.9 scenario is aligned \r\nd from Global Environm\r\nAfricaAsia and PacificDeveloped Countries\r\nastern Europe and We\r\natin America and Carib\r\nMiddle EastGlobal Total (GtCO2-eq)\r\nbon dioxide equivale\r\n aggregation. Global to\r\n-SPA1, (b) SSP1-RCP2.\r\ningent reduction pathw\r\nvels. SSP1 scenarios (a, \r\nj et al. 2018). The scena\r\nthe SSP-RCPs. Source: a"


id: 8f4f9721cb8ea68ca1c384d2e1bd3595
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 20094
content:
"Table 8.2: Synthesis of the urbanisation and scenario contexts of the urban emissions scenarios. Descriptions for urbanisation are adapted based on Jiang and \r\nO'Neill (2017) while high, medium, low, or mixed levels in the scenario context are drawn from the marker model implementations of SSP1-SSP5 for IMAGE (van Vuuren et al. \r\n2017b; Rogelj et al. 2018), MESSAGE-GLOBIOM (Fricko et al. 2017), AIM/CGE (Fujimori et al. 2017), GCAM (Calvin et al. 2017), and REMIND-MAgPIE (Kriegler et al. 2017). \r\nThe letters in parentheses refer to the panels in Figure 8.13. Energy and material efficiency relate to energy efficiency improvement and decrease in the intermediate input of \r\nmaterials, including steel and cement. Dietary responses include less meat-intensive diets. Implications for urban areas relate to the mitigation options in Section 8.4. Source: \r\nadapted from Gurney et al. (2022)."


id: 6343a4d177a3dd024a0d0e8a67127926
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"9 Figure adapted from Global Environmental Change, Vol 73, Gurney et al., Greenhouse gas emissions from global cities under SSP/RCP scenarios, 1990 to 2100, (c)2022 \r\nwith permission from Elsevier."


id: a7531443ed6289719df5796b51d18877
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 23839
content:
"The most comprehensive approach to-date for quantifying urban \r\nemissions within the global context (Gurney et al. 2021, 2022) \r\ncombines the per capita carbon footprint estimates for 13,000 cities \r\nfrom Moran et al. (2018) with projections of the share of urban \r\npopulation (Jiang and O'Neill 2017) within the IPCC's SSP-RCP \r\nframework (van Vuuren et al. 2014, 2017a; Riahi et al. 2017). Urban \r\nemissions in seven SSP-RCP scenarios are shown in Figure 8.13 along \r\nwith an estimate of the global total CO2-eq for context."


id: acadea17beda577960d7de611f2df54a
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
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content:
"When 2020 levels are compared to the values for the year 2030, urban \r\nareas that utilise multiple opportunities towards resource-efficient and \r\nwalkable urbanisation are estimated to represent a savings potential \r\nof 9.8 GtCO2-eq of urban emissions, under SSP1-RCP1.9 scenario \r\nconditions, on the path towards net-zero CO2 and CH4 emissions. In \r\ncontrast, urban emissions would increase by 3.4 GtCO2-eq from 2020 \r\nlevels in 2030 under SSP2-RCP4.5 scenario conditions with moderate \r\nchanges lacking ambitious mitigation action (Figure 8.14)."


id: 8ee8ab06f46c688762244ec868ed742c
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Table 8.3: Cross-cutting implications of the reference scenarios and Illustrative Mitigation Pathways (IMPs) for urban areas. The IMPs illustrate key themes of \r\nmitigation strategies throughout the WGIII report (Section 3.2.5). The implications of the key themes of the six IMPs (in addition to two pathways illustrative of higher emissions) \r\nfor mitigation in urban areas are represented based on the main storyline elements that involve energy, land use, food biodiversity and lifestyle, as well as policy and innovation. \r\nThe cross-cutting implications of these elements for urban areas, where multiple elements interact, are summarised for each reference scenario and the IMPs. IMP-Ren, IMP-LD \r\nand IMP-SP represent pathways in the C1 category that also includes SSP1-1.9. Source: adapted from the key themes of the IMPs for urban areas."


id: fb242acba9de68be47e8576b42cfb7f9
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
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content:
"Among the 500 urban areas with the highest consumption-based \r\nurban emissions footprint in 2015 (Moran et al. 2018), urban-level \r\nemission scenarios under SSP1 conditions are constructed for 420 \r\nurban areas located across all regions of the world (Kilkis 2021a). \r\nThese scenarios are based on urban-level population projections by \r\nSSP (Kii 2021), trends in relevant CMIP6 scenarios (Gidden \r\net al.  2019), and a  100% renewable energy scenario (Bogdanov \r\net al. 2021). In the year 2020, the 420 urban areas are responsible \r\nfor about 10.7 +- 0.32 GtCO2-eq, or 27% of the global total CO2 and \r\nCH4 emissions of about 40 GtCO2-eq, excluding aviation, shipping, \r\nand biogenic sources. Under three SSP1-based scenarios, the urban \r\nemissions of the 420 urban areas in 2030 is projected to be about \r\n7.0 GtCO2-eq in SSP1-RCP1.9, 10.5 GtCO2-eq in SSP1-RCP2.6, and \r\n5.2 GtCO2-eq in the SSP1 renewable energy scenario."


id: 4373083b37f0246321ef695a5e99654
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 8022
content:
"Integrated action also has a key role in providing benefits for human \r\nwell-being. Urban mitigation options and strategies that are effective, \r\nefficient, and fair can also support broader sustainability goals \r\n(Guneralp et al. 2017; Kona et al. 2018; Pasimeni et al. 2019). Due \r\nto the complex and intensive interactions in urban systems and the \r\ninterlinked nature of the SDGs, cities can be important intervention \r\npoints to harness synergies and co-benefits for achieving emissions \r\nreductions along with other SDGs (Nilsson et al. 2016; Corbett and \r\nMellouli 2017) (Section 8.2 and Figure 8.4)."


id: 6965d01e8581fa54ce3830085cbddc84
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 14179
content:
"Urban mitigation options can be categorised into three broad \r\nstrategies: (i) reducing or changing urban energy and material use \r\ntowards more sustainable production and consumption across \r\nall sectors, including through spatial planning and infrastructure; \r\n(ii) electrification and switching to net-zero-emissions resources; and \r\n(iii) enhancing carbon storage in the urban environment through \r\nurban green and blue infrastructure, which can also offer multiple \r\nco-benefits. A  fourth, socio-behavioural aspects, can shift energy \r\ndemand and emerge as the result of implementing the strategies. \r\nUrban mitigation options covered in this section are organised \r\naround these three strategies and can facilitate deep decarbonisation \r\nthrough systemic transformation (see Section  8.6 and Figure  8.21 \r\nfor prioritising mitigation options based on urban form and urban \r\ngrowth typologies)."


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created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Urban infrastructures and the built environment are long-lived assets, \r\nembodying triple carbon lock-ins in terms of their construction, \r\noperations, and demolition (Creutzig et al. 2016b; Seto et al. 2016; \r\nUrge-Vorsatz et al. 2018). There is much focus in the climate change \r\nliterature on the operational lifetimes of the energy sector, especially \r\npower plants and the electricity grid, which are between 30 and \r\n60 years (Rode et al. 2017). Yet, in reality, the lifespans of urban "


id: c2e4f6a2798891a3e79ff877bfdefd8
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Avoiding carbon lock-in inherently involves decisions that extend \r\nbeyond the administrative boundaries of cities. This includes pricing \r\nof low-emissions technology or materials, such as electric battery \r\nor hydrogen vehicles and buses, although cities can support their \r\ndevelopment and deployment (Cross-Chapter Box 12 in Chapter 16 \r\non Transition Dynamics). In contrast, urban governments in most \r\nparts of the world do have powers to set building codes that regulate \r\nmaterials and construction standards for buildings, including heating \r\nand cooling technologies, and major appliances. Other examples \r\ninclude zoning that determines the location of buildings, land uses, \r\nstandards for densities, and the inclusion of energy planning in their \r\nbuilding standards and public works, including streets, parks, and \r\nopen spaces (Blanco et al. 2011; Raven et al. 2018)."


id: 36bede19c5a510b45dfe501fc66d0dee
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"infrastructures, especially the basic layout of roadways, are often much \r\nlonger (Reyna and Chester 2015). A number of detailed case studies \r\non the evolution of urban road networks for cities around the world \r\nreveal that the current layout of streets grew out of street networks \r\nthat were established hundreds of years ago (Strano et al. 2012; \r\nMasucci et al. 2013; Mohajeri and Gudmundsson 2014). Furthermore, \r\nthere is evidence that urban street layout, population growth, urban \r\ndevelopment, and automobile ownership co-evolve (Li et al. 2019a)."


id: e0595ce93c1e75906a2770c29296d0e7
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"For cities to break out of mutually reinforcing carbon lock-in, it will \r\nrequire systematic transformation and systems-based planning that \r\nintegrates mitigation strategies across sectors and geopolitical scales. \r\nUrban energy demand patterns are locked-in whenever incremental \r\nurban design and planning decisions, coupled with investments in \r\nlong-lasting infrastructure, such as roads and buildings, take place \r\n(Seto et al. 2016). The fundamental building blocks of cities are based \r\non the layout of the street network, the size of city blocks, and the \r\ndensity of street intersections. If not significantly altered, these three \r\nfactors will continue to shape and lock-in energy demand for decades \r\nafter their initial construction, influencing the mitigation potential of \r\nurban areas (Section 8.4.2 and Figure 8.22)."


id: 2af5be3e60242424bb56bc18eeb51c75
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"spatial planning. There are important cascading effects not only for \r\ntransport but also other key sectors and consumption patterns, such \r\nas in buildings, households, and energy. However, these benefits \r\ncan be attained only when the existing spatial structure of an urban \r\narea does not limit locational and mobility options, thereby avoiding \r\ncarbon lock-in through the interaction of infrastructure and the \r\nresulting socio-behavioural aspects."


id: 87718df3b7208722bdd6077972a7c50f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"and towns (Lynch 1981; Handy 1996). Infrastructure describes the \r\nphysical structures, social and ecological systems, and corresponding \r\ninstitutional arrangements that provide services and enable urban \r\nactivity (Dawson et al. 2018; Chester 2019) and comprises services \r\nand built-up structures that support urban functioning, including \r\ntransportation infrastructure, water and wastewater systems, solid \r\nwaste systems, telecommunications, and power generation and \r\ndistribution (Seto et al. 2014)."


id: 4985947e628c4e664e5df956260c354b
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 8958
content:
"Modifying the layout of emerging urbanisation to be more compact, \r\nwalkable, and co-located can reduce future urban energy use by \r\n20-25% in 2050 while providing a corresponding mitigation potential \r\nof 23-26% (Creutzig et al. 2015, 2016b; Sethi et al. 2020), forming \r\nthe basis for other urban mitigation options. Cross-Chapter Box 7 in \r\nChapter 10 provides perspectives on simultaneously reducing urban \r\ntransport emissions, avoiding infrastructure lock-in, and providing \r\naccessible services. The systemic nature of compact urban form and \r\nintegrated spatial planning influences 'Avoid-Shift-Improve' (ASI, see \r\nGlossary) options across several sectors simultaneously, including for \r\nmobility and shelter (for an in-depth discussion on the integration of \r\nservice provision solutions within the ASI framework, see Section 5.3)."


id: 87ae70fd6d16126fcea556b66e3037e
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"Integrated spatial planning, co-location of higher residential and \r\njob densities, and systemic approaches are widely identified with \r\ndevelopment that is characterised by the 5Ds of transit-oriented \r\ndevelopment (TOD) based on density, diversity (mixed land uses), \r\ndesign (street connectivity), destination accessibility, and distance to \r\ntransit. Spatial strategies that integrate the 5Ds are shown to reduce \r\nVMT/VKT, and thereby transport-related GHG emissions through \r\nenergy savings. The effect of urban form and built environment \r\nstrategies on VMT per capita varies by a number of factors (Ewing \r\nand Cervero 2010; Stevens 2017; Blanco and Wikstrom 2018). \r\nDensity and destination accessibility have the highest elasticities, \r\nfollowed by design (Stevens 2017). Population-weighted densities for "


id: e087b84d404bcf52e6c94ea478dee320
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"Since AR5, a  range of studies have been published on the \r\nrelationships between urban spatial structures, urban form, and GHG \r\nemissions. Multiple lines of evidence reaffirm the key findings from \r\nAR5, especially regarding the mitigation benefits associated with \r\nreducing vehicle miles or kilometres travelled (VMT/VKT) through "


id: 190d10dd9cf36302880fa4f9af809f28
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"121 metropolitan areas have further found that the concentration of \r\npopulation and jobs along mass transit corridors decreases VMT/VKT \r\nsignificantly when compared to more dispersed metropolitan areas. In \r\nthis sample, elasticity rates were twice as high for dense metropolitan \r\nareas located along mass transit lines (Lee and Lee 2020)."


id: c7618016bc2fa246c48056957e8e9b75
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"Spatial planning for compact urban form is a system-wide intervention \r\n(Sethi et al. 2020) and has potential to be combined with sustainable \r\ndevelopment objectives while pursuing climate mitigation for urban \r\nsystems (Grosse et al. 2016; Cheshmehzangi and Butters 2017; Facchini \r\net al. 2017; Lwasa 2017; Stokes and Seto 2019). Compact urban \r\nform can enable positive impacts on employment and green growth \r\ngiven that the local economy is decoupled from GHG emissions and \r\nrelated parameters while the concentration of people and activity \r\ncan increase productivity based on both proximity and efficiency (Lee \r\nand Erickson 2017; Salat et al. 2017; Gao and Newman 2018; Han \r\net al. 2018; Li and Liu 2018; Lall et al. 2021)."


id: 24a9af7edd38b85c255b1a0d80270810
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"Public acceptance can have a positive impact on integrated spatial \r\nplanning especially when there is a process of co-design (Grandin \r\net al. 2018; Webb et al. 2018). The quality of spatial planning can \r\nalso increase co-benefits for health and well-being, including \r\ndecisions to balance urban green areas with density (Li et al. \r\n2016; Sorkin 2018; Pierer and Creutzig 2019). The distributional \r\neffects of spatial planning can depend on the policy tools that \r\nshape the influence of urban densification on affordable housing \r\nwhile evidence for transit-induced gentrification is found to be \r\npartial and inconclusive (Chava and Newman 2016; Jagarnath and \r\nThambiran 2018; Padeiro et al. 2019; Debrunner and Hartmann \r\n2020) (Sections 8.2 and 8.4.4)."


id: d734b2324d26610b5791c1c7a07c6c3f
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"Reducing GHG emissions across different urban growth typologies \r\n(Figure 8.20) depends in part on the ability to integrate opportunities \r\nfor climate mitigation with co-benefits for health and well-being \r\n(Grandin et al. 2018). At the same time, requirements for institutional \r\ncapacity and governance for cross-sector coordination for integrated \r\nurban planning is high given the complex relations between urban \r\nmobility, buildings, energy systems, water systems, ecosystem \r\nservices, other urban sectors, and climate adaptation (Grosse et al. \r\n2016; Castan Broto 2017a; Endo et al. 2017; Geneletti et al. 2017). \r\nThe capacity for implementing land-use zoning and regulations in \r\na way that is consistent with supporting spatial planning for compact \r\nurban form is not equal across urban areas and depends on different \r\ncontexts as well as institutional capacities (Bakir et al. 2018; Deng \r\net al. 2018; Shen et al. 2019)."


id: 16cfda6a54f7bf294385be6fa30947f5
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"Currently, integrating spatial planning, urban form, and infrastructure \r\nin urban mitigation strategies remains limited in mainstream \r\npractices, including in urban areas targeting an emissions reduction \r\nof 36-80% in the next decades (Asarpota and Nadin 2020). Capacity \r\nbuilding for integrated spatial planning for urban mitigation includes \r\nincreasing collaboration among city departments and with civil \r\nsociety to develop robust mitigation strategies, bringing together \r\ncivil engineers, architects, urban designers, public policy and spatial \r\nplanners, and enhancing the education of urban professionals \r\n(Asarpota and Nadin 2020) (Section 8.5)."


id: c0410be9a2b526fd553ed6c568a86adc
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"Spatial planning for compact urban form is a  prerequisite for \r\nefficient urban infrastructure, including district heating and/or \r\ncooling networks (Swilling et al. 2018; Moller et al. 2019; Persson \r\net al. 2019; UNEP IRP 2020). District heating and cooling networks "


id: a4138178d56e8bd91b7a62f84c767aff
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"energy penetration, and demand flexibility (Kammen and Sunter \r\n2016) (see IMPs in Sections  3.2.5 and 8.3.4). The mitigation \r\npotential of electrification is ultimately dependent on the carbon \r\nintensity of the electricity grid (Kennedy 2015; Hofmann et al. 2016; \r\nPeng et al. 2018; Zhang and Fujimori 2020) and starts providing \r\nlifecycle emission savings for carbon intensities below a  threshold \r\nof 600 tCO2-eq GWh-1 (Kennedy et al. 2019). Integrated systems \r\nof roof-top photovoltaics (PVs) and all-electric vehicles (EVs) alone \r\ncould supply affordable carbon-free electricity to cities and reduce \r\nCO2 emissions by 54-95% (Brenna et al. 2014; Kobashi et al. 2021). \r\nFurthermore, electrification and decarbonisation of the urban energy \r\nsystem holds widespread importance for climate change mitigation \r\nacross different urban growth typologies and urban form (Section 8.6 \r\nand Figure 8.21) and leads to a multitude of public health co-benefits \r\n(see Section 8.2)."


id: 7d7e219a32e4c5166fb3ccfe9813adef
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"Strategies that can bring together electrification with reduced energy \r\ndemand based on walkable and compact urban form can accelerate \r\nand amplify decarbonisation. Taking these considerations  - across \r\nthe energy system, sectors, and land use - contributes to avoiding, \r\nor breaking out of, carbon lock-in and allows continued emission \r\nsavings as the energy supply is decarbonised (Kennedy et al. 2018; \r\nTeske et al. 2018; Seto et al. 2021). Indeed, electrification is already \r\ntransforming urban areas and settlements and has the potential to \r\ncontinue transforming urban areas into net-negative electric cities \r\nthat may sequester more carbon than emitted (Kennedy et al. 2018; \r\nSeto et al. 2021)."


id: bde04ff9abde141bee217f833c4fab78
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"In its simplest form, electrification involves the process of replacing \r\nfossil fuel-based technologies with electrified innovations such \r\nas electric vehicles, buses, streetcars, and trains (Sections  10.3 \r\nand 10.4), heat pumps, PVs (Section  6.4.2.1), electric cook-stoves \r\n(Section  9.8.2.1), and other technologies (Stewart et al. 2018). \r\nCost-effective decarbonisation of energy use can be supported by \r\nelectrification in urban areas if there is also demand-side flexibility \r\nfor power, heat, mobility, and water with sector coupling (Guelpa \r\net al. 2019; Pfeifer et al. 2021). Overall, demand-side flexibility \r\nacross sectors in urban areas is supported by smart charging, electric \r\nmobility, electrified urban rail, power-to-heat, demand side response, \r\nand water desalination (Lund et al. 2015; Calvillo et al. 2016; Salpakari \r\net al. 2016; Newman 2017; Meschede 2019)."


id: 565d2f12026fdd91383825922eeb578d
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"Urban energy infrastructures often operate as part of larger energy \r\nsystems that can be electrified, decarbonised, and become enablers of \r\nurban system flexibility through demand-side options. With multiple \r\nend-use sectors (e.g., transport, buildings) and their interactions with \r\nland use drawing on the same urban energy system(s), increasing \r\nelectrification is essential for rapid decarbonisation, renewable "


id: 167323f9c9340e2142d365a03568dcb7
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"Philippines) have been quantified based on reductions in GHG and \r\nPM2.5 emissions, avoided premature deaths, and increases in life \r\nexpectancies (IEA 2014; C40 Cities 2018, 2020b,c,d,e). In 22 Latin \r\nAmerican cities, converting 100% of buses and taxis in 2030 to \r\nelectric was estimated to result in a  reduction of 300 MtCO2-eq \r\ncompared to 2017 (ONU Medio Ambiente 2017). Yet the scaling \r\nup of electric vehicles in cities can be examined within a larger set \r\nof possible social objectives, such as reducing congestion and the \r\nprioritisation of other forms of mobility."


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"cost options to energy storage for integrating the power sector with \r\nmultiple demands reduce investment needs in grid electricity storage \r\ncapacities (Mathiesen et al. 2015; Lund et al. 2018)."


id: 39a5886d5eb9e60344bf60c455f5769a
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"Electrification at the urban scale encompasses strategies to \r\naggregate energy loads for demand response in the urban built \r\nenvironment to reduce the curtailment of variable renewable \r\nenergy and shifting time-of-use based on smart charging for \r\nredistributing energy demands (O'Dwyer et al. 2019). Peak shaving \r\nor shifting takes place among frequent interventions at the urban \r\nlevel (Sethi et al. 2020). Business models and utility participation, \r\nincluding municipal level demonstrations, can allow for upscaling \r\n(Gjorgievski et al. 2020; Meha et al. 2020). The urban system can \r\nsupport increasing demand-side flexibility in energy systems, \r\nincluding in contexts of 100% renewable energy systems (Drysdale \r\net al. 2019; Thellufsen et al. 2020)."


id: bb6f669ee80b822f33e684419cc5576e
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"Electrification requires a  layering of policies at the national, state, \r\nand local levels. Cities have roles as policy architects, including transit \r\nplanning (e.g., EV targets and low-emission zones, restrictions on the \r\ntypes of energy use in new buildings), implementers (e.g., building \r\ncodes and compliance checking, financial incentives to encourage \r\nconsumer uptake of EVs and heat pumps), and complementary \r\npartners to national and state policymaking (e.g.,  permitting or \r\ninstallation of charging infrastructure) (Broekhoff et al. 2015). The \r\nnumber of cities that have instituted e-mobility targets that aim \r\nfor a  certain percentage of EVs sold, in circulation or registered, \r\nis increasing (REN21 2021). Realising the mitigation potential \r\nof electrification will require fiscal and regulatory policies and \r\npublic investment (Hall et al. 2017a; Deason and Borgeson 2019; \r\nWappelhorst et al. 2020) (Section 8.5)."


id: a651b1997dee52f9e6c6030e7f89ad22
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"EVs are most rapidly deployed when there has been a  suite of \r\npolicies, including deployment targets, regulations and use incentives \r\n(e.g., zero-emission zone mandates, fuel economy standards, building \r\ncodes), financial incentives (e.g.,  vehicles, chargers), industrial \r\npolicies (e.g.,  subsidies), and fleet procurement (IEA 2016b, 2017, \r\n2018, 2020a; Cazzola et al. 2019). The policy mix has included \r\nmandates for bus deployment, purchase subsidies, or split ownership \r\nof buses and chargers (IEA 2021b) (Chapter 10). Subsidies are often \r\ncritical to address the often-higher upfront costs of electric devices. In \r\nother instances, the uptake of electric induction stoves was increased \r\nthrough government credit and allotment of free electricity (Martinez \r\net al. 2017; Gould et al. 2018)."


id: 5fcc22889fcda016bbd1667516f1a363
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"Currently, despite power outages that are costly to local economies, \r\nthe adoption of smart electricity grids or smart energy systems has \r\nbeen slow in many developing regions, including in Sub-Saharan Africa \r\n(Westphal et al. 2017; Kennedy et al. 2019). This is due to a number of \r\ndifferent factors, such as unreliable existing infrastructure, fractured \r\nfiscal authority, lack of electricity access in urban areas, upfront cost, \r\nfinancial barriers, inefficient pricing of electricity, and low consumer \r\neducation and engagement (Venkatachary et al. 2018; Acakpovi et al. \r\n2019; Cirolia 2020)."


id: 8df6e2b23a9eb0e950117d5160d36c05
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"Bringing multiple stakeholders together in local decision-making \r\nfor smart energy systems requires effort beyond usual levels \r\nwhile multi-actor settings can be increased to enable institutional \r\nconditions (Lammers and Hoppe 2019). Public participation and \r\ncommunity involvement in the planning, design and operation \r\nof urban energy projects can be an enabler of decarbonising \r\nlocal energy demands (Corsini et al. 2019). Cooperation across \r\ninstitutions is important for municipalities that are engaged in \r\nstrategic energy planning and implementation for smart energy \r\nsystems (Krog 2019) (Section 8.5)."


id: 1b3ee11333cc922d0a9140bc34772376
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"Urbanisation and population density are one of the key drivers for \r\nenabling access to electricity across the world, with benefits \r\nfor sustainable development (Aklin et al. 2018). Grid-connected PV \r\nsystems for urban locations that currently lack electricity access can \r\nallow urban areas to leapfrog based on green electrification (Abid \r\net al. 2021). In the Global South, the conversion of public transport \r\nto electric transport, especially municipal buses (e.g.,  Bengaluru, \r\nIndia; Jakarta, Indonesia; Medellin, Colombia; Rio de Janeiro, \r\nBrazil; Quito, Ecuador) and micro-mobility (e.g.,  e-trikes in Manila, "


id: 88769666a2f7844e23e37b3f543e916b
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"Electrification technologies can present potential trade-offs that can \r\nbe minimised through governance strategies, smart grid technologies, \r\ncircular economy practices, and international cooperation. One \r\nconsideration is the increase in electricity demand (Section 5.3.1.1). \r\nAcross 23 megacities in the world (population greater than 10 million \r\npeople), electrification of the entire gasoline vehicle fleet could increase \r\nelectricity demand on average by 18% (Kennedy et al. 2018). How grid \r\ncapacity will be impacted is dependent on the match between daily "


id: 62090cdf38b5e798fcfdf6ff3c14b0d3
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"electricity loads and supply (Tarroja et al. 2018). Materials recycling \r\nof electrification technologies is also key to minimising potential \r\nenvironmental and social costs (Church and Crawford 2018; Gaustad \r\net al. 2018; Sovacool et al. 2020) and can ensure electrification reaches \r\nits complete mitigation potential. Circular economy strategies are \r\nparticularly valuable to this goal by creating closed-loop supply chains \r\nthrough recycling, material recovery, repair, and reuse. For instance, the \r\nPV CYCLE programme in Europe prevented more than 30,000 metric \r\ntonnes of renewable technology from reaching the waste stream \r\n(Sovacool et al. 2020) (Box 10.6 and 'circular economy' in Glossary)."


id: 5ca972a27bb6625c5791bb7bd20a4c9c
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content:
"For the carbon embodied in supply chains to become net-zero, all key \r\ninfrastructure and provisioning systems will need to be decarbonised, \r\nincluding electricity, mobility, food, water supply, and construction (Seto \r\net al. 2021). The growth of global urban populations that is anticipated \r\nover the next several decades will create significant demand for \r\nbuildings and infrastructure. As cities expand in size and density, there \r\nis an increase in the production of mineral-based structural materials "


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content:
"and enclosure systems that are conventionally associated with mid\u0002and high-rise urban construction morphologies, including concrete, \r\nsteel, aluminium, and glass. This will create a significant spike in GHG \r\nemissions and discharge of CO2 at the beginning of each building \r\nlifecycle, necessitating alternatives (Churkina et al. 2020)."


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"timbers. The parallel-to-grain strength of mass (engineered) timber is \r\nsimilar to that of reinforced concrete (Ramage et al. 2017). As much \r\nas half the weight of a given volume of wood is carbon, sequestered \r\nduring forest growth as a  by-product of photosynthesis (Martin \r\net al. 2018). Mass timber is inflammable, but in large sections forms \r\na self-protective charring layer when exposed to fire that will protect \r\nthe remaining 'cold wood' core. This property, formed as massive \r\nstructural sections, is recognised in the fire safety regulations of \r\nbuilding codes in several countries, which allow mid- and high-rise \r\nbuildings in timber. Ongoing studies have addressed associated \r\nconcerns about the vulnerability of wood to decay and the capacity \r\nof structural timber systems to withstand seismic and storm\u0002related stresses."


id: 5192bec4df917cc5b5dc962b7eb0fb9b
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Transitioning to biomass-based building materials, implemented \r\nthrough the adoption of engineered structural timber products and \r\nassemblies, will succeed as a  mitigation strategy only if working \r\nforests are managed and harvested sustainably (Churkina et al. 2020). \r\nSince future urban growth and the construction of timber cities may \r\nlead to increased timber demand in regions with low forest cover, it \r\nis necessary to systematically analyse timber demand, supply, trade, \r\nand potential competition for agricultural land in different regions \r\n(Pomponi et al. 2020). The widespread adoption of biomass-based \r\nurban construction materials and techniques will demand more \r\nrobust forest and urban land governance and management policies, \r\nas well as internationally standardised carbon accounting methods \r\nto properly value and incentivise forest restoration, afforestation, and \r\nsustainable silviculture."


id: eb625506fdebbc53fa8e5929b4a8319b
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 34529
content:
"Expansion of agroforestry practices may help to reduce land-use \r\nconflicts between forestry and agriculture. Harvesting pressures on \r\nforests can be reduced through the reuse and recycling of wooden \r\ncomponents from dismantled timber buildings. Potential synergies \r\nbetween the carbon sequestration capacity of forests and the \r\nassociated carbon storage capacity of dense mid-rise cities built from \r\nengineered timber offer the opportunity to construct carbon sinks \r\ndeployed at the scale of landscapes, sinks that are at least as durable \r\nas other buildings (Churkina et al. 2020). Policies and practices \r\npromoting design for disassembly and material reuse will increase \r\ntheir durability."


id: 9604051fa805f96d6c1165c5a8004a36
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 21109
content:
"A broad-based substitution of monolithic engineered timber systems \r\nfor steel and concrete in mid-rise urban buildings offers the opportunity \r\nto transform cityscapes from their current status as net sources of \r\nGHG emissions into large-scale, human-made carbon sinks. The \r\nstorage of photosynthetic forest carbon through the substitution of \r\nbiomass-based structural materials for emissions-intensive steel and \r\nconcrete is an opportunity for urban infrastructure. The construction \r\nof timber buildings for 2.3 billion new urban dwellers from 2020 to \r\n2050 could store between 0.01 and 0.68 GtCO2 per year depending \r\non the scenario and the average floor area per capita. Over 30 years, \r\nwood-based construction can accumulate between 0.25 and \r\n20 GtCO2 and reduce cumulative emissions from 4 GtCO2 (range of \r\n7-20 GtCO2) to 2 GtCO2 (range of 0.3-10 GtCO2) (high confidence) \r\n(Churkina et al. 2020)."


id: d3a3fc7d89c53cabf0f392ddc01ea701
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 30823
content:
"The findings of AR6 WGI and WGII have underscored the importance \r\nof urban green and blue infrastructure for reducing the total warming \r\nin urban areas due to its local cooling effect on temperature and \r\nits benefits for climate adaptation (IPCC 2021; Cross-Working Group \r\nBox  2  in this chapter). Urban green and blue infrastructure in the \r\ncontext of nature-based solutions (NBS) involves the protection, \r\nsustainable management, and restoration of natural or modified \r\necosystems while simultaneously providing benefits for human \r\nwell-being and biodiversity (IUCN 2021) (see Glossary for additional \r\ndefinitions). As an umbrella concept, urban NBS integrates established \r\necosystem-based approaches that provide multiple ecosystem \r\nservices and are important in the context of societal challenges \r\nrelated to urbanisation, climate change, and reducing GHG emissions "


id: a8ce686c7d4799fae772849b86e465f5
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 24087
content:
"Figure 8.17 indicates that new and emerging structural assemblies in \r\nengineered timber rival the structural capacity of steel and reinforced \r\nconcrete while offering the benefit of storing significant quantities \r\nof atmospheric carbon (see also Figure 8.22). 'Mass timber' refers to \r\nengineered wood products that are laminated from smaller boards \r\nor lamella into larger structural components such as glue-laminated \r\n(glulam) beams or cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels. Methods \r\nof mass-timber production that include finger-jointing, longitudinal \r\nand transverse lamination with both liquid adhesive and mechanical \r\nfasteners, have allowed for the reformulation of large structural "


id: bf3aff84a22fac121d008118ce388313
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 27639
content:
"through the conservation and expansion of carbon sinks (Naumann \r\net al. 2014; Raymond et al. 2017) (Section 8.1.6.1)."


id: cf9e9843ec4dc604ad0710913b7c54f7
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 30195
content:
"spaces, greenways, and urban agriculture. Key mitigation benefits, \r\nadaptation co-benefits, and SDG linkages are represented by types of \r\ngreen and blue infrastructure. Local implementations of urban green \r\nand blue infrastructure can pursue these linkages while progressing \r\ntoward inclusive sustainable urban planning (SDG 11.3) and the \r\nprovision of safe, inclusive and accessible green and public spaces \r\nfor all (SDG 11.7) (Butcher-Gollach 2018; Pathak and Mahadevia \r\n2018; Rigolon et al. 2018; Anguelovski et al. 2019; Buyana et al. 2019; \r\nAzunre et al. 2021) (Section 8.2)."


id: 20a8fc40e1c32b387cc32548569021d9
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 2584
content:
"Urban green and blue infrastructure includes a  wide variety of \r\noptions, from street trees, parks, and sustainable urban drainage \r\nsystems (Davis and Naumann 2017), to building-related green roofs \r\nor green facades, including green walls and vertical forests (Enzi et al. \r\n2017). Figure 8.18 synthesises urban green and blue infrastructure \r\nbased on urban forests, street trees, green roofs, green walls, blue "


id: f7c4eefc6471647b09fc87e815ec25f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 36503
content:
"Figure 8.18: Key mitigation benefits, adaptation co-benefits, and SDG linkages of urban green and blue infrastructure. Panel (a) illustrates the potential \r\nintegration of various green and blue infrastructure strategies within an urban system."


id: 8754e97ed45d301185524c83d82545b9
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 18834
content:
"times higher compared to boreal and temperate forests (Blais et al. \r\n2005). At the regional level, the estimated carbon storage density \r\nrates of tree cover include a  range of 3.14-14.1 kgC m-2 in the \r\nUnited States, 3.85-5.58 kgC m-2 in South Korea, 1.53-9.67 kgC m-2 \r\nin Barcelona, Spain, 28.1-28.9 kgC m-2 in Leicester, England, and \r\nan estimated 6.82 kgC m-2 in Leipzig, Germany and 4.28 kgC m-2\r\nin Hangzhou, China (Nowak et al. 2013). At the local scale, above\u0002and below-ground tree carbon densities can vary substantially, as \r\nwith carbon in soils and dead woody materials. The conservation \r\nof natural mangroves has been shown to provide urban mitigation \r\nbenefits through carbon sequestration, as demonstrated in the \r\nPhilippines (Abino et al. 2014). Research on urban carbon densities \r\nfrom the Southern Hemisphere will contribute to better estimates."


id: cb9abb28e8cb5720f7fd0e37e53e8404
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 29579
content:
"Due to their potential to store relatively high amounts of carbon \r\ncompared to other types of urban vegetation, as well as their ability to \r\nprovide many climate mitigation co-benefits (high agreement, robust \r\nevidence), natural area protection and natural forest management \r\nin urban areas is an important priority for cities looking to mitigate \r\nclimate change. Globally, urban tree cover averages 26.5%, but \r\nvaries from an average of 12% in deserts to 30.4% in forested \r\nregions (Nowak and Greenfield 2020)."


id: ae79712bc380992e3abaa974add2736e
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 24979
content:
"On a per-tree basis, urban trees offer the most potential to mitigate \r\nclimate change through both carbon sequestration and GHG \r\nemissions reduction from reduced energy use in buildings (Nowak \r\net al. 2017). Maximum possible street tree planting among 245 world \r\ncities could reduce residential electricity use by about 0.9-4.8% \r\nannually (McDonald et al. 2016). Urban forests in the United States \r\nreduce building energy use by 7.2%, equating to an emissions \r\nreduction of 43.8 MtCO2 annually (Nowak et al. 2017)."


id: b65d490ab1a30b220b4c37363a49667e
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 26218
content:
"Urban trees can also mitigate some of the impacts of climate change \r\nby reducing the UHI effect and heat stress, reducing stormwater \r\nrunoff, improving air quality, and supporting health and well-being \r\nin areas where the majority of the world's population resides \r\n(Nowak and Dwyer 2007). Urban forest planning and management \r\ncan maximise these benefits for present and future generations by \r\nsustaining optimal tree cover and health (also see SDG linkages in \r\nFigure 8.4). Urban and peri-urban agriculture can also have economic \r\nbenefits from fruit, ornamental, and medicinal trees (Gopal and \r\nNagendra 2014; Lwasa 2017; Lwasa et al. 2018)."


id: 473bb6378e6b28c6dffd43c03419ba18
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 8588
content:
"Urban tree carbon storage is highly dependent on biome. For example, \r\ncarbon sequestered by vegetation in Amazonian forests is two to five "


id: 9ffa43b54a8fd2696bcc13cb87ff2a20
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 22707
content:
"The structure, composition, extent, and growing conditions of vegetation in cities has an influence on their potential for mitigating \r\nclimate change (Pregitzer et al. 2021). Urban natural areas, particularly forested natural areas, grow in patches and contain many of \r\nthe same components as non-urban forests, such as high tree density, down woody material, and regenerating trees (Box 8.2, Figure 1)."


id: d48651e1bde319dcbcf120c8d6719bf3
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Within urban natural areas, the amount of carbon stored varies widely based on vegetation type, tree density, and the species \r\ncomposition (Box 8.2, Figure 1). The oak-hardwood forest type is one of the most abundant in New York City's natural areas and is \r\ncharacterised by large and long-lived native hardwood tree species, with relatively dense wood. These forests store an estimated \r\n311.5 MgC ha-1. However, non-native exotic invasive species can be prevalent in the understory vegetation layer (<1m height), and \r\naccount for about 50% of cover in New York City (Pregitzer et al. 2019b)."


id: ceccc190e5cc4bbb8fbc6e78041ed90f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"This could lead to a trajectory where exotic understory species, \r\nwhich are often herbaceous, out-compete regenerating trees in \r\nthe understory layer, alter the soil (Ward et al. 2020), and alter the \r\nforest canopy (Matthews et al. 2016). A change in New York City's \r\nvegetation structure and composition to a more open vegetation \r\ntype could reduce the carbon storage by over half (open grassland \r\n120.1 MgC ha-1)."


id: 56eb7911d56812d30b79063b7e16a5e0
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 11149
content:
"When compared to estimates of carbon storage presented \r\nin other studies, the components (pools) of the natural area \r\nforests in New York City store carbon in similar proportions to \r\nother non-urban forests (see Table 1). This might suggest that in \r\nother geographies, similar adjacent non-urban forest types may \r\nstore similar carbon stocks per unit area (medium confidence). \r\nHowever, despite similarities to non-urban forests, the urban \r\ncontext can lead to altered forest function and carbon cycling \r\nthat should be considered. For example, trees growing in urban \r\nareas have been observed to grow at much higher rates due to \r\nhigher access to light, nutrients, and increased temperatures \r\n(Gregg et al. 2003; Reinmann et al. 2020)."


id: 964b725955577d4290d422d48d3b1717
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Higher growth rates coupled with the UHI effect have also \r\nbeen suggested to yield greater evaporative cooling by urban \r\ncanopies relative to rural forests (Winbourne et al. 2020). Based \r\non estimates in New York City, it is likely that the majority of \r\ntree biomass, and carbon in trees in cities, could be found in \r\nurban natural area forest patches (medium agreement, limited \r\nevidence). More research is needed to map urban natural areas, \r\nassess vegetation, and differentiate tree canopy types (natural \r\nversus non-natural) at fine scales within many cities and \r\ngeographies. Accurate maps, as well as greater understanding of \r\ndefinitions of urban canopies and vegetation, could lead to better \r\naccounts for carbon stocks and the many other unique benefits \r\nthey provide (Raciti et al. 2012; Pregitzer et al. 2019a)."


id: 243057f310881ebcdae08c557655d350
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Despite this potential, natural areas are inherently a minority land\u0002use type in cities and should be viewed along with other types \r\nof urban tree canopy that occur in more designed environments \r\nthat might out-perform natural areas in other ecosystem services. \r\nThe mosaic of vegetation characteristics and growing conditions \r\nwill yield different ecosystem services across cities (Pataki et al. \r\n2011) and should be an important consideration in planning, \r\nmanagement, and policy in the future."


id: 2fe2fd4870ea0166fd35d4138cc55764
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Box 8.2, Table 1: A selection of benchmark reference estimates of different carbon pools sampled and the related urban considerations to \r\ncontextualise the results from New York City (NYC), United States (USA) natural area carbon stocks. The benchmark estimates are intended to provide \r\na point of reference to help contextualise the calculations for carbon pools in NYC's forests. Forest carbon is highly variable and dependent on microclimatic conditions \r\nsuch as moisture, microbial communities, and nutrient availability, all of which can be impacted by human activity in urban or altered environments. Standard errors \r\nand 95% confidence intervals can be found in Pregitzer et al. (2021). DBH: diameter at breast height; DWM: down woody material; CWM: coarse woody material and \r\nFWM: fine woody material. Source: Pregitzer et al. (2021)."


id: e57aec7e84f11145986180259c43b579
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"a  temperature difference between air temperature outside and \r\nbehind a green wall of up to 10degC, with an average difference of 5degC \r\nin Mediterranean contexts in Europe (Perini et al. 2017). The potential \r\nof saving energy for air conditioning by green facades can be around \r\n26% in summer months. Considerations of the spatial context are \r\nessential given their dependence on climatic conditions (Susca 2019). \r\nCities are diverse and emissions savings potentials depend on several \r\nfactors, while the implementation of green roofs or facades may be \r\nprevented in heritage structures."


id: 3f7cb2f912eabdf7225d4088f55ca272
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 7376
content:
"Green roofs and green walls have potential to mitigate air and \r\nsurface temperature, improve thermal comfort, and mitigate UHI \r\neffects (Jamei et al. 2021; Wong et al. 2021), while lowering the \r\nenergy demand of buildings (Susca 2019) (Figure 8.18). Green roofs \r\nhave the highest median cooling effect in dry climates (3degC) and \r\nthe lowest cooling effect in hot, humid climates (1degC) (Jamei et al. \r\n2021). These mitigation potentials depend on numerous factors and \r\nthe scale of implementation. The temperature reduction potential \r\nfor green roofs when compared to conventional roofs can be about \r\n4degC in winter and about 12degC during summer conditions (Bevilacqua \r\net al. 2016). Green roofs can reduce building heating demands by \r\nabout 10-30% compared to conventional roofs (Besir and Cuce \r\n2018), 60-70% compared to black roofs, and 45-60% compared to \r\nwhite roofs (Silva et al. 2016). Green walls or facades can provide "


id: 24340158ecc3105219ee593740b9ef22
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Green roofs have been shown to have beneficial effects in stormwater \r\nreduction (Andres-Domenech et al. 2018). A global meta-analysis of \r\n75 international studies on the potential of green roofs to mitigate \r\nrunoff indicate that the runoff retention rate was on average \r\n62% but with a wide range (0-100%) depending on a number of \r\ninterdependent factors (Zheng et al. 2021). These factors relate to the "


id: 5b53c6593dae6a223601aac14a29d9f7
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"characteristics of the rainfall event (e.g., intensity) and characteristics \r\nof the green roof (e.g., substrate, vegetation type, and size), and of the \r\nclimate and season type. A hydrologic modelling approach applied \r\nto an Italian case demonstrated that implementing green roofs may \r\nreduce peak runoff rates and water volumes by up to 35% in a 100% \r\ngreen roof conversion scenario (Masseroni and Cislaghi 2016)."


id: 7e0416b4a38be54a7be288deafdc53c9
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 17399
content:
"Changes in behaviour across all areas (e.g., transport, buildings, food) \r\ncould reduce an individual's emissions by 5.6-16.2% relative to the \r\naccumulated GHG emissions from 2011 to 2050 in a baseline scenario \r\nmodelled with the Global Change Assessment Model (van  de Ven \r\net al. 2018). In other models, behaviour change in transport and \r\nresidential energy use could reduce emissions by 2 GtCO2-eq in 2030 \r\ncompared to 2019 (IEA 2020b) (Chapter  5). Voluntary behaviour \r\nchange can support emissions reduction, but behaviours that are \r\nnot convenient to change are unlikely to shift without changes to \r\npolicy (Skold et al. 2018). Cities can increase the capability of citizens \r\nto make sustainable choices by making these choices less onerous, \r\nthrough avenues such as changing urban form to increase locational \r\nand mobility options and providing feedback mechanisms to support \r\nsocio-behavioural change."


id: fd50cf727f9c4dbf5e04435c62572918
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Transport emissions can be reduced by options including \r\ntelecommuting (0.3%), taking closer holidays (0.5%), avoiding \r\nshort flights (0.5%), using public transit (0.7%), cycling (0.6%), \r\ncar sharing (1.1%), and carpool commuting (1.2%); all reduction \r\nestimates reflect cumulative per capita emission savings relative to \r\nbaseline emissions for the period 2011-2050, and assume immediate \r\nadoption of behavioural changes (van de Ven et al. 2018). Cities can \r\nsupport voluntary shift to walking, cycling, and transit instead of car \r\nuse through changes to urban form, such as TOD (Kamruzzaman et al. \r\n2015), increased density of form with co-location of activities (Ma et al. \r\n2015; Ding et al. 2017; Duranton and Turner 2018; Masoumi 2019), \r\nand greater intersection density and street integration (Koohsari \r\net al. 2016). Mechanisms such as providing financial incentives or \r\ndisincentives for car use can also be effective in reducing emissions \r\n(Wynes et al. 2018) (Section 8.4.2)."


id: b23cb9a9692ea5e078ca4e1b3b9ee4af
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updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 25546
content:
"Adopting energy efficient practices in buildings could decrease global \r\nbuilding energy demand in 2050 by 33-44% compared to a business\u0002as-usual scenario (Levesque et al. 2019). Reductions in home energy \r\nuse can be achieved by reducing floor area (0.5-3.0%), utilising more \r\nefficient appliances and lighting (2.7-5.0%), optimising thermostat \r\nsettings (8.3-11%), using efficient heating and cooling technologies \r\n(6.7-10%), improving building insulation (2.9-4.0%), optimising "


id: ff1eb995787390b79a0c8a1f603fd83
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 37690
content:
"The waste sector is a significant source of GHG emissions, particularly \r\nCH4 (Gonzalez-Valencia et al. 2016; Nisbet et al. 2019). Currently, the \r\nsector remains the largest contributor to urban emissions after the \r\nenergy sector, even in low-carbon cities (Lu and Li 2019). Since waste \r\nmanagement systems are usually under the control of municipal \r\nauthorities, they are a prime target for city-level mitigation efforts \r\nwith co-benefits (EC 2015, 2020; Gharfalkar et al. 2015; Herrero and \r\nVilella 2018; Zaman and Ahsan 2019). Despite general agreement \r\non mitigation impacts, quantification remains challenging due to \r\ndiffering assumptions for system boundaries and challenges related \r\nto measuring avoided waste (Zaman and Lehmann 2013; Bernstad \r\nSaraiva Schott and Canovas 2015; Matsuda et al. 2018)."


id: 4d9a5a22a02384c58b344a60cd6d4288
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Spatial planning, urban form, and infrastructure can be utilised to \r\ndeliberately increase both locational and mobility options for socio\u0002behavioural change in support of urban mitigation. The mitigation \r\nimpacts of active travel can include a reduction of mobility-related \r\nlifecycle CO2 emissions by about 0.5 tonnes over a  year when an \r\naverage person cycles one trip per day more, and drives one trip per \r\nday less, for 200 days a year (Brand et al. 2021). Urban areas that \r\ndevelop and implement effective 15/20-minute city programmes \r\nare very likely to reduce urban energy use and multiply emission \r\nreductions, representing an important cascading effect."


id: 882b8df658d64d1ce589a479a6a7bbb
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"The generation and composition of waste varies considerably from \r\nregion to region and city to city. So do the levels of institutional \r\nmanagement, infrastructure, and (informal) work in waste disposal \r\nactivities. Depending on context, policy priorities are directed towards \r\nreducing waste generation and transforming waste to energy or \r\nother products in a circular economy (Diaz 2017; Ezeudu and Ezeudu \r\n2019; Joshi et al. 2019; Calderon Marquez and Rutkowski 2020; \r\nFatimah et al. 2020). Similarly, waste generation, waste collection \r\ncoverage, recycling, and composting rates, as well as the means of \r\nwaste disposal and treatment, differ widely, including the logistics of \r\nurban waste management systems. Multiple factors influence waste \r\ngeneration, and regions with similar urbanisation rates can generate \r\ndifferent levels of waste per capita (Kaza et al. 2018)."


id: 15904f8b38c2f2497c75d00c5f143b57
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"of waste-to-energy depends on the technological choices that are \r\nundertaken (e.g.,  anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction), the \r\nemissions factor of the energy mix that it replaces, and its broader \r\nrole within integrated municipal solid management practices \r\n(Eriksson et al. 2015; Potdar et al. 2016; Yu and Zhang 2016; Soares \r\nand Martins 2017; Alzate-Arias et al. 2018; Islam 2018). The climate \r\nmitigation potential of anaerobic digestion plants can increase when \r\npower, heat and/or cold is co-produced (Thanopoulos et al. 2020)."


id: 30c744fa1e54b44ba8a53174f9a0bc4c
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 5098
content:
"Under conventional practices, municipal solid waste is projected to \r\nincrease by about 1.4 Gt between 2016 and 2050, reaching 3.4 Gt \r\nin 2050 (Kaza et al. 2018). Integrated policymaking can increase the \r\nenergy, material, and emissions benefits in the waste management \r\nsector (Hjalmarsson 2015; Fang et al. 2017; Jiang et al. 2017). \r\nOrganisational structure and programme administration poses \r\ndemands for institutional capacity, governance, and cross-sectoral \r\ncoordination for obtaining the maximum benefit (Hjalmarsson \r\n2015; Kalmykova et al. 2016; Conke 2018; Marino et al. 2018; \r\nYang et al. 2018)."


id: 8496eb8e221f46eeb7ddf96d4e2d519f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 18387
content:
"Urban food systems, as well as city-regional production and \r\ndistribution of food, factors into supply chains. Reducing food \r\ndemand from urban hinterlands can have a  positive impact on \r\nenergy and water demand for food production (Eigenbrod and \r\nGruda 2015) (see 'food system' in Glossary). Managing food waste \r\nin urban areas through recycling or reduction of food waste at \r\nsource of consumption would require behavioural change (Gu et al. \r\n2019). Urban governments could also support shifts towards more \r\nclimate-friendly diets, including through procurement policies. These \r\nstrategies have created economic opportunities or have enhanced \r\nfood security while reducing the emissions that are associated with \r\nwaste and the transportation of food. Strategies for managing \r\nfood demand in urban areas would depend on the integration of food \r\nsystems in urban planning."


id: aec6affabc4fbc751ae29d3d0f4754e2
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"The informal sector plays a  critical role in waste management, \r\nparticularly but not exclusively in developing countries (Linzner \r\nand Lange 2013; Dias 2016). Sharing of costs and benefits, \r\nand  transforming informality of waste recycling activities into \r\nprogrammes, can support distributional effects (Conke 2018; \r\nGrove et al. 2018). Balancing centralised and decentralised waste \r\nmanagement options along low-carbon objectives can address \r\npotential challenges in transforming informality (de Bercegol and \r\nGowda 2019). Overall, the positive impacts of waste management \r\non employment and economic growth can be increased when \r\ninformality is transformed to stimulate employment opportunities for \r\nvalue-added products with an estimated 45 million jobs in the waste \r\nmanagement sector by 2030 (Alzate-Arias et al. 2018; Coalition for \r\nUrban Transitions 2020; Soukiazis and Proenca 2020)."


id: c8b4f4e01333b896192bd73a6ca1555a
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 29134
content:
"Urban and peri-urban agriculture and forestry is pursued by both \r\ndeveloping and some developed country cities. There is increasing \r\nevidence for economically feasible, socially acceptable, and \r\nenvironmentally supportive urban and peri-urban agricultural \r\nenterprises although these differ between cities (Brown 2015; \r\nEigenbrod and Gruda 2015; Blay-Palmer et al. 2019; De la Sota \r\net al. 2019). The pathways include integrated crop-livestock systems, \r\nurban agroforestry systems, aquaculture-livestock-crop systems, and \r\ncrop systems (Lwasa et al. 2015), while the mitigation potential of \r\nurban and peri-urban agriculture has medium agreement and low \r\nevidence. Strategies for urban food production in cities have also \r\nrelied on recycling nutrients from urban waste and utilisation of \r\nharvested rainwater or wastewater."


id: e4e5b104cb2631ef68321ea96389325f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Urban-rural linkages, especially through waste, food, and water, are \r\nprominent elements of the urban system, given that cities are open \r\nsystems that depend on their hinterlands for imports and exports \r\n(Pichler et al. 2017), and include resources, products for industrial \r\nproduction or final use (Section 8.1.6). As supply chains are becoming \r\nincreasingly global in nature, so are the resource flows with the \r\nhinterlands of cities. In addition to measures within the jurisdictional \r\nboundaries of cities, cities can influence large upstream emissions \r\nthrough their supply chains, as well as through activities that rely \r\non resources outside city limits. The dual strategy of implementing \r\nlocal actions and taking responsibility for the entire supply chains \r\nof imported and exported goods can reduce GHG emissions outside of \r\na city's administrative boundaries (Figure 8.15)."


id: c11b3e41bfa34506959525cbeb727135
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
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vector_id: 27959
content:
"Systems for water reallocation between rural areas and urban areas \r\nwill require change by leveraging technological innovations for water \r\ncapture, water purification, and reducing water wastage either by \r\nplugging leakages or changing behaviour in regard to water use \r\n(Eigenbrod and Gruda 2015; Prior et al. 2018). Reducing energy \r\nuse for urban water systems involves reducing energy requirements \r\nfor water supply, purification, distribution, and drainage (Ahmad \r\net al. 2020). Various levels of rainwater harvesting in urban settings \r\nfor supplying end-use water demands or supporting urban food \r\nproduction can reduce municipal water demands, including by up to \r\n20% or more in Cape Town (Fisher-Jeffes et al. 2017)."


id: c43c29d77ca4077790e76c135f50c40b
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 28441
content:
"Waste prevention, minimisation, and management provides the \r\npotential of alleviating resource usage and upstream emissions from \r\nurban settlements (Swilling et al. 2018; Chen et al. 2020a; Harris \r\net al. 2020). Integrated waste management and zero-waste targets \r\ncan allow urban areas to maximise the mitigation potential while \r\nreducing pressures on land use and the environment. This mitigation \r\noption reduces emissions due to (i) avoided emissions upstream in \r\nthe supply chain of materials based on measures for recycling and the \r\nreuse of materials; (ii) avoided emissions due to land-use changes as \r\nwell as emissions that are released into the atmosphere from waste \r\ndisposal; and (ii) avoided primary energy (see Glossary) spending and \r\nemissions. Socio-behavioural change that reduces waste generation, \r\ncombined with technology and infrastructure according to the \r\nwaste hierarchy, can be especially effective. The mitigation potential "


id: a6adac63381abcc3cc9575da193d8912
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"There are two broad categories of urban mitigation strategies. \r\nOne is from the perspective of key sectors, including clean energy, \r\nsustainable transport, and construction (Rocha et al. 2017; Alvarez \r\nFernandez 2018; Magueta et al. 2018; Seo et al. 2018; Waheed "


id: 45660abd492cc0a6146d770bd473d6c
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"across urban sectors is greater than the net sum of individual \r\ninterventions due to the potential of realising synergies when realised \r\nin tandem, such as urban energy infrastructure and renewable \r\nenergy (Sethi et al. 2020). Similarly, system-wide interventions, such \r\nas sustainable urban form, are important for increasing the GHG \r\nabatement potential of interventions based on individual sectoral \r\nprojects (Sethi et al. 2020). Overall, the pursuit of inter-linkages \r\namong urban  interventions is important for accelerating GHG \r\nreductions in urban areas (Sethi et al. 2020); this is also important for \r\nreducing reliance on carbon capture and storage technologies (CCS) \r\nat the global scale (Figures 8.15 and 8.21)."


id: 46c56aa190203a8e87f63e1f912e83fb
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"et al. 2018); the coupling of these sectors can be enabled through \r\nelectrification (Section  8.4.3.1). The other looks at the needs for \r\nemissions through a more systematic or fundamental understanding \r\nof urban design, urban form, and urban spatial planning (Wang et al. \r\n2017; Privitera et al. 2018), and proposes synergistic scenarios for \r\ntheir integration for carbon neutrality (Ravetz et al. 2020)."


id: d946957eb589e5cb60e2a346a3d4d5c2
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 31694
content:
"Single-sector analysis in low-carbon urban planning examines \r\nsolutions in supply, demand, operations, and assets management \r\neither from technological efficiency or from a  system approach. \r\nFor example, the deployment of renewable energy technologies \r\nfor urban mitigation can be evaluated in detail and the transition \r\nto zero-carbon energy in energy systems and EVs in the transport \r\nsector can bring about a broad picture for harvesting substantial low\u0002carbon potentials through urban planning (high agreement, robust \r\nevidence) (Alvarez Fernandez 2018; Tarigan and Sagala 2018)."


id: 907b26354aa1442253330434e6afaa8
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 20265
content:
"The effects of urban carbon lock-in on land use, energy demand, \r\nand emissions vary depending on national circumstances (Wang \r\net al. 2017; Pan 2020). Systematic consideration of urban spatial \r\nplanning and urban forms, such as polycentric urban regions and \r\nrational urban population density, is essential not only for liveability \r\nbut also for achieving net-zero GHG emissions as it aims to shorten \r\ncommuting distances and is able to make use of NBS for energy and \r\nresilience (high agreement, medium evidence). However, crucial \r\nknowledge gaps remain in this field. There is a shortage of consistent \r\nand comparable GHG emissions data at the city level and a  lack \r\nof in-depth understanding of how urban renewal and design can \r\ncontribute to carbon neutrality (Mi et al. 2019)."


id: 2ea254e126ba879d3847884591d0d79b
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"The feasibility of upscaling multiple response options depends on \r\nthe urban context as well as the stage of urban development, with \r\ncertain stages providing additional opportunities over others (Dienst \r\net al. 2015; Maier 2016; Affolderbach and Schulz 2017; Roldan\u0002Fontana et al. 2017; Zhao et al. 2017a; Beygo and Yuzer 2017; Lwasa \r\n2017; Pacheco-Torres et al. 2017; Alhamwi et al. 2018; Kang and Cho \r\n2018; Lin et al. 2018; Collaco et al. 2019) (Figures  8.19 and 8.21, \r\nand Section 8.SM.2)."


id: cce532b4e58626f89621284638558a50
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updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"An assessment of opportunities suggests that strategies for material \r\nefficiency that cross-cut sectors will have greater impact than those \r\nthat focus one-dimensionally on a  single sector (UNEP IRP 2020). \r\nIn the urban context, this implies using less material by the design \r\nof physical infrastructure based on light-weighting and down-sizing, \r\nmaterial substitution, prolonged use, as well as enhanced recycling, \r\nrecovery, remanufacturing, and reuse of materials and related \r\ncomponents. For example, light-weight design in residential buildings \r\nand passenger vehicles can enable about 20% reductions in lifecycle \r\nmaterial-related GHG emissions (UNEP IRP 2020)."


id: d00379b17b148611a6e301c9c1bb1f59
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"The context of urban areas as the nexus of both sectors (i.e., energy, \r\nand urban form and planning) underlines the role of urban planning \r\nand policies in contributing to reductions in material-related GHG \r\nemissions while enabling housing and mobility services for the benefit \r\nof inhabitants. In addition, combining resource efficiency measures \r\nwith strategic densification can increase the GHG reduction potential \r\nand lower resource impacts. While resource efficiency measures are \r\nestimated to reduce GHG emissions, land use, water consumption, \r\nand metal use impacts from a  lifecycle assessment perspective \r\nby 24-47% over a  baseline, combining resource efficiency with \r\nstrategic densification can increase this range to about 36-54% \r\nover the baseline for a sample of 84 urban settlements worldwide \r\n(Swilling et al. 2018)."


id: f8a0d11599622341385b58b73069e8d7
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"opportunities (Pan et al. 2015; Gaustad et al. 2018; Sovacool et al. \r\n2020). These include public-private partnerships between consumers \r\nand producers, financial and institutional support, and networking \r\nfor stakeholders like entrepreneurs, so as to increase accessibility and \r\nefficiency of recycling for consumers by providing a clear path from \r\nconsumer waste back to the producers (Pan et al. 2015; Prendeville \r\net al. 2018; Fratini et al. 2019). Box  8.3 discusses the mitigation \r\nbenefits of coordination between local and central government in \r\nthe context of Shanghai's GHG emissions reduction goals."


id: a58abf6ef6a49a38169f02419fbdcc4a
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"IPCC SR1.5 identified multi-level governance (see Glossary for \r\nfull definition) as an enabling condition that facilitates systemic \r\ntransformation consistent with keeping global temperatures below \r\n1.5degC (IPCC 2018a, pp. 18-19). The involvement of governance at \r\nmultiple levels is necessary to enable cities to plan and implement \r\nemissions reductions targets (high confidence) (Seto et al. 2021) \r\n(Boxes  8.3 and 8.4). Further, regional, national, and international \r\nclimate goals are most impactful when local governments are \r\ninvolved alongside higher levels, rendering urban areas key foci of \r\nclimate governance more broadly (high confidence) (Fuhr et al. 2018; \r\nKern 2019; Hsu et al. 2020b)."


id: eed078244176e5ab2b38009586754e47
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Still, there are constraints on urban autonomy that might limit urban \r\nmitigation influence. The capacity of subnational governments to \r\nautonomously pursue emissions reductions on their own depends \r\non different political systems and other aspects of multi-level \r\ngovernance, such as innovation, legitimacy, and institutional fit, \r\nas well as the resources, capacity, and knowledge available to \r\nsubnational technicians and other officials (Widerberg and Pattberg \r\n2015; Valente de Macedo et al. 2016; Green 2017; Roger et al. 2017). \r\nFinancing is considered one of the most crucial facets of urban \r\nclimate change mitigation. It is also considered one of the biggest \r\nbarriers, given the limited financial capacities of local and regional \r\ngovernments (Sections 8.5.4 and 8.5.5)."


id: 672c54511ee13440dbe11f4c640e6cea
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Since AR5, multi-level governance has grown in influence within the \r\nliterature and has been defined as a framework for understanding the \r\ncomplex interaction of the many players involved in GHG generation \r\nand mitigation across geographic scales  - the 'vertical' levels of \r\ngovernance from neighbourhoods to the national and international \r\nlevels, and those 'horizontal' networks of non-state and subnational \r\nactors at various scales (Corfee-Morlot et al. 2009; Seto et al. 2014; \r\nCastan Broto 2017b; Fuhr et al. 2018; Peng and Bai 2018; Kern 2019), \r\nas well as the complex linkages between them (Vedeld et al. 2021). \r\nThis more inclusive understanding of climate governance provides \r\nmultiple pathways through which urban actors can engage in climate \r\npolicy to reduce emissions."


id: 3249e768013832f022b53725c940c064
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"A multi-level, multi-player framework highlights both the \r\nopportunities and constraints on local autonomy to engage in urban \r\nmitigation efforts (Castan Broto 2017b; Fuhr et al. 2018; Vedeld \r\net al. 2021). When multiple actors  - national, regional, and urban \r\npolicymakers, as well as non-state actors and civil society  - work \r\ntogether to exploit the opportunities, it leads to the most impactful \r\nmitigation gains (Melica et al. 2018). This framework also highlights \r\nthe multiple paths and potential synergies available to actors who \r\nwish to pursue mitigation policies despite not having a full slate of \r\nenabling conditions (Castan Broto 2017b; Keller 2017; Fuhr et al. \r\n2018; Hsu et al. 2020b,a; Seto et al. 2021)."


id: dc4b7ae7b2b20cee8cf5111d412acbf3
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"For example, Sections 8.4.3. and 8.4.5 highlight how instigating the \r\nelectrification of urban energy systems requires a 'layered' approach \r\nto policy implementation across different levels of governance (see \r\nSection  8.4.3.1 for specific policy mechanisms associated with \r\nelectrification), with cities playing a  key role in setting standards, \r\nparticularly through mechanisms like building codes (Hsu et al. \r\n2020c; Salvia et al. 2021), as well as through facilitation between \r\nstakeholders (e.g., consumers, government, utilities) to advocate for \r\nzero-emissions targets (Linton et al. 2021; Seto et al. 2021). Local \r\ngovernments can minimise trade-offs associated with electrification \r\ntechnologies by enabling circular economy practices and "


id: 15c625dc52021c68e67ef6b447726319
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"representatives and NGOs, who pledged to enact the goals of the \r\nParis Agreement through their own spheres of influence (Cities for \r\nClimate 2015). Similar Summits have been held at each subsequent \r\nUNFCCC COP (Hsu et al. 2018). Like transnational climate networks, \r\nthese platforms provide key opportunities to local governments to \r\nfurther their own mitigation goals, engage in knowledge transfer \r\nwith other cities and regions, and shape policies at higher levels of \r\nauthority (Cities for Climate 2015; Castan Broto 2017b)."


id: f582035cf7f2dc6159acabb70597958a
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"As a growing megacity in the Global South, Shanghai represents the challenge of becoming low carbon despite its economic growth \r\nand population size (Chen et al. 2017). Shanghai was designated as one of the pilot low-carbon cities by the central government. \r\nThe city utilised a coordination mechanism for joining fragmented policymaking across the city's economy, energy, and environment. \r\nThe coordination mechanism was supported by a direct fund that enabled implementation of cross-sector policies beyond a single\u0002sector focus across multiple institutions while increasing capacity for enabling a  low-carbon transition for urban sustainability \r\n(Peng and Bai 2020)."


id: ae00a746542c544146ae5eea3bdde0c3
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"In Shanghai, coordination between the central and local governments had an instrumental role for encouraging low-carbon policy \r\nexperimentation. Using a nested governance framework, the central government provided target setting and performance evaluation \r\nwhile the local government initiated pilot projects for low-carbon development. The policy practices in Shanghai surpassed the top\u0002down targets and annual reporting of GHG emissions, including carbon labelling standards at the local level, pilot programme for \r\ntransitioning sub-urban areas, and the engagement of public utilities (Peng and Bai 2018)."


id: fd4d813cde3b6dd7bbff8b28c0a7e849
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"New policy measures in Shanghai were built upon a  series of related policies from earlier, ranging from general energy saving \r\nmeasures to air pollution reduction. This provided a  continuum of policy learning for implementing low-carbon policy measures. \r\nAn earlier policy was a green electricity scheme based on the Jade Electricity Program while the need for greater public awareness was \r\none aspect requiring further attention in policy design (Baeumler et al. 2012), supporting policy-learning for policies later on. The key \r\npoint here is that low-carbon policies were built on and learned from earlier policies with similar goals."


id: ba58b7d38949903ab5e3a3c3fbe44e84
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content:
"Trends during 1998 and 2015 indicate that energy intensity decreased from about 130 tonnes per million RMB to about 45 tonnes \r\nper million RMB and carbon intensity decreased from about 0.35 Mt per billion RMB to 0.10 Mt per billion RMB (Peng and Bai 2018). \r\nThese impacts on energy and carbon intensities represent progress, while challenges remain. Among the challenges are the need \r\nfor investment in low-carbon technology and increases in urban carbon sinks (Yang and Li 2018) while cross-sector interaction and \r\ncomplexity are increasing."


id: 5a7107ccf9c48228c8f316b27a30f2d9
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"includes 260 governments pledging goals to keep global temperature \r\nrise below 2degC, is estimated to reduce emissions by 4.2 GtCO2-eq in \r\n2030, compared to a current policy scenario (Kuramochi et al. 2020)."


id: 68861a273953753d48f0fb64c43ab3ce
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Some studies suggest that subnational mitigation actions (Roelfsema \r\n2017; Kuramochi et al. 2020) are in addition to national government \r\nmitigation efforts and can therefore reduce emissions even beyond \r\ncurrent national policies, helping to 'bridge the gap' between emissions \r\ntrajectories consistent with least-cost scenarios for limiting temperature \r\nrise below 1.5degC or 2degC (Blok et al. 2012). In some countries, such as \r\nthe United States, where national climate policies have been curtailed, \r\nthe potential for cities' and regions' emissions reduction pledges to \r\nmake up the country's Nationally Determined Contribution under the \r\nParis Agreement is assessed to be significant (Kuramochi et al. 2020)."


id: 71f45b8dcf1c3f375c466c10464713f6
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content:
"These estimates are also often contingent on assumptions that \r\nsubnational actors fulfil their pledges and that these actions do \r\nnot result in rollbacks in climate action (i.e., weakening of national "


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"climate legislation) from other actors or rebound in emissions growth \r\nelsewhere, but data tracking or quantifying the likelihood of their \r\nimplementation remains rare (Chan et al. 2018; Hsu et al. 2019; Hale \r\net al. 2020; Kuramochi et al. 2020). Reporting networks may attract \r\nhigh-performing cities, suggesting an artificially high level of cities \r\ninterested in taking climate action or piloting solutions that may not \r\nbe effective elsewhere (van der Heijden 2018). These studies could \r\nalso present a  conservative view of potential mitigation impact \r\nbecause they draw upon publicly reported mitigation actions and \r\ninventory data, excluding subnational actors that may be taking \r\nactions but not reporting them (Kuramochi et al. 2020). The nuances \r\nof likelihood, and the drivers and obstacles of climate action across \r\ndifferent contexts is a key source of uncertainty around subnational \r\nactors' mitigation impacts. "


id: 477b19c48d8e63a56391a433b76a9e62
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"to reduce their GHG emissions and improve environmental quality \r\nmore generally, independent of national policy; (ii) encouraging \r\nknowledge transfer between member cities and regions; and \r\n(iii) acting as platforms of national and international policy influence \r\n(Castan Broto 2017b; Fuhr et al. 2018)."


id: 357a55c90f584d7a8d62d43b2d610b30
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 5821
content:
"As of 2019, more than 10,000 cities and regions (Hsu et al. 2020a) have \r\nrecorded participation in a transnational or cooperative climate action \r\nnetwork, which are voluntary membership networks of a  range of \r\nsubnational governments such as cities, as well as regional governments \r\nlike states and provinces (Hsu et al. 2020a). These organisations, often \r\noperating across and between national boundaries, entail some type \r\nof action on climate change. Among the most prominent climate \r\nnetworks are GCoM, ICLEI, and C40, all of which ask their members to \r\nadopt emission reduction commitments, develop climate action plans, \r\nand regularly report on emissions inventories."


id: 474a04b03577b984eb3eaeda3d58504c
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 8601
content:
"While these networks have proven to be an important resource \r\nin local-level mitigation, their long-term effects and impact at \r\nlarger scales is less certain (Valente de Macedo et al. 2016; Fuhr \r\net al. 2018). Their influence is most effective when multiple levels \r\nof governance are aligned in mitigation policy. Nevertheless, these \r\ngroups have become essential resources to cities and regions with \r\nlimited institutional capacity and support (for more on transnational \r\nclimate networks and transnational governance more broadly, see \r\nSections 13.5 and 14.5)."


id: 7da0fbb4a915c7511c256f26d81f924d
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"Municipal and regional networks and agreements have provided \r\na platform for urban actors to engage in international climate policy \r\n(Fraundorfer 2017; Keller 2017; Fuhr et al. 2018; Hsu et al. 2018, \r\n2020b; Westman and Broto 2018; Kern 2019; Seto et al. 2021). Their \r\nimpact comes through (i) providing resources for cities and regions "


id: f98301b2eda53598233157d2e3007807
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"Around the world, net-zero-emissions targets, whether economy-wide or targeting a specific sector (e.g., transport, buildings) or \r\nemissions scope (e.g., direct scope 1, or both scope 1 and 2), have been adopted by at least 826 cities and 103 regions that represent \r\n11% of the global population with 846 million people across six continents (NewClimate Institute and Data-Driven EnviroLab 2020). \r\nIn some countries, the share of such cities and regions has reached a critical mass by representing more than 70% of their total \r\npopulations with or without net-zero-emissions targets at the national level."


id: 8b976b53959b86a511483a7bfc88851b
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"In some cases, the scope of these targets extends beyond net-zero emissions from any given sector based on direct emissions (see \r\nGlossary) and encompass downstream emissions from a consumption-based perspective with 195 targets that are found to represent \r\neconomy-wide targets. These commitments range from 'carbon neutrality' (see Glossary) or net-zero GHG emissions targets, which \r\nentail near elimination of cities' own direct or electricity-based emissions but could involve some type of carbon offsetting, to more \r\nstringent net-zero-emissions goals (Data-Driven EnviroLab and NewClimate Institute 2020) (for related definitions, such as 'carbon \r\nneutrality', 'net-zero CO2 emissions', 'net-zero GHG emissions', and 'offset', see Glossary)."


id: bd8b8d7c161c867d30233cc6aa979268
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"Currently, 43% of the urban areas with net-zero-emissions targets have also put into place related action plans while about 24% have \r\nintegrated net-zero-emissions targets into formal policies and legislation (Data-Driven EnviroLab and NewClimate Institute 2020). \r\nMoreover, thousands of urban areas have adopted renewable energy-specific targets for power, heating/cooling and transport and \r\nabout 600 cities are pursuing 100% renewable energy targets (REN21 2019, 2021) with some cities already achieving it."


id: 9812ae104bcc985fcbc0059cf2254ee
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"The extent of realising and implementing these targets with the collective contribution of urban areas to net-zero-emissions scenarios \r\nwith sufficient timing and pace of emission reductions will require a coordinated integration of sectors, strategies, and innovations \r\n(Swilling et al. 2018; Hsu et al. 2020c; Sethi et al. 2020; UNEP IRP 2020). In turn, the transformation of urban systems can significantly \r\nimpact net-zero-emissions trajectories within mitigation pathways. Institutional capacity, governance, financing, and cross-sector \r\ncoordination is crucial for enabling and accelerating urban actions for rapid decarbonisation."


id: 2a8b78869d688606fd6c7751236881ff
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 4118
content:
"cities tend to rely more on intergovernmental transfers in the form \r\nof stimulus packages for economic recovery. Nonetheless, the risk \r\nof high carbon lock-ins is likely to increase in rapidly growing cities \r\nif long-term urban mitigation strategies are not incorporated into \r\nshort-term economic recovery actions (Granoff et al. 2016; Floater \r\net al. 2017; Colenbrander et al. 2018b; CPI and World Bank 2021; \r\nNegreiros et al. 2021). Indeed, large and complex infrastructure \r\nprojects for urban mitigation are often beyond the capacity of both \r\nnational government and local municipality budgets. Additionally, the \r\nCOVID-19 pandemic necessitates large government expenditures for \r\npublic health programme and decimates municipal revenue sources \r\nfor urban infrastructure projects in cities."


id: 87170c0c8a3296b74e047a6b27aaa187
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 18785
content:
"To meet the multi-trillion-dollar annual investment needs in urban \r\nareas, cities in partnership with international institutions, national \r\ngovernments, and local stakeholders increasingly play a  pivotal \r\nrole in mobilising global climate finance resources for a  range of \r\nlow-carbon infrastructure projects and related urban land use and \r\nspatial planning programmes across key sectors (high confidence). \r\nIn particular, national governments are expected to set up enabling \r\nconditions for the mobilisation of urban climate finance resource by \r\narticulating various goals and strategies, improving pricing, regulation \r\nand standards, and developing investment vehicles and risk sharing \r\ninstruments (Qureshi 2015; Bielenberg et al. 2016; Granoff et al. 2016; \r\nFloater et al. 2017; Sudmant et al. 2017; Colenbrander et al. 2018b; \r\nZhan and de Jong 2018; Hadfield and Cook 2019; CPI and World \r\nBank 2021; Negreiros et al. 2021)."


id: 40dfcfb40e43e6b1a48b889d62521034
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"Indeed, 75% of the global climate finance for both mitigation and \r\nadaptation in 2017 and 2018 took the form of commercial financing \r\n(e.g.,  balance sheets, commercial-rate loans, equity), while 25% \r\ncame in the form of concessionary financing (e.g.,  grants, below\u0002market-rate loans). However, cities in developing countries are \r\nfacing difficulty making use of commercial financing and gaining \r\naccess to international credit markets. Cities without international \r\ncreditworthiness currently rely on local sources, including \r\ndomestic commercial banks (medium evidence, high agreement) \r\n(Global Commission on the Economy and Climate 2014; CCFLA 2015; \r\nFloater et al. 2017; Buchner et al. 2019)."


id: 8037f96fe849b7e726636b8cb5af5570
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 17703
content:
"Cities with creditworthiness have rapidly become issuers of 'green \r\nbonds' eligible for renewable energy, energy efficiency, low-carbon \r\ntransport, sustainable water, waste, and pollution, and other various \r\nclimate mitigation projects across the global regions since 2013. \r\nThe world's green bond market reached USD1 trillion in cumulative \r\nissuance, with issuance of USD280 billion in 2020, during the "


id: 312f6f6855505c818c47fc372f7a45b8
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 5157
content:
"Governments have traditionally financed a  large proportion of \r\ninfrastructure investment. When budget powers remain largely \r\ncentralised, intergovernmental transfers will be needed to fund \r\nlow-carbon infrastructure in cities. During the COVID-19 pandemic, "


id: b67033dc0349770bf05f29f0b88bcde1
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"across sectors in different urban contexts (Suzuki et al. 2015; \r\nChapman 2017; Walters and Gaunter 2017; Berrisford et al. 2018). \r\nLand value capture is expected not only for cities to generate \r\nadditional revenue streams but also to prevent low-density urban \r\nexpansion around city-fringe locations. Inversely, land value capture \r\nis supposed to perform well when accompanied by low-carbon urban \r\nform and private real estate investments along with the application \r\nof green building technologies (robust evidence, high agreement) \r\n(Suzuki et al. 2015; Floater et al. 2017; Colenbrander et al. 2018b)."


id: 98fe6ff36f4fc05e3f89019a1c9c5dc9
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"COVID-19 pandemic. While green municipal bonds still account \r\nfor a small share of the whole green bond market in 2020, scale is \r\npredicted to grow further in emerging markets over the coming years. \r\nGreen municipal bonds have great potential for cities to expand and \r\ndiversify their investor base. In addition, the process of issuing green \r\nmunicipal bonds is expected to promote cross-sector cooperation \r\nwithin a city by bringing together various agencies responsible for \r\nfinance, climate change, infrastructure, planning and design, and \r\noperation. Indeed, the demand for green bonds presently outstrips \r\nsupply as being constantly over-subscripted (robust evidence, high \r\nagreement) (Global Commission on the Economy and Climate 2014; \r\nSaha and D'Almeida 2017; Amundi and IFC 2021)."


id: 29e622b2dc640385e8d052106c0252bc
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"For the implementation of land-based funding, property rights are \r\nessential. However, weak urban-rural governance leads to corruption \r\nin land occupancy and administration, especially in developing \r\ncountries with no land information system or less reliable paper\u0002based land records under a  centralised registration system. The \r\nlack of adequate property rights seriously discourages low-carbon \r\ninfrastructure and real estate investments in growing cities."


id: 9a032a7fb3e9cb1aa6a5e1e8b08d56bd
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"On the other hand, cities without creditworthiness face difficulty \r\nmaking use of commercial financing and getting access to \r\ninternational credit markets (Global Commission on the Economy \r\nand Climate 2014; CCFLA 2015; Floater et al. 2017). The lack of \r\ncreditworthiness is one of the main problems preventing cities \r\nfrom issuing green municipal bonds in developing countries. As \r\na prerequisite for the application of municipal debt-financing, it is an \r\nessential condition for cities to ensure sufficient own revenues from \r\nlow-carbon urbanisation, or the default risk becomes too high for \r\npotential investors. Indeed, many cities in developed countries and \r\nemerging economies have already accumulated substantial amounts \r\nof debts through bond insurances, and ongoing debt payments \r\nprevent new investments in low-carbon infrastructure projects."


id: d28a396e87b434fdcc11d391f937f673
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"The emerging application of blockchain technology for land registry \r\nand real estate investment is expected to change the governance \r\nframework, administrative feasibility, allocative efficiency, public \r\naccountability, and political acceptability of land-based funding \r\nin cities across developed countries, emerging economies, and \r\ndeveloping countries (Graglia and Mellon 2018; Kshetri and Voas \r\n2018). Particularly, the concept of a transparent, decentralised public \r\nledger is adapted to facilitate value-added property transactions on \r\na  P2P basis without centralised intermediate parties and produce \r\nland-based funding opportunities for low-carbon infrastructure and \r\nreal estate development district-wide and city-wide in unconventional \r\nways (Veuger 2017; Nasarre-Aznar 2018)."


id: 589fdce374ec663fd366f67b564d402
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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content:
"National governments and multilateral development banks might \r\nbe able to provide support for debt financing by developing \r\nmunicipal creditworthiness programme and issuing sovereign \r\nbonds or providing national guarantees for investors (Floater et al. \r\n2017). Another problem with green municipal bonds is the lack of \r\naggregation mechanisms to support various small-scale projects in \r\ncities. Asset-backed securities are likely to reduce the default risk for \r\ninvestors through portfolio diversification and create robust pipelines \r\nfor a bundle of small-scale projects (Granoff et al. 2016; Floater et al. \r\n2017; Saha and D'Almeida 2017)."


id: ae8e41eef09faba8d6c081959862e6a3
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 24993
content:
"The consolidation of local transaction records into national or \r\nsupranational registries is likely to support large-scale land \r\nformalisation, but most pilot programmes are not yet at the scale \r\n(Graglia and Mellon 2018). Moreover, the potential application \r\nof blockchain for land-based funding instruments is possibly \r\nassociated with urban form attributes, such as density, compactness, \r\nand land-use mixture, to disincentivise urban expansion and \r\nemissions growth around city-fringe locations (medium confidence) \r\n(Allam and Jones 2019)."


id: aaa4681eccd22c66060aa1287813f638
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 24375
content:
"In principle, the upfront capital costs of various low-carbon \r\ninfrastructure projects, including the costs of urban climate finance \r\n(dividend and interest payments), are eventually transferred to users \r\nand other stakeholders in the forms of taxes, charges, fees, and other \r\nrevenue sources. Nevertheless, small cities in developing countries \r\nare likely to have a small revenue base, most of which is committed \r\nto recurring operating costs, associated with weak revenue collection \r\nand management systems. In recent years, there has been scope to \r\napply not only user-based but also land-based funding instruments \r\nfor the recovery of upfront capital costs (Braun and Hazelroth 2015; \r\nKoscielniak and Gorka 2016; Floater et al. 2017; Colenbrander et al. \r\n2018b; Zhan and de Jong 2018; Zhan et al. 2018a)."


id: 4ac0aab6f43e1ed3f12be381e29e0481
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 9175
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"Irrespective of geography or development level, many cities face \r\nsimilar climate governance challenges such as lacking institutional, \r\nfinancial, and technical capacities (Gouldson et al. 2015; Hickmann \r\nand Stehle 2017; Sharifi et al. 2017; Fuhr et al. 2018). Large-scale \r\nsystem transformations are also deeply influenced by factors outside \r\ngovernance and institutions, such as private interests and power \r\ndynamics (Jaglin 2014; Tyfield 2014). In some cases, these private \r\ninterests are tied up with international flows of capital. At the local \r\nlevel, a  lack of empowerment, high upfront costs, inadequate and \r\nuncertain funding for mitigation, diverse and conflicting policy \r\nobjectives, multiple agencies and actors with diverse interests, high \r\nlevels of informality, and a  siloed approach to climate action are \r\nconstraining factors to mainstreaming climate action (Beermann "


id: aaa6baeb75d255b9345608a120a2385e
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vector_id: 24379
content:
"ultiple dimensions\r\nons (geophysical, env\r\nxtent to which an ind\r\nence. Supplementary \r\nased (Table 8.SM.4). \r\non 11.\r\nEconomic \r\nCosts in 2030 and long term\r\nEffects on employment and \r\neconomic growth\r\nE B E B \r\nStrength of enab\r\n0 50 "


id: b3e79eeef2add176a49fdf179fac52b4
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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"varies through different forms of urban development or 'typologies' \r\n(Figure 8.6). Below, Figure 8.20 distils the typologies of urban growth \r\nacross three categories: emerging, rapidly growing, and established. \r\nUrban growth is relatively stabilised in established urban areas with \r\nmature urban form while newly taking shape in emerging urban areas. \r\nIn contrast, rapidly growing urban areas experience pronounced \r\nchanges in outward and/or upward growth. These typologies are not \r\nmutually exclusive, and can co-exist within an urban system; cities \r\ntypically encompass a spectrum of development, with multiple types \r\nof urban form and various typologies (Mahtta et al. 2019)."


id: 6eb6080a68ac4b5bb6b002f336b8c3d
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 15043
content:
"The way that cities are laid out and built will shape the entry \r\npoints for realising systemic transformation across urban form and \r\ninfrastructure, energy systems, and supply chains. Section  8.3.1 \r\ndiscusses the ongoing trend of rapid urbanisation  - and how it "


id: 57881c89af24b9f77638bfcbfc75f74
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:38
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vector_id: 11266
content:
"Established cities that are compact and walkable are likely to have \r\nlow per capita emissions, and thus can keep emissions low by focusing \r\non electrification of all urban energy services and using urban green \r\nand blue infrastructure to sequester and store carbon while reducing \r\nurban heat stress. Illustrative mitigation strategies with the highest \r\nmitigation potential are decarbonising electricity and energy carriers \r\nwhile electrifying mobility, heating, and cooling (Table  8.3 and \r\nFigure 8.19). Within integrated strategies, the importance of urban \r\nforests, street trees, and green space as well as green roofs, walls, \r\nand retrofits, also have high mitigation potential (Section  8.4.4 \r\nand Figure 8.18)."


id: 2431b762b02b294a3f70f70638d538d9
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 3141
content:
"Mitigation options that involve spatial planning, urban form, and \r\ninfrastructure - particularly co-located and mixed land use, as well as \r\nTOD - provide the greatest opportunities when urban areas are rapidly \r\ngrowing or emerging (Section  8.4.2). Established urban areas that \r\nare already compact and walkable have captured mitigation benefits \r\nfrom these illustrative strategies to various extents. Conversely, \r\nestablished urban areas that are dispersed and auto-centric have \r\nforegone these opportunities, with the exception of urban infill and \r\ndensification that can be used to transform or continue to transform \r\nthe existing urban form. Figure  8.21 underscores that urban \r\nmitigation options and illustrative strategies differ by urban growth \r\ntypologies and urban form. Cities can identify their entry points for \r\nsequencing mitigation strategies."


id: 9ebfac37ec2483e4a218bacbd0147600
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"Established cities that are dispersed and auto-centric are likely to \r\nhave higher per capita emissions and thus can reduce emissions \r\nby focusing on creating modal shift and improving public transit \r\nsystems in order to reduce urban transport emissions, as well \r\nas focusing on infilling and densifying. Only then can the urban \r\nform constraints on locational and mobility options be effective \r\nat reducing transport-based emissions. Among mitigation options \r\nbased on spatial planning, urban form, and infrastructure, urban infill \r\nand  densification has priority. For these cities, the use of urban \r\ngreen and blue infrastructure will be essential to offset residual \r\nemissions that cannot be reduced because their urban form is already \r\nestablished and difficult to change."


id: f0486f4e8ca69f6ff46ac67c3e047d03
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 35307
content:
"The emissions reduction potential of urban mitigation options \r\nfurther varies based on governance contexts, institutional capacity, \r\nand economic structure, as well as human and physical geography. \r\nAccording to the development level, for instance, urban form can \r\nremain mostly planned or unplanned, taking place spontaneously, \r\nwith persistent urban infrastructure gaps remaining (Lwasa \r\net al. 2018; Kareem et al. 2020). Measures for closing the urban \r\ninfrastructure gap while addressing 'leapfrogging' opportunities \r\n(see Glossary) for mitigation and providing co-benefits represent \r\npossibilities for shifting development paths for sustainability \r\n(Cross-Chapter Box 5 in Chapter 4)."


id: a81e6cd08ffe3967cae126e3948fe0c1
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 23963
content:
"Established cities will achieve the largest GHG emissions \r\nsavings by replacing, repurposing, or retrofitting the building \r\nstock, encouraging modal shift, electrifying the urban energy \r\nsystem, as well as infilling and densifying urban areas."


id: 3d8cc46ae6c961102e56515332f936ab
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 7042
content:
"Shifting pathways to low-carbon development for established cities \r\nwith existing infrastructures and locked-in behaviours and lifestyles \r\nis admittedly challenging. Urban infrastructures such as buildings, \r\nroads, and pipelines often have long lifetimes that lock-in emissions, \r\nas well as institutional and individual behaviour. Although the \r\nexpected lifetime of buildings varies considerably by geography, \r\ndesign, and materials, typical lifespans are at minimum 30 years to \r\nmore than 100 years."


id: 29cdbf91104b9d9bed78abf0b958d3c3
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 4006
content:
"Cities where urban infrastructure has already been built have \r\nopportunities to increase energy efficiency measures, prioritise \r\ncompact and mixed-use neighbourhoods through urban regeneration, \r\nadvance the urban energy system through electrification, undertake \r\ncross-sector synergies, integrate urban green and blue infrastructure, \r\nencourage behavioural and lifestyle change to reinforce climate \r\nmitigation, and put into place a wide range of enabling conditions as \r\nnecessary to guide and coordinate actions in the urban system and \r\nits impacts in the global system. Retrofitting buildings with state of \r\nthe art deep-energy retrofit measures could reduce emissions of the \r\nexisting stock by about 30-60% (Creutzig et al. 2016a) and in some \r\ncases up to 80% (Urge-Vorsatz et al. 2020) (Section 8.4.3)."


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vector_id: 29646
content:
"Urban design for existing urban areas includes strategies for urban \r\nenergy transitions for carbon neutrality based on renewable energy, \r\ndistrict heating for the city centre and suburbs, as well as green and \r\nblue interfaces (Pulselli et al. 2021). Integrated modelling approaches \r\nfor urban energy system planning, including land use and transport \r\nand flexible demand-side options, is increased when municipal actors \r\nare also recognised as energy planners (Yazdanie and Orehounig \r\n2021) (Section 8.4.3). Enablers for action can include the co-design of \r\ninfill residential development through an inclusive and participatory \r\nprocess with citizen utilities and disruptive innovation that can \r\nsupport net-zero-carbon power while contributing to 1.5degC pathways, "


id: 6908a7260fb7739e6a89f21d216cef43
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"At the same time, some of the rapidly growing cities in developing \r\ncountries can have existing walkable urban design that can be \r\nmaintained and supported with electrified urban rail plus renewable\u0002energy-based solutions to avoid a shift to private vehicles (Sharma \r\n2018). In addition, community-based distributed renewable electricity \r\ncan be applicable for the regeneration of informal settlements rather \r\nthan more expensive informal settlement clearance (Teferi and \r\nNewman 2018). Scalable options for decentralised energy, water, \r\nand wastewater systems, as well as spatial planning and urban \r\nagriculture and forestry, are applicable to urban settlements across \r\nmultiple regions simultaneously (Lwasa 2017)."


id: 17f2a10458abd8b878083d48e1ff9b72
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 1258
content:
"the SDGs, and affordable housing simultaneously (Wiktorowicz et al. \r\n2018). Cross-sectoral strategies for established cities, including those \r\ntaking place among 120 urban areas, also involve opportunities for \r\nsustainable development (Kilkis 2019, 2021b)."


id: 237aa67a48e51c493a09e918b7d069c5
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 3032
content:
"Rapidly urbanising areas can experience pressure for rapid growth \r\nin urban infrastructure to address growth in population. This \r\nchallenge can be addressed with coordinated urban planning and \r\nsupport from enabling conditions for pursuing effective climate \r\nmitigation (Section  8.5 and Box  8.3). The ability to mobilise low\u0002carbon development will also increase opportunities for capturing \r\nco-benefits for urban inhabitants while reducing embodied and \r\noperational emissions. Transforming urban growth, including its \r\nimpacts on energy and materials, can be carefully addressed with the \r\nintegration of cross-sectoral strategies and policies."


id: f5296dd82216d647870b3c78ddbbf2b0
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 36084
content:
"Rapidly growing cities with new and actively developing \r\ninfrastructures can avoid higher future emissions through \r\nusing urban planning to co-locate jobs and housing, and \r\nachieve compact urban form; leapfrogging to low-carbon \r\ntechnologies; electrifying all urban services, including \r\ntransportation, cooling, heating, cooking, recycling, water \r\nextraction, wastewater recycling, and so on; and preserving \r\nand managing existing green and blue assets."


id: 8f34bf34b3a6efca3033420ef77f3868
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 20069
content:
"New and emerging cities have unparalleled potential to \r\nbecome low- or net-zero-emissions urban areas while \r\nachieving high quality of life by creating compact, co-located, \r\nand walkable urban areas with mixed land use and TOD, that \r\nalso preserve existing green and blue assets."


id: 4447620a79af8301b3619c780c49d56e
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 8165
content:
"The fundamental building blocks that make up the physical attributes \r\nof cities, such as the layout of streets, the size of the city blocks, \r\nthe location of where people live versus where they work, can affect \r\nand lock in energy demand for long time periods (Seto et al. 2016) "


id: a81fc6f7223ccec23637a6472b961242
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"In this context, illustrative mitigation strategies that can serve as \r\na  roadmap for emerging cities includes priorities for co-located \r\nand mixed land use, as well as TOD, within an integrated approach \r\n(Table  8.3 and Figure  8.19). This has cascading effects, including \r\nconserving existing green and blue assets (e.g., forests, grasslands, \r\nwetlands), many of which sequester and store carbon. Priorities \r\nfor decarbonising electricity and energy carriers while electrifying \r\nmobility, heating, and cooling take place within the integrated \r\napproach (Section  8.4.3). Increasing greenways and permeable \r\nsurfaces, especially from the design of emerging urban areas onward, \r\ncan be pursued, also for adaptation co-benefits and linkages with the \r\nSDGs (Section 8.4.4 and Figure 8.18)."


id: f101f432f4cb4ffa41dca7c6df102cb1
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 35413
content:
"(Section  8.4.1). A  large share of urban infrastructures that will be \r\nin place by 2050 has yet to be constructed and their design and \r\nimplementation will determine both future GHG emissions as well as \r\nthe ability to meet mitigation goals (Creutzig et al. 2016a) (Figure 8.10 \r\nand Table 8.1). Thus, there are tremendous opportunities for new and \r\nemerging cities to be designed and constructed to be low-emissions \r\nwhile providing high quality of life for their populations."


id: 3a131bbd5e716fa5eb803e3198099ff9
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 6512
content:
"The UN International Resource Panel (IRP) estimates that building \r\nfuture cities under conventional practices will require a more than \r\ndoubling of material consumption, from 40 billion tonnes annually \r\nin 2010 to about 90 billion tonnes annually by 2050 (Swilling et al. \r\n2018). Thus, the demand that new and emerging cities will place \r\non natural resource use, materials, and emissions can be minimised \r\nand avoided only if urban settlements are planned and built much \r\ndifferently than today, including minimised impacts on land use \r\nbased on compact urban form, lowered use of materials, and related \r\ncross-sector integration, including energy-driven urban design for \r\nsustainable urbanisation."


id: 4882b983a198aaec8a2f2eefa2126d96
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 8779
content:
"Minimising and avoiding raw material demands depends on \r\nalternative options while accommodating the urban population. In \r\naddition, operational emissions that can be committed by new urban \r\ninfrastructure can range between 8.5 GtCO2 and 14 GtCO2 annually \r\nup to 2030 (Erickson and Tempest 2015). Buildings and road networks \r\nare strongly influenced by urban layouts, densities, and specific uses. \r\nCities that are planned and built much differently than today through \r\nlight-weighting, material substitution, resource efficiency, renewable \r\nenergy, and compact urban form, have the potential to support more \r\nsustainable urbanisation and provide co-benefits for inhabitants \r\n(Figures 8.17 and 8.22)."


id: b682838ff1aab8533cf242a79b93f314
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 26233
content:
"Figure  8.22:  Raw material demands and committed emissions from building urban areas. The horizontal bars represent the projected increase in raw \r\nmaterial demands in the year 2050. The vertical bars represent the possible range of committed CO2 emissions in 2030. The importance of alternative solutions to reduce \r\nraw material demands and committed emissions while increasing co-benefits is represented by the circular process on the right-hand side. Ranges for committed emissions \r\nfrom new urban infrastructure are based on Erickson and Tempest (2015) SEI WP 11. Source: drawn using data from Erickson and Tempest (2015) and Swilling et al. (2018)."


id: f5d7bd33ed056b86f004143f991f6654
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 36195
content:
"Integrated scenarios across sectors at the local level can decouple \r\nresource usage from economic growth (Hu et al. 2018) and enable \r\n100% renewable energy scenarios (Zhao et al. 2017a; Bacekovic \r\nand Ostergaard 2018). Relative decoupling is obtained (Kalmykova \r\net al. 2015) with increasing evidence for turning points in per capita \r\nemissions, total emissions, or urban metabolism (Chen et al. 2018b; \r\nShen et al. 2018). The importance of integrating energy and resource \r\nefficiency in sustainable and low-carbon city planning (Dienst \r\net al. 2015), structural changes, as well as forms of disruptive social \r\ninnovation, such as the 'sharing economy' (see Glossary), is also \r\nevident based on analyses for multiple cities, including those that \r\ncan be used to lower the carbon footprints of urban areas relative to \r\nsub-urban areas (Chen et al. 2018a)."


id: 917e82875b82cfadd78706edbfccd4a3
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"economy can also have positive impacts on improving air and \r\nenvironmental quality with related co-benefits for health and well\u0002being (Diallo et al. 2016; Nieuwenhuijsen and Khreis 2016; Shakya \r\n2016; Liu et al. 2017; Ramaswami et al. 2017a; Sun et al. 2018b; \r\nTayarani et al. 2018; Park and Sener 2019; Gonzalez-Garcia et al. \r\n2021). Low-carbon development options can be implemented in ways \r\nthat reduce impacts on water use, including water use efficiency, \r\ndemand management, and water recycling, while increasing water \r\nquality (Koop and van Leeuwen 2015; Topi et al. 2016; Drangert and \r\nSharatchandra 2017; Lam et al. 2017, 2018; Vanham et al. 2017; Kim \r\nand Chen 2018). The ability to enhance biodiversity while addressing \r\nclimate change depends on improving urban metabolism and \r\nbiophilic urbanism towards urban areas that are able to regenerate \r\nnatural capital (Thomson and Newman 2018; IPBES 2019b)."


id: b0de0adb87f16cedf9675df69945f4a4
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 25342
content:
"To minimise carbon footprints, new cities can utilise new intelligence \r\nfunctions as well as changes in energy sources and material \r\nprocesses. Core design strategies of a compact city can be facilitated \r\nby data-driven decision-making so that new urban intelligence \r\nfunctions are holistic and proactive rather than reactive (Bibri 2020). \r\nIn mainstream practices, for example, many cities use environmental \r\nimpact reviews to identify potentially negative consequences of \r\nindividual development projects on environmental conditions on \r\na piecemeal project basis."


id: 45f89c67f8f6c7794c2bddfa8a204d36
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 8396
content:
"There are readily available solutions for low-carbon urban \r\ndevelopment that can be further supported by new and emerging \r\nones, such as tools for optimising the impact of urban form on energy \r\ninfrastructure (Hu et al. 2015; Shi et al. 2017b; Xue et al. 2017; Dobler \r\net al. 2018; Egusquiza et al. 2018; Pedro et al. 2018; Soilan et al. \r\n2018). The costs of low-carbon urban development are manageable, \r\nand enhanced with a  portfolio approach for cost-effective, cost\u0002neutral, and reinvestment options with evidence across different \r\nurban typologies (Colenbrander et al. 2015, 2017; Gouldson et al. \r\n2015; Nieuwenhuijsen and Khreis 2016; Saujot and Lefevre 2016; \r\nSudmant et al. 2016; Brozynski and Leibowicz 2018)."


id: 695b3c7d3aaae08f44fbf7a42e580319
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 14172
content:
"New cities can utilise: system-wide analyses of construction \r\nmaterials, or renewable power sources, that minimise ecosystem \r\ndisruption and energy use, through the use of lifecycle assessments \r\nfor building types permitted in the new city (Ingrao et al. 2019); \r\nurban-scale metabolic impact assessments for neighbourhoods \r\nin the city (Pinho and Fernandes 2019); strategic environmental \r\nassessments (SEAs) that go beyond the individual project and \r\nassess plans for neighbourhoods (Noble and Nwanekezie 2017); or \r\nmodelling of the type and location of building masses, tree canopies \r\nand parks, and temperature (surface conditions) and prevailing winds \r\nprofiles to reduce the combined effects of climate change and UHI \r\nphenomena, thus minimising the need for air conditioning (Matsuo \r\nand Tanaka 2019)."


id: 61b96b719bc714586574c9b889205ecb
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 12945
content:
"Resource-efficient, compact, sustainable, and liveable urban \r\nareas can be enabled with an integrated approach across sectors, \r\nstrategies, and innovations. From a geophysical perspective, the use \r\nof materials with lower lifecycle GHG impacts, including the use of \r\ntimber in urban infrastructure and the selection of urban development \r\nplans with lower material and land demand can lower the emission \r\nimpacts of existing and future cities (Muller et al. 2013; Carpio et al. \r\n2016; Liu et al. 2016a; Ramage et al. 2017; Shi et al. 2017a; Stocchero\r\net al. 2017; Bai et al. 2018; Zhan et al. 2018b; Swilling et al. 2018; \r\nXu et al. 2018b; UNEP IRP 2020) (Figure  8.17). The capacity to \r\nimplement relevant policy instruments in an integrated and \r\ncoordinated manner within a  policy mix while leveraging multi\u0002level support as relevant can increase the enabling conditions for \r\nurban system transformation (Agyepong and Nhamo 2017; Roppongi \r\net al. 2017).  "


id: 7082b66f28f5ac6a7844034b9f71aedb
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 15317
content:
"Information and communications technologies can play an important \r\nrole for integrating mitigation options at the urban systems level \r\nfor achieving zero-carbon cities. Planning for decarbonisation at \r\nthe urban systems level involves integrated considerations of the \r\ninteraction among sectors, including synergies and trade-offs among \r\nhouseholds, businesses, transport, land use, and lifestyles. The \r\nutilisation of big data, artificial intelligence and internet of things \r\n(IoT) technologies can be used to plan, evaluate and integrate \r\nrapidly progressing transport and building technologies, such as "


id: 6423cd82861d65734dc16335fc9ee8d6
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 13319
content:
"autonomous EVs, zero-energy buildings, and districts as an urban \r\nsystem, including energy-driven urban design (Creutzig et al. 2020; \r\nYamagata et al. 2020). Community-level energy sharing systems \r\nwill contribute to realising the decarbonisation potential of urban \r\nsystems at community scale, including in smart cities (Section 4.2.5.9, \r\nBox 10.1, and Cross-Chapter Box 11 in Chapter 16)."


id: 57e112f0860854c29929898155eedb24
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 11329
content:
"density and high volume of public transportation (Layne et al. 2020; \r\nLee et al. 2020). Other research from 913 metropolitan areas shows \r\nthat density is unrelated to COVID-19 infection rates and, in fact, has \r\nbeen inversely related to COVID-19 mortality rates when controlled \r\nfor metropolitan population."


id: bbb2ceb26fb3e539df981ec0a20f981b
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 27085
content:
"Densely populated counties are found to have significantly lower \r\nmortality rates, possibly due to such advantages as better health care \r\nsystems, as well as greater adherence to social-distancing measures \r\n(Hamidi et al. 2020). Sustainable urbanisation and urban infrastructure \r\nthat address the SDGs can also improve preparedness and resilience \r\nagainst future pandemics. For example, long-term exposure to air \r\npollution has been found to exacerbate the impacts of COVID-19 \r\ninfections (Wu et al. 2020b), while urban areas with cleaner air from \r\nclean energy and greenspace, can provide advantages."


id: 15a04371ae598c7ac47e9147b63d5843
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 918
content:
"While there is growing literature on urban NBS, which encompasses \r\nurban green and blue infrastructure in cities, there is still a knowledge \r\ngap regarding how these climate mitigation actions can be \r\nintegrated in urban planning and design, as well as their mitigation \r\npotential, especially for cities that have yet to be built. In moving \r\nforward with the research agenda on cities and climate change \r\nscience, transformation of urban systems will be critical; however, \r\nunderstanding this transformation and how best to assess mitigation \r\naction remain key knowledge gaps (Butcher-Gollach 2018; Pathak \r\nand Mahadevia 2018; Rigolon et al. 2018; Anguelovski et al. 2019; \r\nBuyana et al. 2019; Trundle 2020; Azunre et al. 2021)."


id: ca909dc44384c6a1f38117f9ccbfa62b
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 29435
content:
"Some studies indicate that socio-economic factors, such as poverty, \r\nracial and ethnic disparities, and crowding are more significant than \r\ndensity in COVID-19 spread and associated mortality rate (Borjas \r\n2020; Maroko et al. 2020; Lamb et al. 2021). The evidence for the \r\nconnection between household crowding and the risk of contagion \r\nfrom infectious diseases is also strong. A  2018 World Health \r\nOrganization (WHO) systematic review of the effect of household \r\ncrowding on health concluded that a majority of studies of the risk of \r\nnon-tuberculosis infectious diseases, including flu-related illnesses, \r\nwere associated with household crowding (Shannon et al. 2018)."


id: 29c9596c15a00c33522bdb5bc21d1b66
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 4004
content:
"There is a key knowledge gap in respect to the potential of the informal \r\nsector in developing country cities. Informality extends beyond \r\nillegality of economic activities to include housing, locally developed \r\noff-grid infrastructure, and alternative waste management strategies. \r\nLimited literature and understanding of the mitigation potential of \r\nenhanced informal sector is highlighted in the key research agenda \r\non cities from the Cities and Climate Change Science Conference \r\n(Prieur-Richard et al. 2018)."


id: 89e6fbe6bbb3a067cee724e4302a0bb9
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 19224
content:
"Though preliminary, some studies suggest that urban areas saw \r\nlarger overall declines in emissions because of lower commuter \r\nactivity and associated emissions. For example, researchers have \r\nexplored the COVID-19 impact in the cities of Los Angeles, Baltimore, \r\nWashington, DC, and San Francisco Bay Area in the United States. \r\nIn the San Francisco region, a  decline of 30% in anthropogenic \r\nCO2 was observed, which was primarily due to changes in on-road \r\ntraffic (Turner et al. 2020). Declines in the Washington, DC/Baltimore \r\nregion and in the Los Angeles urban area were 33% and 34%, \r\nrespectively, in the month of April 2020 compared to previous years \r\n(Yadav et al. 2021)."


id: 33f062df06df667d944053f81f21c02e
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 5591
content:
"City-level models and data for understanding of urban systems is \r\nanother knowledge gap. With increased availability of open data \r\nsystems, big data and computing capacities, there is an opportunity \r\nfor analysis of urban systems (Frantzeskaki et al. 2019)."


id: 126544e916c73f1c6d154c9bf759ba7d
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 396
content:
"While there is much literature on urban climate governance, there \r\nis still limited understanding of the governance models and regimes \r\nthat support multi-level decision-making for mitigation and climate \r\naction in general. Transformative climate action will require changing \r\nrelationships between actors to utilise the knowledge from data and \r\nmodels and deepen understanding of the urban system to support \r\ndecision-making."


id: f698aa116f2cacde007fed0df9516f57
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 36311
content:
"At the global scale COVID-related lockdown and travel restrictions \r\nreduced daily CO2 emissions by -17% in early April 2020 compared \r\nto 2019 values (Le Quere et al. 2020; Liu et al. 2020b), though \r\nsubsequent studies have questioned the accuracy of the indirect \r\nproxy data used (Oda et al. 2021). Research at the national scale \r\nin the United States found that daily CO2 emissions declined -15% \r\nduring the late March to early June time period (Gillingham et al. \r\n2020). Research in China estimated that the first quarter of 2020 saw \r\nan 11.5% decline in CO2 emissions relative to 2019 (Zheng et al. 2020; \r\nHan et al. 2021). In Europe, estimates indicated a -12.5% decline in \r\nthe first half of 2020 compared to 2019 (Andreoni 2021). Rebound \r\nto pre-COVID trajectories has been evidenced following the ease of \r\ntravel restrictions (Le Quere et al. 2021). It remains unclear to what \r\nextent COVID resulted in any structural change in the underlying \r\ndrivers of urban emissions."


id: c8796b0fbd1e2f6f30c2d2049059a7f5
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 29107
content:
"The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted many aspects of urban \r\nlife while raising questions about urban densities, transportation, \r\npublic space, and other urban issues. The impact of COVID-19 on \r\nurban activity and urban GHG emissions may offer insights into urban \r\nemissions and their behavioural drivers and may include structural \r\nshifts in emissions that last into the future. The science is unclear as to \r\nthe links between urban characteristics and COVID-19, and involves \r\nmultiple aspects. For example, some research shows higher COVID-19 \r\ninfection rates with city size (e.g., Dalziel et al. 2018; Stier et al. 2021), \r\nas well as challenges to epidemic preparedness due to high population "


id: 3878fc12fbdc01c401d572811a6d7041
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 6263
content:
"improvements in many cities around the world (see critical \r\nreview by Adam et al. 2021). Many outdoor air pollutants, such \r\nas particulates, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and volatile \r\norganic compounds declined during national lockdowns. Levels \r\nof tropospheric ozone, however, remained constant or increased. \r\nA promising transformation that has been observed in many cities \r\nis an increase in the share of active travel modes such as cycling \r\nand walking (Sharifi and Khavarian-Garmsir 2020). While this may be \r\ntemporary, other trends, such as increased rates of teleworking and/\r\nor increased reliance on smart solutions that allow remote provision \r\nof services provide an unprecedented opportunity to transform urban \r\ntravel patterns (Belzunegui-Eraso and Erro-Garces 2020; Sharifi and \r\nKhavarian-Garmsir 2020)."


id: e705551e9c9cca9d7031188e8af82350
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 33837
content:
"The urban share of global emissions is significant and is expected \r\nto increase in the coming decades. This places emphasis on the \r\nneed to expand development of urban emissions scenarios within \r\nclimate mitigation scenarios (Gurney et al. 2021, 2022). The literature \r\non globally comprehensive analysis of urban emissions within the \r\nexisting IPCC scenario framework remains very limited, curtailing \r\nunderstanding of urban emissions tipping points, mitigation \r\nopportunities and overall climate policy complexity. A review of the \r\napplications of the SSP-RCP scenario framework also recommended \r\ndownscaling global SSPs to improve the applicability of this \r\nframework to regional and local scales (O'Neill et al. 2020). \r\nThis remains an urgent need and will require multidisciplinary research \r\nefforts, particularly as net-zero-emissions targets are emphasised."


id: 13cb51e60ad735f37d0fb41ff2b903ba
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 618
content:
"Related to the transport sector, the pandemic has resulted in concerns \r\nregarding the safety of public transport modes, which has resulted \r\nin significant reductions in public transport ridership in some cities \r\n(Bucsky 2020; de Haas et al. 2020) while providing opportunities \r\nfor urban transitions in others (Newman AO 2020). Considering \r\nthe significance of public transportation for achieving low-carbon \r\nand inclusive urban development, appropriate response measures \r\ncould enhance health safety of public transport modes and regain \r\npublic trust (Sharifi and Khavarian-Garmsir 2020). Similarly, there is \r\na perceived correlation between the higher densities of urban living \r\nand the risk of increased virus transmission (Hamidi et al. 2020; \r\nKhavarian-Garmsir et al. 2021)."


id: d3ba976202b05e25a869901eeb3f9b8c
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"While city size could be a risk factor with higher transmission in larger \r\ncities (Hamidi et al. 2020; Stier et al. 2021), there is also evidence \r\nshowing that density is not a major risk factor and indeed cities that \r\nare more compact have more capacity to respond to and control \r\nthe pandemic (Hamidi et al. 2020). Considering the spatial pattern \r\nof density, even distribution of density can reduce the possibility \r\nof crowding that is found to contribute to the scale and length of \r\nvirus outbreak in cities. Overall, more research is needed to better \r\nunderstand the impacts of density on outbreak dynamics and address \r\npublic health concerns for resilient cities."


id: a6a81b043b22f3084ba47017a1e39e70
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Cities could seize this opportunity to provide better infrastructure to \r\nfurther foster active transportation. This could, for example, involve \r\nmeasures, such as expanding cycling networks and restricting \r\nexisting streets to make them more pedestrian- and cycling-friendly \r\ncontributing to health and adaptation co-benefits, as discussed in \r\nSection 8.2 (Sharifi 2021). Strengthening the science-policy interface \r\nis another consideration that could support urban transformation \r\n(Cross-Chapter Box 1 in Chapter 1)."


id: e5c0cf2a86c1b8d12433032b5e53c2b6
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Similarly, independent verification or evaluation of urban GHG \r\nemissions has seen a  large number of research studies (e.g.,  Wu \r\net al. 2016; Sargent et al. 2018; Whetstone 2018; Lauvaux et al. \r\n2020). This has been driven by the recognition that self-reported \r\napproaches may not provide adequate accuracy to track emissions \r\nchanges and provide confidence for mitigation investment (Gurney \r\nand Shepson 2021)."


id: 84fa32c5ec3478658f26aaa095036f85
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"The most promising approach to independent verification of urban \r\nemissions has been the use of urban atmospheric monitoring (direct \r\nflux and/or concentration) as a means to assess and track urban GHG \r\nemissions (Davis et al. 2017). However, like the basic accounting \r\napproach itself, standardisation and practical deployment and scaling \r\nis an essential near-term need."


id: ff77040fcf3a9be9730f049424ea8e1b
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Over half of the world's population currently resides in urban areas - a number forecasted to increase to nearly 70% by 2050. \r\nUrban areas also account for a growing proportion of national and global emissions, depending on emissions scope and geographic \r\nboundary. These trends are projected to grow in the coming decades; in 2100, some scenarios show the urban share of global \r\nemissions above 80%, with 63% being the minimum for any scenario (with the shares being in different contexts of emissions \r\nreduction or increase) (Sections 8.3.3 and 8.3.4). As such, urban climate change mitigation considers the majority of the world's \r\npopulation, as well as some of the key drivers of global emissions. In general, emissions scenarios with limited outward urban land \r\nexpansion are also associated with a smaller rise in global temperature (Section 8.3.4)."


id: 8d9c4ea9dc90b58b1f2c4004ba8782a4
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"The urban share of global emissions and its projected growth stem in part from urban carbon lock-in - that is, the path dependency \r\nand inertia of committed emissions through the long lifespan of urban layout, infrastructures, and behaviour. As such, urban \r\nmitigation efforts that address lock-in can significantly reduce emissions (Section 8.4.1). Electrification of urban energy systems, \r\nin tandem with implementing multiple urban-scale mitigation strategies, could reduce urban emissions by 90% by 2050 - thereby \r\nsignificantly reducing global emissions (Section 8.3.4). Urban areas can also act as points of intervention to amplify synergies and \r\nco-benefits for accomplishing the Sustainable Development Goals (Section 8.2)."


id: 4f3915f0192f71b008f7b36e3efbca6e
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"A city's layout, patterns, and spatial arrangements of land use, transportation systems, and built environment (urban form), as well \r\nas its state and form(s) of development (urban growth typology), can inform the most impactful emissions savings 'entry points' \r\nand priorities for urban mitigation strategies (Sections 8.4.2 and 8.6). For rapidly growing and emerging urban areas, there is the \r\nopportunity to avoid carbon lock-in by focusing on urban form that promotes low-carbon infrastructure and enables low-impact \r\nbehaviour facilitated by co-located medium to high densities of jobs and housing, walkability, and transit-oriented development \r\n(Sections 8.6.2 and 8.6.3). For established cities, strategies include electrification of the grid and transport, and implementing energy \r\nefficiency across sectors (Section 8.6.1)."


id: 975d1b2e3071c382137702eaf151e6cf
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"No approach has been systematically applied to all cities worldwide. Rather, they have been applied individually or in combination \r\nto subsets of global cities. Considerable uncertainty remains in estimating urban emissions. However, top-down approaches have \r\nsomewhat more objective techniques for uncertainty estimation in comparison to bottom-up approaches. Furthermore, supply chain \r\nestimation typically has more uncertainty than direct or territorial emission frameworks."


id: ecd9c2c790c926407cb6c0af285f0444
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 34743
content:
"Paolo Bertoldi (Italy), Jacob M. Kihila (the United Republic of Tanzania), Andre F.P. Lucena (Brazil), \r\nErika Mata (Spain/Sweden), Sebastian Mirasgedis (Greece), Aleksandra Novikova (Germany/the \r\nRussian Federation), Yamina Saheb (France/Algeria)"


id: 5a5ea555d8fae02983b5b7f83db93ecf
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Peter Berrill (Germany/Ireland), Lucas R. Caldas (Brazil), Marta Chafer (Spain), Shan Hu (China), \r\nRadhika Khosla (United Kingdom/India), William F. Lamb (Germany/United Kingdom), David Verez \r\n(Cuba/Spain), Joel Wanemark (Sweden)"


id: 79228bc7b5bd252d6940a4d01fdb536c
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Cabeza, L. F., Q. Bai, P. Bertoldi, J.M. Kihila, A.F.P. Lucena, E. Mata, S. Mirasgedis, A. Novikova, Y. Saheb, 2022: Buildings. \r\nIn IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth \r\nAssessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, \r\nR. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, \r\n(eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.011"


id: 8b2388953898268494e13b6d9d2c1a7b
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"In most regions, historical improvements in efficiency have \r\nbeen approximately matched by growth in floor area per capita. \r\nImplementing sufficiency measures that limit growth in floor \r\narea per capita, particularly in developed regions, reduces the \r\ndependence of climate mitigation on technological solutions \r\n(medium evidence, medium agreement). At a global level, up to \r\n17% of the mitigation potential could be captured by 2050 through \r\nsufficiency interventions (medium evidence, medium agreement). \r\nSufficiency is an opportunity to avoid locking buildings in carbon\u0002intensive solutions. Density, compacity, building typologies, bioclimatic \r\ndesign, multi-functionality of space, circular use of materials, use of "


id: 3359f7c2e9e2ac22a36e6be3130bc32d
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"many examples of deep retrofits where additional costs per  CO2\r\nabated are not significantly higher than those of shallow retrofits. \r\nHowever, for the whole stock they tend to be in cost intervals of \r\nUSD0-200 tCO2\r\n-1 and >USD200 tCO2-1 (medium evidence, medium \r\nagreement). Literature emphasizes the critical role of the decade \r\nbetween in 2020 and 2030 in accelerating the learning of know-how \r\nand skills to reduce the costs and remove feasibility constrains for \r\nachieving high efficiency buildings at scale and set the sector at the \r\npathway to realise its full potential (high evidence, high agreement) \r\n{9.6, 9.9}."


id: 8d67e44daf577a59cd71f73ac2052701
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"The decarbonisation of buildings is constrained by multiple \r\nbarriers and obstacles as well as limited flow of finance \r\n(robust evidence, high agreement). The lack of institutional \r\ncapacity, especially in developing countries, and appropriate \r\ngovernance structures slow down the decarbonisation of the \r\nglobal building stock (medium evidence, high agreement). \r\nThe building sector stands out for its high heterogeneity, with many \r\ndifferent building types, sizes, and operational uses. Its segment \r\nrepresenting rented property faces principal/agent problems where \r\nthe tenant benefits from the decarbonisation investment made by the \r\nlandlord. The organisational context and the governance structure \r\ncould trigger or hinder the decarbonisation of buildings (high \r\nevidence, high agreement). Global investment in the decarbonisation \r\nof buildings was estimated at USD164 billion in 2020, not enough to \r\nclose the investment gap (robust evidence, high agreement) {9.9}."


id: 417311d31eecff83fd6871070654b9f4
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Well-designed and effectively implemented mitigation actions \r\nin the buildings sector have significant potential for achieving \r\nthe United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. The impacts \r\nof mitigation actions in the building sector go far beyond the goal \r\nof climate action (SDG 13) and contribute to further meeting fifteen \r\nother SDGs. Mitigation actions in the building sector bring health \r\ngains through improved indoor air quality and thermal comfort as well \r\nas reduced financial stresses in all world regions. Overall decarbonised \r\nbuilding stock contribute to well-being and has significant macro- and \r\nmicro-economic effects, such as increased productivity of labour, job \r\ncreation, reduced poverty, especially energy poverty, and improved \r\nenergy security that ultimately reduces net costs of mitigation \r\nmeasures in buildings (high evidence, high agreement) {9.8}."


id: 98c3772f043a32288ab794c8d2ac15e5
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (IPCC, 2018; IEA, 2019c; \r\nIEA 2019e). Mitigation interventions in buildings are heterogeneous \r\nin many different aspects, from building components (envelope, \r\nstructure, materials, etc.) to services (shelter, heating, etc.), to \r\nbuilding types (residential and non-residential, sometimes also called \r\ncommercial and public), to building size, function, and climate zone. \r\nThere are also variations between developed and developing countries \r\nin mitigation interventions to implement, as the former is challenged \r\nby the renovation of existing buildings while the latter is challenged by \r\nthe need to accelerate the construction of new buildings. "


id: 3fcdf20bdcb9e063b8fdcb93c531af08
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 7422
content:
"This chapter aims at updating the knowledge on the building \r\nsector since the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth \r\nAssessment Report (IPCC AR5) (Lucon et al. 2014). Changes since AR5 \r\nare reviewed, including: the latest development of building service \r\nand components (Section  9.2), findings of new building related \r\nGHG emission trends (Section 9.3), latest technological (Section 9.4) \r\nand non-technological (Section  9.5) options to mitigate building \r\nGHG emissions, potential emission reduction from these measures \r\nat global and regional level (Section  9.6), links to adaptation \r\n(Section 9.7) and sustainable development (Section 9.8), and sectoral \r\nbarriers and policies (Section 9.9). "


id: 450dc8af751cc05160de56f01fa4ad3f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"The chapter introduces the concept of sufficiency, identified in \r\nthe literature as a  mitigation strategy with high potential, and is \r\norganised around the Sufficiency, Efficiency, Renewables (SER) \r\nframework (Box 9.1)."


id: 687eca85d8e20ef4c1eb4c86c9dd0c27
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"The SER framework was introduced in the late 1990s by a French NGO (Negawatt 2017) advocating for a decarbonised energy transition. \r\nIn 2015, the SER framework was considered in the design of the French energy transition law, and the French energy transition agency \r\n(ADEME) is developing its 2050 scenario based on the SER framework. "


id: 61a6628939a37b6dbf7268dadbde492a
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"The three pillars of the SER framework include (i) sufficiency, which tackles the causes of the environmental impacts of human \r\nactivities by avoiding the demand for energy and materials over the lifecycle of buildings and goods, (ii) efficiency, which tackles the \r\nsymptoms of the environmental impacts of human activities by improving energy and material intensities, and (iii) the renewables \r\npillar, which tackles the consequences of the environmental impacts of human activities by reducing the carbon intensity of energy \r\nsupply (Box 9.1, Figure 1). The SER framework introduces a hierarchical layering, sufficiency first followed by efficiency and renewable, \r\nwhich reduces the cost of constructing and using buildings without reducing the level of comfort of the occupant. "


id: c5f90626ef7e4698a4245b55f1b8c98d
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content:
"with less in relative terms without considering the planetary boundaries, while the former is about long-term actions driven by non\u0002technological solutions (i.e., land-use management and planning), which consume less in absolute-term and are determined by the \r\nbiophysical processes (Princen 2003). "


id: 27359b8661ea42432dafef996d5a1ca5
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"Applying sufficiency principles to buildings requires (i) optimising the use of buildings, (ii) repurposing unused existing ones, \r\n(iii)  prioritising multi-family homes over single-family buildings, and (iv) adjusting the size of buildings to the evolving needs of \r\nhouseholds by downsizing dwellings (Wilson and Boehland 2005; Duffy 2009; Fuller and Crawford 2011; Stephan et al. 2013; Huebner \r\nand Shipworth 2017; Sandberg 2018; McKinlay et al. 2019; Ellsworth-Krebs 2020; Berrill et al. 2021) (Box 9.1, Figure 2). "


id: fa88700eb1122ef30228849d9abf5769
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"Efficiency, and especially energy efficiency and more recently resource efficiency, and the integration of renewable to buildings \r\nare widespread concepts since the oil crisis of the seventies, while only most advanced building energy codes consider sufficiency \r\nmeasures (IEA 2013). Efficiency and renewable technologies and interventions are described in Sections 9.4 and 9.9. "


id: dc4f8e7e73591663d494ea8df5d8a1ba
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"A systematic categorisation of policy interventions in the building sector through the SER framework (Box 9.1, Figure 1) enables \r\nidentification of the policy areas and instruments to consider for the decarbonisation of the building stock, their overlaps as well as \r\ntheir complementarities. It also shows that sufficiency policies go beyond energy and climate policies to include land-use and urban \r\nplanning policies as well as consumer policies suggesting a need for a different governance including local authorities and a bottom\u0002up approach driven by citizen engagement. "


id: 1ce3c421b3d3ed36fe93f3ddf383dc6
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content:
"The four novelties introduced in this assessment link the building \r\nsector to other sectors and call for more sectoral coupling when \r\ndesigning mitigation solutions. Guidelines and methodologies \r\ndeveloped in Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are adopted in this chapter. \r\nDetailed analysis in building GHG emissions is discussed based on \r\nChapter 2 and scenarios to assess future emissions and mitigation \r\npotentials were selected based on Chapters, 3 and 4. There are \r\ntight linkages between this chapter and Chapter 6, 7, 8, 10 and 11, \r\nwhich are sectoral sectors. This chapter focusses more on individual \r\nbuildings and building clusters, while Chapter  8 discusses macro \r\ntopics in urban areas. Findings of this chapter provides contribution \r\nto cross-sectoral prospection (Chapter  12), policies (Chapter  13), \r\ninternational cooperation (Chapter  14), investment and finance \r\n(Chapter 15), innovation (Chapter 16), and sustainable development \r\n(Chapter 17)."


id: e2766b64bb289a87ee9ed45ec89f77b0
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 33139
content:
"Compared to AR5, this assessment introduces four novelties (i) the \r\nscope of CO2 emissions has been extended from direct and indirect \r\nemissions considered in AR5 to include embodied emissions, (ii) beyond \r\ntechnological efficiency measures to mitigate GHG emissions in \r\nbuildings, the contribution of non-technological, in particular of \r\nsufficiency measures to climate mitigation is also considered, \r\n(iii) compared to the IPCC Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5degC \r\n(SR1.5), the link to sustainable development, well-being and decent \r\nliving standard for all has been further developed and strengthened, \r\nand finally (iv) the active role of buildings in the energy system by \r\nmaking passive consumers prosumers is also assessed."


id: fed8387d6bd7d37e3e438b99cda68fa3
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
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content:
"This section mainly details the boundaries of the building sector; \r\nmitigation potentials are evaluated in the following sections."


id: 60bc1b0e56dced7408399acd6189853c
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
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content:
"Building types and their composition affect the energy consumption for \r\nbuilding operation as well as the GHG emissions (Hachem-Vermette \r\nand Singh 2019). They also influence the energy cost (MacNaughton \r\net al. 2015) therefore, an identification of building type is required to \r\nunderstand the heterogeneity of this sector. Buildings are classified \r\nas residential and non-residential buildings. Residential buildings can \r\nbe classified as slums, single-family house and multi-family house or \r\napartment/flats building. Single-family house can be divided between \r\nsingle-family detached (including cottages, house barns, etc.) and "


id: fe7ed80ba90e348feef55597bf7f79d3
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 37578
content:
"steel). Iron, steel and concrete were the most important materials \r\nof the nineteenth century (Wright 2000; De Villanueva Dominguez \r\n2005). In that context, prefabricated buildings (prefabrication also \r\nknown as pre-assembly or modularisation) appeared within the \r\nso-called off-site construction. Prefabrication has come to mean \r\na method of construction whereby building elements and materials, \r\nranging in size from a single component to a complete building, \r\nare manufactured at a  distance from the final building location. \r\nPrefabricated buildings have been developed rapidly since the \r\nSecond World War and are widely used all over the world (Pons \r\n2014; Moradibistouni et al. 2018)."


id: b85c8013c5c442a126b65dd8662b3d3b
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"single-family attached (or terrace house, small multi-family, etc.). \r\nAnother classification is per ownership: owner-occupiers, landlords, \r\nand owners' association/condominiums. "


id: 8e04647175709a22b6cb636f36a25182
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 19873
content:
"Non-residential buildings have a  much broader use. They include \r\ncultural buildings (which include theatres and performance, \r\nmuseums and exhibits, libraries, and cultural centres), educational \r\nbuildings (kindergarten, schools, higher education, research centre, \r\nand laboratories), sports (recreation and training, and stadiums), \r\nhealthcare buildings (health, well-being, and veterinary), hospitality \r\n(hotel, casino, lodging, nightlife buildings, and restaurants and bars), \r\ncommercial buildings and offices (institutional buildings, markets, \r\noffice buildings, retail, and shopping centres), public buildings \r\n(government buildings, security, and military buildings), religious \r\nbuildings (including worship and burial buildings), and industrial \r\nbuildings (factories, energy plants, warehouses, data centres, \r\ntransportation buildings, and agricultural buildings)."


id: 32a272edf41d4b3bdb5c5a7b779e4117
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 5382
content:
"Recently, advances in technology have produced new expectations \r\nin terms of design possibilities. In that context, 3D printing seems \r\nto have arrived. 3D printing may allow in the future to build faster, \r\ncheaper and more sustainable (Agusti-Juan et  al. 2017; Garcia \r\nde Soto et  al. 2018). At the same time, it might introduce new \r\naesthetics, new materials, and complex shapes that will be printed \r\nat the click of a mouse on our computers. Although 3D printing will \r\nnot replace architectural construction, it would allow optimisation \r\nof various production and assembly processes by introducing new \r\nsustainable construction processes and tools (De Schutter et  al. \r\n2018). Nevertheless, what is clear is that 3D printing is a technology \r\nstill in development, with a lot of potentials and that it is advancing \r\nquite quickly (Hager et al. 2016; Stute et al. 2018; Wang et al. 2020). "


id: e6b93581cc4af35d23613bbb3331a38d
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
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content:
"An understanding of the methods for assembling various materials, \r\nelements, and components is necessary during both the design and \r\nthe construction phase of a  building. A building can be broadly \r\ndivided into parts: the substructure which is the underlying structure \r\nforming the foundation of a building, and the superstructure, which is \r\nthe vertical extension of a building above the foundation."


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"There is not a  global classification for the building components. \r\nNevertheless, Figure  9.1 tries to summarise the building \r\ncomponents found in literature (Mana Reixach 2000; Asbjorn 2009; \r\nChing 2014). The buildings are divided in the substructure and the \r\nsuperstructure. The substructure is the foundation of the building, \r\nwhere the footing, basement, and plinth are found. The superstructure \r\nintegrates the primary elements (heavyweight walls, columns, floors \r\nand ceilings, roofs, sills and lintels, and stairs), the supplementary \r\ncomponents (lightweight walls and curtain walls), the completion \r\ncomponents (doors and windows), the finishing work (plastering and \r\npainting), and the buildings services (detailed in Section 9.3)."


id: 508508316dfe59fcd91aba3d13e612ea
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 10111
content:
"Building services make buildings more comfortable, functional, \r\nefficient, and safe. In a  generic point of view, building services \r\ninclude shelter, nutrition, sanitation, thermal, visual, and acoustic \r\ncomfort, entertainment, communications, elevators, and illumination. \r\nIn a more holistic view building services are classified as shown in \r\nFigure 9.2. "


id: d99218e6dc9d8620445b05cdfb0178bb
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"A building management system is a  system of devices configured \r\nto control, monitor, and manage equipment in or around a building \r\nor building area and is meant to optimise building operations and \r\nreduce cost (Schuster et al. 2019). Recent developments include the \r\nintegration of the system with the renewable energy systems (Arnone \r\net al. 2016), most improved and effective user interface (Rabe et al. \r\n2018), control systems based on artificial intelligence and internet of \r\nthings (IoT) (Farzaneh et al. 2021)."


id: f654f5c8b81123a07e82d55f745393e7
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"The use of air conditioning systems in buildings will increase with \r\nthe experienced rise in temperature (Davis and Gertler 2015; \r\nDe Falco et al. 2016) (Figure 9.8). This can ultimately lead to high \r\nenergy consumption rates. Therefore, adoption of energy efficient \r\nair conditioning is pertinent to balance the provision of comfortable \r\nindoor conditions and energy consumption. Some of the new \r\ndevelopments that have been done include ice refrigeration (Xu et al. \r\n2017), the use of solar photovoltaic power in the air conditioning \r\nprocess (Burnett et al. 2014), and use of common thermal storage \r\ntechnologies (De Falco et al. 2016) all of which are geared towards \r\nminimising energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. "


id: b0635f070d65f099a95bc929b69a5b1a
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Lambertz et al. (2019) stated that when evaluating the environmental \r\nimpact of buildings, building services are only considered in a very \r\nsimplified way. Moreover, it also highlights that the increasing use \r\nof new technologies such as Building Information Modelling (BIM) \r\nallows for a much more efficient and easier calculation process for \r\nbuilding services, thus enabling the use of more robust and complete \r\nmodels. Furthermore, recent studies on building services related to \r\nclimate change (Verez and Cabeza 2021) highlight the importance of \r\nembodied energy (Parkin et al. 2019) (Section 9.4)."


id: bd9d00345c40cbef4af7feee772bb1d0
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 27400
content:
"Building designs have to consider provision of adequate ventilation. \r\nNatural ventilation reduces energy consumption in buildings in warm \r\nclimates compared to air conditioning systems (Taleb 2015; Azmi \r\net al. 2017). Enhanced ventilation has higher benefits to the public \r\nhealth than the economic costs involved (MacNaughton et al. 2015). "


id: 97df404f2dcbde4dca67ce20261e81d7
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"On the refrigeration systems, the recent developments include the \r\nuse of solar thermoelectric cooling technologies as an energy efficient \r\nmeasure (Liu et  al. 2015b); use of nanoparticles for energy  saving \r\n(Azmi et al. 2017) to mention some. "


id: b11b6d2dcbaf6e5cf2d06a0ef7c1fdeb
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Future emissions were assessed using four global scenarios and their \r\nrespective baselines (Box  9.2). The selection of the scenarios was \r\nbased on the features of each scenario, the geographic scope, and \r\nthe data availability to analyse future building emissions based on \r\nthe SER framework (Box 9.1)."


id: ee86b3ef387ec3b93e40b775f0de01bb
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"Eastern Asia\r\nAustraliaJapan and New Zealand\r\nAfrica\r\nb) Historical scenarios\r\nFigure 9.3 | Building GHG emissions: historical based on IEA data and future emissions based on two IEA scenarios (sustainable development, and net \r\nzero emissions), IMAGE Lifestyle-Renewable scenario and Resource Efficiency and Climate Change-Low Energy Demand scenario (RECC-LED)."


id: 61394059791a19a2873d792c403b9116
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"Three out of the four scenarios selected, and their related baselines, are based on top-down modelling and were submitted to AR6 \r\nscenario database, which includes in total 931 scenarios with a building module (Annex III; see also Boxes 3.1 and 3.2, and Cross\u0002Chapter Box 3 in Chapter 3). A fourth scenario, not included in AR6 scenario database, and based on a bottom-up modelling approach \r\nwas added. "


id: 7a6a60a8bef743a137361458541f12b4
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"The main features of these scenarios are shortly described below while the underlying modelling approaches are described in Annex III. \r\nEach scenario is assessed compared to its baseline scenario: "


id: 228be010e3ffd4915edb73ebcd71c2ab
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"2021 Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario (NZE) is a normative scenario, which sets out a narrow but achievable pathway for \r\nthe global energy sector to achieve net zero CO2 emissions by 2050 (IEA 2021a)."


id: 1341c8f17f42a2e986ad7075af5622b6
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"2020 Sustainable Development Scenario (SDS), which integrates the impact of COVID-19 on health outcomes and economies. It is \r\nalso a normative scenario, working backwards from climate, clean air, and energy access goals. SDS examines what actions would be \r\nnecessary to achieve these goals. The near-term detail is drawn from the IEA Sustainable Recovery Plan, which boosts economies and \r\nemployment while building cleaner and more resilient energy systems (IEA 2020c). "


id: 6d3e2ac05fd6e53a445d7a0182028f25
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 14807
content:
"Analysis of the IEA scenarios above was conducted compared to the 2019 Current Policies Scenario, which shows what happens if the \r\nworld continues along its present path (IEA 2020c), and considered as a baseline scenario. "


id: 6cd09c36ff0bbbf35800477a65d8cd71
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"IMAGE-Lifestyle-Renewable (LiRE) scenario is based on an updated version of the SSP2 baseline, while also meeting the RCP2.6 \r\nradiative forcing target using carbon prices, together with the increased adoption of additional lifestyle changes, by limiting the \r\ngrowth in the floor area per capita in Developed Countries as well as the use of appliances. Regarding energy supply, IMAGE-LiRE \r\nassumes increased electrification and increased share of renewable in the energy mix (Detlef Van Vuuren et al. 2021). "


id: 628cb43acee481d2581a10410c5d02a4
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Resource Efficiency and Climate Change-Low Energy Demand (RECC-LED) scenario is produced by a global bottom-up model, \r\nwhich assesses contributions of resource efficiency to climate change mitigation. RECC-LED estimates the energy and material flows \r\nassociated with housing stock growth, driven by population and the floor area per  capita (Pauliuk et  al. 2021). This scenario is \r\ninformed by the Low Energy Demand Scenario (LED), which seeks convergence between developed and developing countries in the \r\naccess to decent living standard (Grubler et al. 2018). "


id: 5bda4de00574bdd7f015d32e9466684f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 11966
content:
"For consistency between the four scenarios, aggregation of regions in this chapter differs from the one of the IPCC. Europe and Eurasia \r\nhave been grouped into one single region. "


id: b3b6cc93215179157e0c4831247242e8
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"The IEA-NZE scenario projects emissions from the global building \r\nstock to be lowered to 29 MtCO2 by 2050 against 1.7 GtCO2 in the \r\nIEA-SDS and 3.7 GtCO2 in IMAGE-LiRE Scenario. These projections \r\ncan be compared to IEA-CPS in which global emissions from buildings \r\nwere projected to be at 13.5 GtCO2 in 2050, which is equivalent to \r\nthe 2018 emissions level (Figure 9.3a). By 2050, direct emissions from \r\nresidential buildings are projected to be lowered to 108 MtCO2 in the \r\nIEA-NZE, this is four times less than the projected direct emissions in \r\nRECC-LED scenario, six times less than those under the IEA-SDS and \r\neleven times less than those in the IMAGE-LiRE scenario. "


id: 40945a4e6a155777464cd183ee746164
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"In the IEA-NZE scenario, indirect emissions are projected to be below \r\nzero by 2050 for both residential and non-residential buildings, \r\nwhile residual indirect emissions from residential buildings are \r\nprojected to be 125 MtCO2 in RECC-LED, 634 MtCO2 in IEA-SDS, and \r\n842 GtCO2 in IMAGE-LiRE. Residual indirect emissions from non\u0002residential buildings are projected to be at 1.7 GtCO2 in IEA SDS and \r\ndouble of this in IMAGE-LiRE scenario (Figure 9.3a). Compared to \r\nIEA-SDS, the highest decrease of emissions in IEA-NZE is expected \r\nto occur after 2030. Direct emissions from residential buildings \r\nin IEA-NZE are projected to be, by 2030, at 1.37 GtCO2, against \r\n1.7 GtCO2 in the three other scenarios. The highest cut in emissions \r\nin IEA-NZE and in IMAGE-LiRE occur through the decarbonisation \r\nof energy supply. "


id: eb9040bffbc895a63f8167f19a369d43
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Emissions per  capita from residential buildings at a  global level \r\nreached 0.85 tCO2 per person in 2019. The four scenarios assessed \r\nproject a  decrease of the global per  capita emissions by 2050, \r\nranging from 0 tCO2 in IEA-NZE 0.21 tCO2 per  person in IMAGE\u0002LiRE, a 75% lower than those of 2019 (Figure 9.4a). There are great "


id: ca1179a3a447782b5d6325fa6de87790
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"differences in the projected per capita emissions under each scenario \r\ndifferent scenarios across the regions (Figure  9.4b). Compared to \r\nIEA-SDS and IMAGE-LiRE scenarios, RECC-LED projects the lowest \r\nemissions per capita in all regions by 2050. Emissions per capita in \r\nEurope and Eurasia are projected to be the highest in all scenarios by \r\n2050, ranging from 0.26 tCO2 in RECC-LED and 0.31 tCO2 in IEA-SDS \r\nto 0.65 tCO2 in IMAGE-LiRE."


id: 3fb7bed7bda41fb409d60af22067d4e4
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Building specific drivers of GHG emissions in the four scenarios \r\ndescribed above are assessed using an index decomposition analysis \r\nwith building specific identities and reflecting the three pillars of \r\nthe Sufficiency, Efficiency, Renewables (SER) framework. Broad \r\ndrivers of GHG emissions such as GDP and population are analysed \r\nusing a Kaya decomposition in Chapter 2. Previous decompositions \r\nanalysing drivers of global GHG emissions in the building sector have \r\neither assessed only the impact of GDP and population as drivers of \r\nGHG emissions (Lamb et al. 2021) or the impact of building specific \r\ndrivers on energy demand and not on CO2 emissions (Lucon et al. \r\n2014; Urge-Vorsatz et al. 2015; IEA 2020c; ODYSSEE 2020). For this \r\nassessment, the decomposition was conducted for energy-related \r\nCO2 emissions for residential buildings only, due to lack of data for \r\nnon-residential buildings. "


id: 5ce94bfb91c4f9fdac4e2a8cc9e5b360
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"The attribution of changes in emissions in the use phase to changes \r\nin the drivers of population, sufficiency, efficiency, and carbon \r\nintensity of energy supply is calculated using additive log-mean \r\ndivisia index decomposition analysis (Ang and Zhang 2000). The "


id: 41f0cf230f66b6137e03428be3d828b2
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"b)\r\nAfrica\r\n44%\r\n149%\r\n0%\r\n0%\r\n102%\r\n29%\r\n0%\r\n750\r\n1000\r\n^ ^ ^\r\n^\r\n^\r\n^\r\nAustralia, Japan and New Zealand\r\n55%\r\n2%\r\n38%\r\n0% 14%\r\n400\r\n600\r\n^\r\n^\r\nFigure 9.5 | Decompositions of changes in historical residential energy emissions 1990-2019, changes in emissions projected by baseline scenarios for \r\n2020-2050, and differences between scenarios in 2050 using scenarios from three models: IEA, IMAGE, and RECC. RECC-LED data include only space \r\nheating and cooling and water heating in residential buildings (a) global resolution, and (b) for nine world regions."


id: e5c25074e883b54dcd314cdfd87419f8
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Countries, the highest untapped sufficiency potential occurred in \r\nAsia-Pacific Developed region. Middle East is the only region where \r\nefficiency potential remained untapped (Figure 9.5b)."


id: 503f8cc1864b312a24a90169f1930d23
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"for 52% and increasing carbon intensity of the global energy mix \r\naccounted for 16%. Efficiency improvement contributed to decreasing \r\nglobal emissions from residential buildings by 49% (Figure 9.5a). The \r\nsufficiency potential was untapped in all regions over the same period \r\nwhile the decarbonisation of the supply was untapped in developing \r\ncountries and to some extent in Asia-Pacific Developed. The highest \r\nuntapped sufficiency and supply decarbonisation potentials occurred \r\nin Southern Asia where the lack of sufficiency measures has led to \r\nincreasing emissions by 185% and the high carbon intensity of the \r\nenergy mix has led to increasing emissions by 340%. In Developed "


id: 4d574e9acbf5b9761ba1aa3f30ec664d
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"Scenarios assessed show an increase of the untapped sufficiency \r\npotential at the global level over the period 2020-2050. The highest \r\nuntapped sufficiency potential occurs in IEA scenarios as there are \r\nno changes in the floor area per  capita across different scenarios. \r\nThe lack of sufficiency measures in current policies will contribute to \r\nincreasing emissions by 54%, offsetting the efficiency improvement "


id: bf72f2cae1d5ce8d4cb5028ebe87b585
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"equally across regions and three out of the four scenarios assessed \r\ndo not assume a convergence, by 2050, in the floor area per capita, \r\nbetween developed and developing countries. Only RECC-LED \r\nimplements some convergence between Developed Countries and \r\nemerging economies to a range of 20-40 m2 per capita. IEA scenarios \r\nassume a growth in the floor area per capita in all regions with the \r\nhighest growth in Developed Countries, up to 72 m2 per capita in \r\nNorth America from 66 m2 per capita in 2019. IMAGE-LiRE projects \r\na floor area per capita in Africa at 14 m2 per person. This is lower than \r\nthe one of 2019, which was at 16 m2 per capita (Figure 9.6). Beyond \r\ncapturing the sufficiency potential by limiting the growth in the floor \r\narea per capita in Developed Countries while ensuring decent living \r\nstandard, the acceptability of the global scenarios by developing \r\ncountries is getting attraction in academia (Hickel et al. 2021). "


id: 1f8416faf1ce58c859d8ebc581df8a22
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Global final energy demand from buildings reached 128.8 EJ in 2019, \r\nequivalent to 31% of global final energy demand. The same year, \r\nresidential buildings consumed 70% out of global final energy demand \r\nfrom buildings. Over the period 1990-2019, global final energy \r\ndemand from buildings grew by 38%, with 54% increase in non\u0002residential buildings and 32% increase in residential ones. At regional \r\nlevel, the highest increase of final energy demand occurred in Middle \r\nEast and Africa in residential buildings and in all South-East Asia and \r\nPacific in non-residential ones. By 2050, global final energy demand \r\nfrom buildings is projected to be at 86 EJ in IEA-NZE, 111 EJ in IEA-SDS \r\nand 138 EJ in IMAGE-LiRE. RECC-LED projects the lowest global final \r\nenergy demand, at 15.7 EJ by 2050, but this refers to water heating, \r\nspace heating and cooling in residential buildings only (Figure 9.7a)."


id: 5d9d078ad22d842df12e79abcaac6ee1
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"There is a growing literature on the decarbonisation of end-use sectors \r\nwhile providing decent living standard for all (Rao and Pachauri 2017; \r\nGrubler et al. 2018; Rao and Min 2018; Rao et al. 2019; Millward\u0002Hopkins et  al. 2020). The floor area per  capita is among the gaps \r\nidentified in the convergence between developed and developing \r\ncountries in the access to decent living (Kikstra et  al. 2021) while \r\nmeeting energy needs. In the Low Energy Demand (LED) scenario, \r\n30 m2 per capita is the converging figure assumed by 2050 (Grubler \r\net al. 2018) while in the Decent Living with minimum Energy (DLE) \r\nscenario, (Millward-Hopkins et al. 2020) assumes 15 m2 per capita."


id: 79b15782390a526fe22bb991e1b26d33
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Overall, the global residential building stock grew by almost 30% \r\nbetween 2005 and 2019. However, this growth was not distributed "


id: 6393d1248b9fe63b54eab22f4c14a5f6
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"use of gas grew by 75% in residential buildings and by 46% in non\u0002residential ones. By 2050, RECC-LED projects electricity to contribute \r\nby 71% to final energy demand in residential buildings, against 62% \r\nin IEA-NZE and 59% in IMAGE-LiRE. IEA-NZE is the only scenario to \r\nproject less than 1% of gas use by 2050 in residential buildings while \r\nthe contribution of electricity to energy demand of non-residential \r\nbuildings is above 60% in all scenarios. At regional level, the use of \r\ncoal in buildings is projected to disappear while the use of electricity \r\nis projected to be above 50% in all regions by 2050 (Figure 9.7b). "


id: beaef75d6e437c15931c86a29e7b68c2
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Over the period 1990-2019, the use of coal decreased at a global \r\nlevel by 59% in residential buildings and 52% in non-residential \r\nones. Solar thermal experienced the highest increase, followed by \r\ngeothermal  and electricity. However, by 2019, solar thermal and \r\ngeothermal contributed by only 1% each to global final energy \r\ndemand, while electricity contributed by 51% in non-residential \r\nbuildings and 26% in residential ones. The same year, gas contributed \r\nby 26% to non-residential final energy demand and 22% to residential \r\nfinal energy demand, which makes gas the second energy carrier \r\nused in buildings after electricity. Over the period 1990-2019, the "


id: 9260d60ea7628fb84c8f159b9832d8dd
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"(Dixon et al. 2015; Van de Ven et al. 2019; IEA 2019a; Taylor et al. \r\n2020). According to (Hanna et al. 2016) policies failed in improving \r\nthe use of biomass. Over the period 1990-2019, the traditional \r\nuse of biomass decreased by 1% and all scenarios assessed do not \r\nproject any traditional use of biomass by 2050. Biomass is also used \r\nfor the construction of buildings, leading to low embodied emissions \r\ncompared to concrete (Heeren et al. 2015; Hart and Pomponi 2020; \r\nPauliuk et al. 2021). "


id: 82574412ee942dc625e4e1b627c7e760
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 18032
content:
"Over the period 1990-2019, space heating was the dominant end-use \r\nin residential buildings at a global level, followed by water heating, \r\ncooking, and connected and small appliances (Figure 9.8a). However, \r\nenergy demand from connected and small appliances experienced \r\nthe highest increase, 280%, followed by cooking, 89%, cooling, 75%, \r\nwater heating, 73% and space heating, around 10%. Space heating \r\nenergy demand is projected to decline over the period 2020-2050 \r\nin all scenarios assessed. RECC-LED projects the highest decrease, \r\n77%, of space heating energy demand, against 68% decrease in the \r\nIEA-NZE. IMAGE-LiRE projects the lowest decrease of heating energy \r\ndemand, 21%. To the contrary, all scenarios confirm cooling as \r\na strong emerging trend (Box 9.3) and project an increase of cooling \r\nenergy demand. IMAGE-LiRE projects the highest increase, 143% \r\nagainst 45% in the IEA-NZE while RECC-LED projects the lowest \r\nincrease of cooling energy demand, 32%."


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content:
"In Developed Countries, biomass is used for generating heat and \r\npower leading to reduction of indirect emissions from buildings \r\n(Ortwein 2016) (IEA et al. 2020 c). However, according to (IEA 2019b) \r\ndespite the mitigation potential of biomass, if the wood is available \r\nlocally, its use remains low in Developed Countries. Biomass is \r\nalso used for efficient cook stoves and for heating using modern \r\nappliances such as pellet-fed central heating boilers. In developing \r\ncountries, traditional use of biomass is characterised by low efficiency \r\nof combustion (due to low temperatures) leading to high levels of \r\npollutants and CO output, as well as low efficiency of heat transfer. \r\nThe traditional use of biomass is associated with public health risks \r\nsuch as premature deaths related to inhaling fumes from cooking "


id: d62fed4b18a5c25994825b1ebed4c95
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 31210
content:
"There are great differences in the contribution of each end-use to the \r\nregional energy demand (Figure 9.8b). In 2019, more than 50% of \r\nresidential energy demand in Europe and Eurasia was used for space \r\nheating while there was no demand for space heating in Middle East, \r\nreflecting differences in climatic conditions. To the contrary, the share \r\nof energy demand from cooking out of total represented 53% in the "


id: 5166479a290e1c9f54ff37a009779085
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 10263
content:
"Middle East against 5% in Europe and Eurasia reflecting societal \r\norganisations. The highest contribution of energy demand from \r\nconnected and small appliances to the regional energy demand was \r\nobserved in 2019 in the Asia-Pacific Developed, 24%, followed by the \r\nregion of Southern Asia, South-East Asia and Developing Pacific, with \r\n17%. Energy demand from cooling was at 9% out of total energy \r\ndemand of Southern Asia, South-East Asia and Developing Pacific \r\nand at 8% in both Middle East and North America while it was at \r\n1% in Europe in 2019. "


id: 92ebee1081ad891362239abd988fc99f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 20626
content:
"all regions driven by increased wealth and the increased ambient \r\ntemperatures due to global warming (Cayla et al. 2011; Liddle and \r\nHuntington 2021) (Box 9.3). The highest increase, 32%, in ownership \r\nof room air-conditioners was observed in Southern Asia and South\u0002East Asia and Developing Pacific while Europe, Latin America and \r\nCaribbean countries, Eastern Asia and Africa experienced an increase \r\nof 21% in households' ownership of room air-conditioners. The \r\nlowest increases in room air-conditioners ownership were observed \r\nin the Middle East and North America with 1% and 8% each as these \r\ntwo markets are almost saturated. All scenarios assessed project an \r\nincrease of ownership of cooling appliances in all regions over the \r\nperiod 2020-2050. "


id: 6eba67553dbb9728b856fcca60dd892a
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"appliances all over the world. The highest increase in ownership of \r\nconnected appliances, 403%, was observed in Eastern Asia and the \r\nlowest increase in ownership of connected appliances was observed \r\nin North America, 94%. Future energy demand is expected to occur \r\nin the developing world given the projected rate of penetration of \r\nhousehold appliances and devices (Wolfram et al. 2012). However, \r\n(Grubler et al. 2018) projects a lower energy demand from connected \r\nand small appliances by assuming an increase of shared appliances \r\nand multiple appliances and equipment will be integrated into units \r\ndelivering multiple services."


id: dbef172902d1a2556f4f8d5809c3764a
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 32119
content:
"Energy demand from connected and small appliances was, at a global \r\nlevel, above 7 EJ in 2019 (Figure  9.8a). However, it is likely that \r\nglobal energy demand from connected and small appliances is much \r\nhigher as reported data do not include all the connected and small \r\nappliances used by households and does not capture energy demand \r\nfrom data centres (Box 9.3). Over the period 1990-2019, the highest \r\nincrease of energy demand from connected and small appliances, \r\n4740%, was observed in Eastern Asia, followed by Southern Asia, \r\n1358% while the lowest increase, 99%, occurred in Asia-Pacific \r\nDeveloped countries. The increase of energy demand from connected \r\nand small appliances is driven by the ownership increase of such "


id: 3dd65e9294631091bcaf12ba9618a1c
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 7088
content:
"Energy demand from digitalisation occurs in data centres, which are dedicated buildings or part of buildings for accommodating \r\nlarge amount of information technologies equipment such as servers, data storage and communication devices, and network devices. \r\nData centres are responsible for about 2% of global electricity consumption (Avgerinou et al. 2017; Diguet and Lopez 2019). Energy \r\ndemand from data centres arises from the densely packed configuration of information technologies, which is up to 100 times higher \r\nthan a standard office accommodation (Chu and Wang 2019). Chillers combined with air handling units are usually used to provide \r\ncooling in data centres. Given the high cooling demand of data centres, some additional cooling strategies, such as free cooling, \r\nliquid cooling, low-grade waste heat recovery, absorption cooling and so on, have been adopted. In addition, heat recovery can"


id: 55e4918f1f2d628f1036a74a86a4c78c
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 10995
content:
"provide useful heat for industrial and building applications. More recently, data centres are being investigated as a potential resource \r\nfor demand response and load balancing (Zheng et al. 2020; Koronen et al. 2020). Supplying data centres with renewable energy \r\nsources is increasing (Cook et al. 2014) and is expected to continue to increase (Koomey et al. 2011). Estimates of energy demand from \r\ndigitalisation (connected and small appliances, data centres, and data networks) combined vary from 5% to 12% of global electricity \r\nuse (Gelenbe and Caseau 2015; Malmodin and Lunden 2018; Ferreboeuf 2019; Diguet and Lopez 2019). According to (Ferreboeuf \r\n2019) the annual increase of energy demand from digitalisation could be limited to 1.5% against the current 4% if sufficiency \r\nmeasures are adopted along the value chain. "


id: 7549f810fb7b474a7e9b44020c0c945d
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 16041
content:
"of whole buildings. Several technologies are listed as being able to \r\nachieve significant performance improvements and cost potentials \r\n(daylighting and electric lighting, household appliances, insulation \r\nmaterials, heat pumps, indirect evaporative cooling, advances in \r\ndigital building automation and control systems, and smart meters \r\nand grids to implement renewable electricity sources)."


id: bcf061ffecbc8519db87327614e8302d
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 27290
content:
"Literature in this topic is extensive, but unfortunately, most studies \r\nand reviews do not relate themselves to climate change mitigation, \r\ntherefore there is a clear gap in reporting the mitigation potential \r\nof the different technologies (Cabeza et  al. 2020). It should be \r\nhighlighted that when assessing the literature, it is clear that a lot \r\nof new research is focused on the improvement of control systems, \r\nincluding the use of artificial intelligence or internet of things (IoT)."


id: 704b9a4e319c02886c5000003a8311a1
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 15285
content:
"This section is organised as follow. First, the key points from AR5 \r\nand special reports are summarised, following with a  summary of \r\nthe technological developments since AR5, specially focusing on \r\nresidential buildings."


id: 1017040d4cb6ed5c141b5bdc9b3421d6
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 16
content:
"As building energy demand is decreased the importance of \r\nembodied energy and embodied carbon in building materials \r\nincreases (Urge-Vorsatz et  al. 2020). Buildings are recognised as \r\nbuilt following five building frames: concrete, wood, masonry, steel, \r\nand composite frames (International Energy Agency 2019a); but \r\nother building frames  should be considered to include worldwide \r\nbuilding construction practice, such as rammed earth and bamboo in \r\nvernacular design (Cabeza et al. 2021)."


id: e83643c8560b687a77ad89d2da280964
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 34043
content:
"The AR5 WG3 Chapter 9 on Buildings (Lucon et al. 2014) presents \r\nmitigation technology options and practices to achieve large \r\nreductions in building energy use as well as a synthesis of documented \r\nexamples of large reductions in energy use achieved in real, new, and \r\nretrofitted buildings in a variety of different climates and examples \r\nof costs at building level. A key point highlighted is the fact that the \r\nconventional process of designing and constructing buildings and \r\nits systems is largely linear, losing opportunities for the optimisation "


id: 77f58b5052b076aa305223322e22d38d
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 16435
content:
"The most prominent materials used following these frames \r\nclassifications are the following. Concrete, a  man-made material, \r\nis the most widely used building material. Wood has been used for \r\nmany centuries for the construction of buildings and other structures \r\nin the built environment; and it remains as an important construction \r\nmaterial today. Steel is the strongest building material; it is mainly "


id: 4aabac65f019e4abd06930936ca11c38
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 9155
content:
"used in industrial facilities and in buildings with big glass envelopes. \r\nMasonry is a  heterogeneous material using bricks, blocks, and \r\nothers, including the traditional stone. Composite structures are \r\nthose involving multiple dissimilar materials. Bamboo is a traditional \r\nbuilding material throughout the world tropical and sub-tropical \r\nregions. Rammed earth can be considered to be included in masonry \r\nconstruction, but it is a  structure very much used in developing \r\ncountries and it is finding new interest in developed ones (Cabeza \r\net al. 2021)."


id: f8083c6976fad5232c50dea5e63947a
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 36536
content:
"!\"!!\"#\r\n$ = %&' x )%&\r\n'\r\n%&' x *+()*)%&\r\n' x *+&+'!\r\n*+()*\r\n= %&' x ,-.. x /.. x 012"


id: ee4bea0d058d022b392903047d025b9e
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 34961
content:
"Figure 9.10 (continued): Decompositions of changes in residential embodied emissions projected by baseline scenarios for 2020-2050, and differences \r\nbetween scenarios in 2050 using two scenarios from the RECC model. (a) Global resolution, and (b) for nine world regions. Emissions are decomposed based on \r\nchanges in driver variables of population, sufficiency (floor area of new construction per capita), material efficiency (material production per floor area), and renewables (GHG \r\nemissions per unit material production). 'Renewables' is a summary term describing changes in GHG intensity of energy supply. Emission projections to 2050, and differences \r\nbetween scenarios in 2050, demonstrate mitigation potentials from the dimensions of the SER framework realised in each model scenario."


id: ad8e59760d6556aa92dd2607e955dd63
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 24847
content:
"Earth architecture is still limited to a niche (Morel and Charef 2019). \r\nSee also Cross-Chapter Box 9 in Chapter 13 for carbon dioxide removal \r\nand its role in mitigation strategies."


id: 340ce4ec582e53b9236ac1b952b7387b
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 5606
content:
"There are many technologies that can reduce energy use in buildings \r\n(Finnegan et  al. 2018; Kockat et  al. 2018a), and those have been \r\nextensively investigated. Other technologies that can contribute to \r\nachieving carbon zero buildings are less present in the literature. \r\nCommon technologies available to achieve zero energy buildings \r\nwere summarised in (Cabeza and Chafer 2020) and are presented in \r\nTables 9.SM.1 to 9.SM.3 in detail, where Figure 9.11 shows a summary."


id: 6cc9bbb8671bfefaf7721f86df678847
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 14730
content:
"Electrical appliances have a  significant contribution to household \r\nelectricity consumption (Pothitou et  al. 2017). Ownership of \r\nappliances, the use of appliances, and the power demand of the \r\nappliances are key contributors to domestic electricity consumption \r\n(Jones et al. 2015). The drivers in energy use of appliances are the \r\nappliance type (e.g.,  refrigerators), number of households, number \r\nof appliances per  household, and energy used by each appliance \r\n(Chu and Bowman 2006; Cabeza et al. 2014; Spiliotopoulos 2019). \r\nAt the same time, household energy-related behaviours are also \r\na driver of energy use of appliances (Khosla et al. 2019) (Section 9.5). \r\nAlthough new technologies such as IoT linked to the appliances \r\nincrease flexibility to reduce peak loads and reduce energy demand "


id: df2c5f7fde53400cebfc91a8b0490a84
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 32612
content:
"Other opportunities exist, such as building light-weighting or more \r\nefficient material production, use and disposal (Hertwich et  al. \r\n2020), fast-growing biomass sources such as hemp, straw or flax as \r\ninsulation in renovation processes (Pittau et al. 2019), bamboo-based \r\nconstruction systems as an alternative to conventional high-impact \r\nsystems in tropical and subtropical climates (Zea Escamilla et al. 2018). "


id: e1609d48d65fdcd460ddbfd504411f7
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 32951
content:
"But appliances are also a significant opportunity for energy efficiency \r\nimprovement. Research on energy efficiency of different appliances \r\nworldwide showed that this research focused in different time frames \r\nin different countries (Figure 9.12). This figure presents the number \r\nof occurrences of a term (the name of a studied appliance) appearing \r\nper year and per country, according to the references obtained from \r\na  Scopus search. The figure shows that most research carried out \r\nwas after 2010. And again, this figure shows that research is mostly \r\ncarried out for refrigerators and for brown appliances such as smart \r\nphones. Moreover, the research carried out worldwide is not only \r\ndevoted to technological aspects, but also to behavioural aspects \r\nand quality of service (such as digital television or smart phones)."


id: b961f9127579f124bb38280ed024ec9a
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 26710
content:
"(Kramer  et  al. 2020), trends show that appliances account for an \r\nincreasing amount of building energy consumption (Figure  9.8). \r\nAppliances used in Developed Countries consume electricity and \r\nnot fuels (fossil or renewable), which often have a  relatively high \r\ncarbon footprint. The rapid increase in appliance ownership (Cabeza \r\net al. 2018b) can affect the electricity grid. Moreover, energy intensity \r\nimprovement in appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, \r\nTVs, and computers has counteracted the substantial increase \r\nin ownership and use since the year 2000 (International Energy \r\nAgency 2019b)."


id: 6e1ed0cf3382858ef1e2c3cf025e87d0
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
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content:
"On the other hand, a heritage building is a historical building which, for \r\ntheir immense value, is subject to legal preservation. The integration of \r\nrenewable energy systems in such buildings is more challenging than \r\nin other buildings. In the review carried out by Cabeza et al. (2018a) \r\ndifferent case studies are presented and discussed, where heat pumps, \r\nsolar energy and geothermal energy systems are integrated in such \r\nbuildings, after energy efficiency is considered."


id: c54c77a29623c35eceea928ed4f3b82c
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 28621
content:
"Lighting energy accounts for around 19% of global electricity \r\nconsumption (Attia et al. 2017; Enongene et al. 2017; Baloch et al. \r\n2018). Many studies have reported the correlation between the \r\ndecrease in energy consumption and the improvement of the energy \r\nefficiency of lighting appliances (Table 9.1). Today, the new standards \r\nrecommend the phase out of incandescent light bulbs, linear \r\nfluorescent lamps, and halogen lamps and their substitution by more \r\nefficient technologies such as compact fluorescent lighting (CFL) and \r\nlight-emitting diodes (LEDs) (Figure 9.8). Due to the complexity of \r\nthese systems, simulation tools are used for the design and study \r\nof such systems, which can be summarised in Baloch et al. (2018)."


id: 9b40e3773b852c5fcef4f2f505526411
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 21968
content:
"Single-phase induction motors are extensively used in residential \r\nappliances and other building low-power applications. Conventional \r\nmotors work with fixed speed regime directly fed from the grid, giving \r\nunsatisfactory performance (low efficiency, poor power factor, and \r\npoor torque pulsation). Variable speed control techniques improve \r\nthe performance of such motors (Jannati et al. 2017)."


id: 42375cfcfc36c186ee4b3d89a36676c6
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 7817
content:
"Within the control strategies to improve energy efficiency in appliances, \r\nenergy monitoring for energy management has been extensively \r\nresearched. Abubakar et al. (2017) present a review of those methods. \r\nThe paper distinguishes between intrusive load monitoring (ILM), with \r\ndistributed sensing, and non-intrusive load monitoring (NILM), based \r\non a single point sensing."


id: 5863da29d78a11eca8c7a3bcad418434
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 11411
content:
"Nearly zero energy (NZE) buildings or low-energy buildings are possible \r\nin all world relevant climate zones (Mata et al. 2020b; Urge-Vorsatz \r\net al. 2020) (Figure 9.13). Moreover, they are possible both for new \r\nand retrofitted buildings. Different envelope design and technologies \r\nare needed, depending on the climate and the building shape and \r\norientation. For example, using the Passive House standard an annual \r\nheating and cooling energy demand decrease between 75% and \r\n95% compared to conventional values can be achieved. Table 9.2 lists \r\nseveral exemplary low- and NZE-buildings with some of their feature."


id: f9fcfcc4cd53f74a828335683929fa58
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 36838
content:
"Historical buildings, defined as those built before 1945, are usually \r\nlow-performance buildings by definition from the space heating point \r\nof view and represent almost 30-40% of the whole building stock \r\nin European countries (Cabeza et  al. 2018a). Historical buildings \r\noften contribute to townscape character, they create the urban \r\nspaces that are enjoyed by residents and attract tourist visitors. They \r\nmay be protected by law from alteration not only limited to their \r\nvisual appearance preservation, but also concerning materials and \r\nconstruction techniques to be integrated into original architectures. "


id: e4e7c6ec27904b5e01f7c3980139faa
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 33494
content:
"Table 9.2 | Selected exemplary low- and net zero- energy buildings worldwide. Sources: adapted from Morck (2017); Schnieders et al. (2020); Urge-Vorsatz et al. (2020)."


id: 1e1737e25b90583aa17e744326b5ad8f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 2171
content:
"Income is positively correlated to energy demand (Cayla et al. 2011; \r\nSreekanth et al. 2011; Couture et al. 2012; Moura et al. 2015; Singh \r\net al. 2017; Yu 2017; Bissiri et al. 2019; Mata et al. 2021b). High-income \r\nhouseholds tend to use more efficient appliances and are likely to be \r\nmore educated and environmentally sensitive, but their higher living \r\nstandards require more energy (Harold et al. 2015; Hidalgo et al. 2018). \r\nLow-income households are in higher risk of fuel poverty (Section 9.8). "


id: d45ff7dbe2b94d3775feb83de404eb3f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 30933
content:
"Non-technological (NT) measures are key for low-carbon buildings, \r\nbut still attract less attention than technological measures (Creutzig \r\net al. 2016, 2018; Ruparathna et al. 2016; Mundaca et al. 2019; Vence \r\nand Pereira 2019; Cabeza et al. 2020; Mata et al. 2021b). The section \r\nis set out to understand, over the building's lifecycle, NT determinants \r\nof buildings' energy demand and emissions (Section 9.5.1); to present \r\nNT climate mitigation actions (Section  9.5.2); then, to understand \r\nhow to get these actions implemented (Section 9.5.3). The latter is \r\na starting point in the design of policies (Section 9.9)."


id: 40563f6c9ca7e90433848cc439456332
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
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content:
"Mixed effects are found for household size, age, gender, ethnicity, \r\neducation levels and tenancy status (Engvall et  al. 2014; Hansen \r\n2016; Levy and Belaid 2018; Arawomo 2019; Rafiee et  al. 2019). \r\nSingle-parent and elderly households consume more gas and \r\nelectricity, and gender has no significant effect (Brounen et al. 2012; \r\nHarold et al. 2015; Huang 2015). Similarly, larger families use less \r\nelectricity per capita (Bedir et al. 2013; Kavousian et al. 2013). Heating \r\nexpenditure tends to be higher for owners than for renters, despite \r\nthe formers tendency to have more efficient appliances (Gillingham \r\net al. 2012; Davis, 2012; Kavousian et al. 2015)."


id: 9f7ae443aeb9c1d25e519e9fbb5e8ca0
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 22632
content:
"Buildings climate impact includes CO2 emissions from operational \r\nenergy use, carbon footprint, PM2.5 concentrations and embodied \r\ncarbon, and is unequivocally driven by GDP, income, population, \r\nbuildings floor area, energy price, climate, behaviour, and social and \r\nphysical environment (Wolske et al. 2020; Mata et al. 2021d)."


id: eede9b84f14d7af13fc7a09854872916
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 35054
content:
"Occupants presence and movement, interactions with the building, \r\ncomfort-driven adaptations and cultural practices determine energy \r\nconsumption (Hong et al. 2017; Yan et al. 2017; D'Oca et al. 2018; \r\nKhosla et al. 2019; Li et al. 2019; O'Brien et al. 2020). Households \r\nconsume more on weekends and public holidays, and households with \r\nemployed occupants consume less than self-employed occupants, \r\nprobably because some of the latter jobs are in-house (Harold et al. \r\n2015; Hidalgo et al. 2018). Understanding and accurate modelling of \r\noccupant behaviour is crucial to reduce the gap between design and \r\nenergy performance (Gunay et al. 2013; Yan et al. 2017), especially \r\nfor more efficient buildings, which rely on passive design features, \r\nhuman-centred technologies, and occupant engagement (Grove\u0002Smith et al. 2018; Pitts 2017). "


id: a4bb1c4a8de9e46d144c01e24885dfe1
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 23489
content:
"Outdoor temperature, heating and cooling degree days, sunshine \r\nhours, rainfall, humidity and wind are highly determinant of energy \r\ndemand (Tol et al. 2012; Rosenberg 2014; Harold et al. 2015; Risch and \r\nSalmon 2017; Lindberg et al. 2019). Density, compacity, and spatial \r\neffects define the surrounding environment and urban microclimate. \r\nUrban residents usually have a relatively affluent lifestyle, but use \r\nless energy for heating (Niu et al. 2012; Huang 2015; Rafiee et al. \r\n2019; Ayoub 2019; Oh and Kim 2019). Urbanisation is discussed \r\nin Chapter 8."


id: b09983e419ed358216ef78fdcde2fd95
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 25303
content:
"Climate variability and extreme events may drastically increase peak \r\nand annual energy consumption (Hong et al. 2013; Cui et al. 2017; \r\nMashhoodi et al. 2019). Climate change effects on future demand and \r\nemissions, are discussed in Section 9.7, and effects of temperature on \r\nhealth and productivity, in Section 9.8."


id: f9d0e4ad35726dab8c7351d19e4c159b
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"A range of NT actions can substantially reduce buildings energy \r\ndemand and emissions (Figure  9.14; see Supplementary Material \r\n9.SM.2 for details). The subsections below present insights on the \r\nvariations depending on the solution, subsector, and region."


id: 827e6792cf4b4f7219ebe57ec99c40ee
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Building typology and floor area (or e.g., number of bedrooms or lot \r\nsize) are correlated to energy demand (Manzano-Agugliaro et al. 2015; \r\nMoura et al. 2015; Fosas et al. 2018; Morganti et al. 2019; Berrill et al. \r\n2021). Affluence is embedded in these variables as higher-income \r\nhouseholds have larger homes and lots. Residential consumption \r\nincreases with the number of occupants but consumption per capita \r\ndecreases proportionally to it (Serrano et al. 2017). Construction or \r\nrenovation year has a negative correlation as recently built buildings \r\nmust comply with increasingly strict standards (Brounen et al. 2012; \r\nKavousian et  al. 2015; Osterbring et  al. 2016). Only for electricity \r\nconsumption no significant correlation is observed to building age \r\n(Kavousian et  al. 2013). Material choices, bioclimatic and circular \r\ndesign discussed in Section 9.4.2."


id: b353e5c3b6d341b15b3373f0ed6d3db
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Bioclimatic design and passive strategies for natural heating, cooling \r\nand lighting, can greatly reduce buildings' climate impact, and avoid \r\ncooling in developing countries (Bienvenido-Huertas et  al. 2021, \r\n2020; Amirifard et  al. 2019). Design can provide additional small \r\nsavings, for example, by placing refrigerator away from the oven, \r\nradiators or windows (Christidou et al. 2014). Passive management \r\nrefers to adjustments in human behaviour such as adapted clothing, \r\nallocation of activities in the rooms of the building to minimise the "


id: 7e9838ba89086d278ee68355d2d43a84
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 17483
content:
"energy use (Klein et  al. 2012; Rafsanjani et  al. 2015) or manual \r\noperation of the building envelope (Rijal et  al. 2012; Volochovic \r\net  al. 2012). Quantitative modelling of such measures is most \r\ncommon for non-residential buildings, in which adaptive behaviours \r\nare affected by the office space distribution and interior design, \r\namount of occupants, visual comfort, outdoor view, and easy-to-use \r\ncontrol mechanisms (O'Brien and Gunay 2014; Talele et  al. 2018). \r\nSocio-demographic factors, personal characteristics and contextual \r\nfactors also influence occupant behaviour and their interactions with \r\nbuildings (D'Oca et al. 2018b; Hong et al. 2020). "


id: b212241a1191c0024a00ab361e77fcc6
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Adjustment in the set-point temperature in winter and summer results \r\nin savings between 5% and 25% (Ayoub et al. 2014; Christidou et al. \r\n2014; Taniguchi et al. 2016; Sun and Hong 2017). As introduced in \r\nSection 9.3, a series of recent works study a cap on the living area \r\n(Mata et  al. 2021a) or an increase in household size (Berrill et  al. \r\n2021). These studies are promising but of limited complexity in \r\nterms of rebounds, interactions with other measures, and business \r\nmodels, thus require further investigation. Professional assistance \r\nand training on these issues is limited (Maxwell et al. 2018)."


id: afa1888b743a858aec50eb65227c205e
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 25147
content:
"Active management refers to human control of building energy \r\nsystems. Efficient lighting practices can effectively reduce summer \r\npeak demand (Dixon et  al. 2015; Taniguchi et  al. 2016). On the \r\ncontrary, the application of the daylight-saving time in the US \r\nincreases up to 7% lighting consumption (Rakha et  al. 2018). \r\nEfficient cooking practices for cooking, appliance use (e.g.,  avoid \r\nstand-by regime, select eco-mode), or for hot water can save up \r\nto 25% (Peschiera and Taylor 2012; Teng et  al. 2012; Abrahamse \r\nand Steg 2013; Berezan et al. 2013; Hsiao et al. 2014; Dixon et al. \r\n2015; Reichert et al. 2016). High behavioural control is so far proven \r\ndifficult to achieve (Ayoub et al. 2014; Skold et al. 2018). Automated \r\ncontrols and technical measures to trigger occupant operations are \r\naddressed in Section 9.4."


id: b3d0f0037c4f0ef8a2105d84d6ccc051
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 25808
content:
"Willingness to adopt is found for certain measures (full load to \r\nlaundry appliances, lid on while cooking, turning lights off, defer \r\nelectricity usage and HVAC systems, adjust set-point temperature by \r\n1degC) but not for others (appliances on standby, using more clothes, \r\navoid leaving the TV on while doing other things, defer ovens, ironing \r\nor heating systems, adjust set-point temperature by 3degC, move to \r\na  low energy house or smaller apartment) (Yohanis 2012; Brown \r\net  al. 2013; Li et  al. 2017; Skold et  al. 2018). A positive synergy \r\nwith digitalisation and smart home appliances is identified, driven \r\nby a  combination of comfort requirements and economic interest, \r\nconfirmed by a willingness to defer electricity usage in exchange for \r\ncost savings (Ferreira et al. 2018; Mata et al. 2020c)."


id: 855c3f3965128bb6da93b5d736ebb8dc
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Cooperative efforts are necessary to improve buildings energy \r\nefficiency (Masuda and Claridge 2014; Kamilaris et  al. 2014; \r\nRuparathna et al. 2016). For instance, interdisciplinary understanding \r\nof organisational culture, occupant behaviour, and technology \r\nadoption is required to set up occupancy/operation best practises \r\n(Janda 2014). Similarly, close collaboration of all actors along the \r\nvalue chain can reduce by 50% emissions from concrete use (Habert \r\net al. 2020); such collaboration can be enhanced in a construction \r\nproject by transforming the project organisation and delivery contract \r\nto reduce costs and environmental impact (Hall and Bonanomi \r\n2021). Building commissioning helps to reduce energy consumption \r\nby streamlining the systems, but benefits may not persist. Energy \r\ncommunities are discussed later in the chapter. "


id: b46da11119d6f7b84650d53bf8c06ebd
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"In a flexible behaviour, the desired level of service is the same, but \r\nit can be shifted over time, typically allowing automated control, \r\nfor the benefit of the electricity or district heating networks. There \r\nare substantial economic, technical, and behavioural benefits from \r\nimplementing flexibility measures (Mata et al. 2020c), with unknown \r\nsocial impacts."


id: 87c3e4ca0d276436e4ce1ad1444aa24f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"NT challenges include training and software costs (tailored learning \r\nprograms, learning-by-doing, human capital mobilisation), client and \r\nmarket demand (service specification, design and provision, market \r\nand financial analysis) and legal issues (volatile energy prices, meeting \r\nregulation); and partnership, governance and commercialisation. \r\nThese challenges are identified for Building Information Modelling \r\n(BIM) (Oduyemi et  al. 2017; Rahman and Ayer 2019), PV industry \r\n(Triana et al. 2018), smart living (Solaimani et al. 2015) or circular \r\neconomy (Vence and Pereira 2019). "


id: 75c55a07627384062538216a1d284abc
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 16123
content:
"Non-technological CSE solutions, based on the Regenerate, Share, \r\nOptimise, Loop, Virtualise, Exchange (ReSOLVE) framework (CE100 \r\n2016; ARUP 2018) include sharing, virtualising and exchanging. \r\nThese are less studied than circular materials, with notably less \r\ninvestigation of existing buildings and sharing solutions (Pomponi \r\nand Moncaster 2017; Hoibye and Sand 2018; Kyro 2020; European \r\nCommission 2020). "


id: f37e5faa7b9203998102e92831f1aede
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 35819
content:
"Mixed effects are found for technical issues, attitudes, and values \r\n(Table 9.3). In spite of proven positive environmental attitudes and \r\nwillingness to adopt mitigation solutions, these are outweighed by \r\nfinancial aspects all over the world (Mata et  al. 2021b). Adopters \r\nin Developed Countries are more sensitive towards financial issues \r\nand comfort disruptions; whereas in other world regions techno\u0002economic concerns prevail. Private consumers seem ready to support \r\nstronger governmental action, whereas non-private interventions are \r\nhindered by constraints in budgets and profits, institutional barriers \r\nand complexities (Curtis et al. 2017; Zuhaib et al. 2017; Tsoka et al. \r\n2018; Kim et al. 2019)."


id: f74fc06e864ec1dc61706b7542f9513
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"A variety of interventions targeted to heterogeneous consumer \r\ngroups and decision makers is needed to fulfil their diverse needs \r\n(Zhang et al. 2012; Haines and Mitchell 2014; Gram-Hanssen 2014; \r\nMarshall et  al. 2015; Friege et  al. 2016; Hache et  al. 2017; Liang \r\net al. 2017; Ketchman et al. 2018; Soland et al. 2018). Policy reviews \r\nfor specific market segments and empirical studies investigating \r\ninvestment decisions would benefit from a multidisciplinary approach \r\nto energy consumption patterns and market maturity (Boyd 2016; \r\nHeiskanen and Matschoss 2017; Baumhof et al. 2018; Marzano et al. \r\n2018; Wilson et al. 2018). "


id: e51613425837a74017af43d017efa86b
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Table 9.3 | Reasons for Adoption of Climate Mitigation Solutions. The sign represents if the effect is positive (+) or negative (-), and the number of signs represents \r\nconfidence level (++, many references; +, few references) (Mata et al. 2021a)."


id: b2b0672c11fcda3f6af33fa4e10e1687
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vector_id: 25635
content:
"own-environmental values (Mortensen et  al. 2016; Heiskanen and \r\nMatschoss 2017; Ketchman et al. 2018). "


id: e697fc6410544b3a5e218332035b5e6f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"In North America and Europe, personal attitudes, values, and \r\nexisting information and support are the most and equally important \r\nreasons for improving the building envelope. Consumers have some \r\neconomic concerns and little technical concerns, the latter related to \r\nthe performance and maintenance of the installed solutions (Mata \r\net al. 2021a). In other world regions or climate zones the literature \r\nis limited."


id: a8e41f7756cd4188b9149032d5a3d472
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Although consumers are willing to install distributed RES worldwide, \r\nand information has successfully supported their roll out, economic \r\nand governmental support is still necessary for their full deployment. \r\nTechnical issues remain for either very novel technologies or for \r\nthe integration of RES in the energy system (Urge-Vorsatz et  al. \r\n2020; Mata et al. 2021a). Capacities are to be built by coordinated \r\nactions by all stakeholders (Musonye et al. 2020). To this aim, energy \r\ncommunities and demonstrative interventions at local scale are key \r\nto address technical, financial, regulatory and structural barriers and \r\ndocument long-term benefits (von Wirth et al. 2018; Shafique et al. \r\n2020; Fouladvand et al. 2020)."


id: 3a031e676683a1a6d4f7dbb400707bcc
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Motivations are often triggered by urgent comfort or replacement \r\nneeds. Maintaining the aesthetic value may as well hinder the \r\ninstallation of insulation if no technical solutions are easily available \r\n(Haines and Mitchell 2014; Bright et al. 2019). Local professionals \r\nand practitioners can both encourage (Friege 2016; Ozarisoy and \r\nAltan 2017) and discourage the installation of insulation, according \r\nto their knowledge and training (Curtis et al. 2017; Zuhaib et al. 2017; \r\nMaxwell et al. 2018; Tsoka et al. 2018). If energy renovations of the \r\nbuildings envelopes are not normative, cooperative ownership may \r\nbe a  barrier in apartment buildings (Miezis et  al. 2016). Similarly, \r\nproduct information and labelling may be helpful or overwhelming \r\n(Ozarisoy and Altan 2017; Lilley et  al. 2017; Bright et  al. 2019). \r\nDecisions are correlated to governmental support (Swantje et  al. \r\n2015; Tam et  al. 2016) and peer information (Friege et  al. 2016; \r\nFriege 2016)."


id: 2cdecd381a74e2fef4007d53df6ef600
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Regarding solar technologies, heterogeneous decisions are formed \r\nby socio-demographic, economic and technical predictors interwoven \r\nwith a variety of behavioural traits (Alipour et al. 2020; Khan 2020). \r\nStudies on PV adoption confirm place-specific (various spatial \r\nand peer effects), multi-scalar cultural dynamics (Bollinger and \r\nGillingham 2012; Schaffer and Brun 2015; Graziano and Gillingham \r\n2015). Environmental concern and technophilia drive the earliest PV \r\nadopters, while later adopters value economic gains (Hampton and \r\nEckermann 2013; Jager-Waldau et al. 2018; Abreu et al. 2019; Palm \r\n2020). Previous experience with similar solutions increases adoption \r\n(Baumhof et al. 2018; Qurashi and Ahmed 2019; Bach et al. 2020; \r\nReindl and Palm 2020). "


id: c36ee7d6eb032fecc6d324b8edc12522
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"The intervention is required to be cost efficient, although value could \r\nbe placed in the amount of energy saved (Mortensen et  al. 2016; \r\nLilley et al. 2017; Howarth and Roberts 2018; Kim et al. 2019) or the \r\nshort payback period (Miezis et al. 2016). Subsidies have a positive \r\neffect (Swan et al. 2017)."


id: 7963866b7ca297a671bac550dbbd3e9
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content:
"Studies on low-carbon materials tend to focus on wood-based \r\nbuilding systems and prefabricated housing construction, mostly \r\nin high-income countries, as many sustainable managed forestries \r\nand factories for prefabricated housing concentrated in such regions \r\n(Mata et al. 2021a). This uneven promotion of wood can lead to its \r\noverconsumption (Pomponi et al. 2020). "


id: 9001aba0fd3fdb1c66170ab47f025630
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updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"Mixed willingness is found to adopt efficient technologies. While \r\nDeveloped Countries are positive towards building envelope \r\ntechnologies, appliances such as A-rated equipment or condensing \r\nboilers are negatively perceived (Yohanis 2012). In contrast, adopters \r\nin Asia are positive towards energy-saving appliances (Liao et  al. \r\n2020; Spandagos et al. 2020)."


id: 4cd61a5a6adfe21f15a14527f2bfba34
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updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Although the solutions are not yet implemented at scale, examples \r\ninclude the adoption of low carbon cement in Cuba motivated by the \r\npossibility of supplying the rising demand with low initial investment \r\ncosts (Cancio Diaz et al. 2017) or adoption of bamboo-based social \r\nhouses in The Philippines motivated by local job creation and typhoon \r\nresistance (Zea Escamilla et al. 2016). More generally, low investment \r\ncosts and high level decision-making, for example, political will and \r\nenvironmental values of society, increase the adoption rate of low\u0002carbon materials (Steinhardt and Manley 2016; Lien and Lolli 2019; \r\nHertwich et al. 2020). In contrast, observed barriers include lobbying \r\nby traditional materials industries, short-term political decision \r\nmaking (Tozer 2019) and concerns over technical performance, risk \r\nof damage, and limited alternatives available (Thomas et al. 2014). "


id: f8f04c11cb8a1f5792c26f9fba76b936
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content:
"Comfort, economic and ecological aspects, as well as information \r\ninfluence the purchase of a  heating system (Claudy et  al. 2011; \r\nDecker and Menrad 2015). Information and support from different \r\nstakeholders are the most relevant aspects in different geographical \r\ncontexts (Hernandez-Roman et al. 2017; Tumbaz and Mogulkoc 2018; \r\nCurtis et al. 2018; Bright et al. 2019; Chu and Wang 2019). "


id: f3eea9807bc0d2fa0d9aa6094c7533cb
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updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Among high-income countries, economy aspects have positive \r\neffects, specially reductions in energy bills and financial incentives \r\nor subsidies (Chun and Jiang 2013; Christidou et al. 2014; Mortensen \r\net  al. 2016; Clancy et  al. 2017; Ketchman et  al. 2018). Having \r\ncomplementary technologies already in place also has positively \r\naffects adoption (Zografakis et  al. 2012; Clancy et  al. 2017), but \r\nperformance and maintenance concerns appear as barriers (Qiu et al. \r\n2014). The solutions are positively perceived as high-technology \r\ninnovative, to enhance status, and are supported by peers and "


id: 8e6eadc71de7c75b0a5f722cb39f08ab
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updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 19931
content:
"Demand-supply flexibility measures are experimentally being adopted \r\nin North America, Europe, and Asia-Pacific Developed  regions. "


id: fe262116b8d78be6777d807eb63f93ac
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updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 37514
content:
"Although training is a basic requirement, attitude, past experience, \r\nand social pressure can also be highly relevant, as illustrated for \r\nwaste management in a survey to construction site workers (Amal \r\net  al. 2017). Traditional community practices of reuse of building \r\nelements are observed to be replaced by a culture of waste (Ajayi \r\net al. 2015; Hongping 2017)."


id: 95c8dff6bef31e75851dd71783810094
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Changes  in the current regulatory framework would facilitate \r\nparticipation based on trust and transparent communication \r\n(Wolsink 2012; Nyborg and Ropke 2013; Mata et al. 2020b). However, \r\nconsumers expect governments and energy utilities to steer the \r\ntransition (Seidl et al. 2019)."


id: aedfc4fd91bd66df68ee90c751a139f0
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content:
"Economic challenges are observed, as unclear business models, \r\ndisadvantageous market models and high costs of advanced smart \r\nmetering. Technical challenges include constraints for HPs and \r\nseasonality of space heating demands. Social challenges relate to lack \r\nof awareness of real-time price information and inadequate technical \r\nunderstanding. Consumers lack acceptance towards comfort changes \r\n(noise, overnight heating) and increased automation (Drysdale et al. \r\n2015; Bradley et  al. 2016; Sweetnam et  al. 2019). Risks identified \r\ninclude higher peaks and congestions in low price-hours, difficulties \r\nin designing electricity tariffs because of conflicts with CO2 intensity, \r\nand potential instability in the entire electricity system caused by \r\ntariffs coupling to wholesale electricity pricing."


id: d0bd6a31ad70272422204430b0569d79
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
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content:
"Section  9.4 provides an update on technological options and \r\npractices, which allow constructing and retrofitting individual \r\nbuildings to produce very low emissions during their operation \r\nphase. Since AR5, the world has seen a  growing number of such \r\nbuildings in all populated continents, and a  growing amount of \r\nliterature calculates the mitigation potential for different countries \r\nif such technologies and practices penetrate at scale. Figure  9.15 \r\nsynthesises the results of sixty-seven bottom-up studies, which \r\nrely on the bottom-up technology-reach approach and assess the \r\npotential of such technologies and practices, aggregated to stock of \r\ncorresponding products and/or buildings at national level. "


id: 6fb1d7dc42b2a5c465acc67e96b66cd8
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updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
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content:
"Emerging market players are changing customer utility relationships, \r\nas the grid is challenged with intermittent loads and integration \r\nneeds for ICTs, interfering with consumers requirements of autonomy \r\nand privacy (Wolsink 2012; Parag and Sovacool 2016). Although \r\nmost private PV owners would make their storage system available \r\nas balancing load for the grid operator, the acquisition of new \r\nbatteries by a majority of consumers requires incentives (Gahrs et al. \r\n2015). For distributed energy hubs, social acceptance depends on the \r\namount of local benefits in economic, environmental or social terms \r\n(Kalkbrenner and Roosen 2015), and increases around demonstration \r\nprojects (von Wirth et al. 2018)."


id: a1fe62d072296066d6c1c5e9ba45a34d
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"The circular and sharing economy begins to be perceived as \r\norganisational and technologically innovative, with the potential \r\nto provide superior customer value, response to societal trends and \r\npositive marketing (Mercado 2018; Cantzler et  al. 2020; Nussholz \r\net  al. 2020). Although technical and regulatory challenges remain, \r\nthere are key difficulties around the demonstration of a business case \r\nfor both consumers and the supply chain (Pomponi and Moncaster \r\n2017; Hart et al. 2019)."


id: 2e0aad1e1e844f2ff69a1fa2d289e1cc
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"The analysis of Figure 9.15 illustrates that there is a large body of \r\nliterature attesting to mitigation potential in the countries of Europe \r\nand North America of up to 55-85% and in Asia-Pacific Developed of \r\nup to 45% in 2050, as compared to their sector baseline emissions, \r\neven though they sometimes decline. For developing countries, \r\nthe literature estimates the potential of up to 40-80% in 2050, as \r\ncompared to their sharply growing baselines. The interpretation \r\nof these estimates should be cautious because the studies rely \r\non assumptions with uncertainties and feasibility constrains (see \r\nSections 9.6.4, Figure 9.20 and Supplementary Material Table 9.SM.6). "


id: 41b7ba40be149c7eb644a85357631c11
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"via policies and measures. Nearly all national or regional studies \r\noriginate from Europe and North America recognising challenges, \r\nDeveloped Countries face toward decarbonisation. Thus, Goldstein \r\net  al. (2020) suggested prioritising the reduction in floor space of \r\nwealthier population and more efficient space planning because grid \r\ndecarbonisation is not enough to meet the U.S. target by 2050 whereas \r\naffluent suburbs may have 15 times higher emission footprints than \r\nnearby neighbourhoods. Cabrera Serrenho et  al. (2019) argue that \r\nreducing the UK floor area is a  low cost mitigation option given \r\na low building replacement rate and unreasonably high retrofit costs \r\nof existing buildings. Lorek and Spangenberg (2019) discusses the \r\nopportunity of reducing building emissions in Germany fitting better \r\nthe structure of the dwelling stock to the declined average household \r\nsize, as most dwellings have 3-4 rooms while most households have \r\nonly one person. "


id: 130a6f14bd26af232b4c6fd049403f9c
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"The novelty since AR5 is emerging bottom-up literature, which \r\nattempts to account for potential at national and global level from \r\napplying the sufficiency approach (see Box  9.1 in Section  9.1 and \r\ndecomposition analysis in Section  9.3.2). In spite of the reducing \r\nenergy use per unit of floor area at an average rate of 1.3% per year, \r\nthe growth of floor area at an average rate of 3% per year causes \r\nrising energy demand and GHG emissions because each new square \r\nmeter must be served with thermal comfort and/or other amenities\r\n(International Energy Agency 2017; Ellsworth-Krebs 2020). Nearly all \r\nstudies reviewed in Figure 9.15 assume the further growth of floor \r\narea per capita until 2050, with many studies of developing countries \r\ntargeting today per capita floor area as in Europe."


id: 27f4d6a45e59519aa518926bb1720553
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"Table  9.4 reviews the bottom-up literature, which quantifies the \r\npotential from reorganisation of human activities, efficient design, \r\nplanning, and use of building space, higher density of building \r\nand settlement inhabitancy, redefining and downsizing goods and \r\nequipment, limiting their use to health, living, and working standards, \r\nand their sharing, recognising the number of square meters and \r\ndevices as a determinant of GHG emissions that could be impacted "


id: cd0b860a1efcd8e27f26fd4a404f70bb
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"Whereas these studies suggest sufficiency as an important option for \r\nDeveloped Countries, global studies argue that it is also important \r\nfor the developing world. This is because it provides the means to \r\naddress inequality, poverty reduction and social inclusion, ensuring "


id: e63f6d1cac5692b9640a9f95e7713397
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"Table 9.4 | Potential GHG emission reduction in the building sector offered by the introduction of sufficiency as a main or additional measure, as \r\nreported by bottom-up (or hybrid) literature."


id: d5a4cbc20df2c76e1d61f8105de8b70a
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"the provision of acceptable living standards for the entire global \r\npopulation given the planetary boundaries. As Figure 9.6 illustrates, \r\nthe largest share of current construction occurs in developing \r\ncountries, while these countries follow a similar demographic track \r\nof declining household sizes versus increasing dwelling areas. This \r\ntrajectory translates into the importance of their awareness of the \r\nlikely similar forthcoming challenges, and the need in early efficient \r\nplanning of infrastructure and buildings with a focus on space usage \r\nand density."


id: f0c6032625057d0549a4d846d8d744ff
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"regional absolute potentials. When several bottom-up studies were \r\nidentified for a region, either a rounded average or a rounded median \r\nfigure was taken, giving the preference to the one that was closest \r\nto the potential estimates of countries with very large contribution to \r\nregional baseline emissions in 2050 (e.g., to China in Eastern Asia). \r\nFurthermore, we preferred studies, which assessed the whole or \r\na large share of sector emissions and considered a comprehensive \r\nset of measures. The regional baseline emissions, refer to the World \r\nEnergy Outlook (WEO) Current Policy Scenario (International Energy \r\nAgency 2019c). The sector mitigation potential reported in Chapter 12 \r\nfor the year 2030 was estimated in the same manner. "


id: 5286a4d7026bd95f9a7cb8415db7ec09
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"Figure 9.16 presents the mitigation potential in the building sector \r\nfor the world and each region in 2050, estimated as a  result of \r\nthis aggregation exercise. The potentials presented in the figure \r\nare different from those reported in Section  9.3.3, where they are \r\nestimated by IEA and IMAGE hybrid model. The figure provides \r\ntwo breakdowns of the potential, into the reduction of direct and \r\nindirect emissions as well as into the reduction of emissions from \r\nintroducing sufficiency, energy efficiency, and renewable energy \r\nmeasures. The potential estimates rely on the incremental stepwise \r\napproach, assembling the measures according to the SER framework "


id: ac84770c7970324442ec667e5571e560
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"This section presents an aggregation of bottom-up potential \r\nestimates for different countries into regional and then global \r\nfigures for 2050, based on literature presented in Section  9.6.1. \r\nFirst, national potential estimates reported as a  share of baseline \r\nemissions in 2050 were aggregated into regional potential estimates. \r\nSecond, the latter were multiplied with regional baseline emissions \r\nto calculate the regional potential in absolute numbers. Third, the \r\nglobal potential in absolute numbers was calculated as a  sum of "


id: badbee2b04f5b91366389b670ea081b6
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"Figure 9.16 | Global and regional estimates of GHG emissions in the building sector in 2020 and 2050, and their potential reduction in 2050 broken \r\ndown by measure (sufficiency/energy efficiency/renewable energy) and by emission source (direct/indirect). Note: the baseline refers to the WEO Current Policy \r\nScenario (International Energy Agency 2019c). It may differ from other chapters."


id: 86839970e3da4dab77e3a2fbfc8866cd
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"space, housing swaps, shared homes and facilities, space and room \r\nrenting, and others (Bierwirth and Thomas 2019a; Ivanova and Buchs \r\n2020; Ellsworth-Krebs 2020). Whereas literature does not provide \r\na  robust cost assessment of the sufficiency potential, it indicates \r\nthat these measures are likely to be at no or very little cost (Cabrera \r\nSerrenho et al. 2019)."


id: 9a9ea705d9a99a370ab95c93c68422a6
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"(Box 9.1) and correcting the amount of the potential at each step for \r\nthe interaction of measures. The sequence of energy efficiency and \r\nrenewable energy measures follow the conclusion of the IPCC Special \r\nReport on Global Warming of 1.5degC (SR1.5) (Rogelj et al. 2018) that \r\nlower energy demand allows more choice of low-carbon energy \r\nsupply options, and therefore such sequencing is more beneficial and \r\ncost-effective."


id: a7b1939169a4d4a7388299de4d3132a3
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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content:
"The exchange of lights, appliances, and office equipment, including \r\nICT, water heating, and cooking technologies could reduce more than \r\n8% and 13% of the total sector baseline emissions in developed \r\nand developing countries respectively, typically at negative cost \r\n(Department of Environmental Affairs 2014; de Melo and de Martino \r\nJannuzzi 2015; Prada-Hernandez et  al. 2015; Subramanyam et  al. \r\n2017a,b; Gonzalez-Mahecha et  al. 2019; Grande-Acosta and Islas\u0002Samperio 2020). This cost-effectiveness is, however, often reduced \r\nby a larger size of appliances and advanced features, which offset \r\na share of positive economic effects (Molenbroek et al. 2015). "


id: 7300f4a31800d2b621cc2ac422d9aaa5
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"Literature agrees that new advanced buildings, using design, form, \r\nand passive building construction equipped with demand-side \r\nmeasures, and advanced HVAC technologies can reduce the sector \r\ntotal baseline emissions in developed and developing countries by \r\nat least 10% and 25% in 2050, respectively, and renewable energy \r\ntechnologies backed-up with demand-side flexibility and digitalisation \r\nmeasures typically installed in new buildings could further reduce \r\nthese emissions by at least 11% and 7% (see also Cross-Chapter \r\nBox  12 in Chapter  16). The literature, however, provides different \r\nand sometimes conflicting information of their cost-effectiveness. \r\nEsser et  al. (2019) reported that by 2016, the perceived share of \r\nbuildings similar or close to NZEB in the new construction was just "


id: 761cee68ddbeb68a4a4b6807ae8c4803
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"Figure  9.17 indicates that a  very large share of the potential in \r\nDeveloped Countries could be realised through the introduction \r\nof sufficiency measures (at least 18% of their baseline emissions). \r\nLiterature identifies many opportunities, which may help \r\noperationalise it. These are reorganisation of human activities, \r\nteleworking, coworking, more efficient space design, planning and \r\nuse, higher density of building and settlement inhabitancy, flexible "


id: 124f7ba95d914318ccbd18a1efe64cac
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"** including the change in construction methods; management and operation of buildings; and efficient heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning.\r\n*** typically in new high performance buildings."


id: e7418e1bde65f42682fccdf232001569
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"Figure 9.17 | Indicative breakdown of GHG emission reduction potential of the buildings sector in developed and developing countries into measure \r\nand costs in 2050, in absolute figures with uncertainty ranges and as a share of their baseline emissions. Notes: (i) The baseline refers to the WEO Current Policy \r\nScenario (International Energy Agency 2019c). It may differ from other chapters. (ii) The figure merged the results of Eurasia into those of Developed Countries."


id: 4a2493885b7cfedfecb316ac569fdc53
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"above 20% across the EU. In this region, additional investment costs \r\nwere no higher than 15%, as reported for Germany, Italy, Denmark, \r\nand Slovenia (Erhorn-Kluttig et al. 2019). Still, the European market \r\nexperiences challenges which relate to capacity and readiness, as \r\nrevealed by the Architects' Council of Europe (ACE) (2019), which \r\nrecords a  decline in the share of architects who are designing \r\nbuildings to NZEB standards to more than 50% of their time, from \r\n14% in 2016 to 11% in 2018. In contrast, the APEC countries reported \r\nadditional investment costs of 67% on average (Xu and Zhang 2017) \r\nthat makes them a key barrier to the NZEB penetration in developing "


id: 993837a3b0c27a402d74f5ae5bd67872
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"countries as of today (Feng et al. 2019). This calls for additional R&D \r\npolicies and financial incentives to reduce the NZEB costs (Xu and \r\nZhang 2017; Kwag et al. 2019)."


id: a11ee18985e64933f688696827573fb7
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"Thermal efficiency retrofits of existing envelopes followed up by \r\nthe exchange of HVAC backed up with demand-side measures \r\ncould reduce the sector total baseline emissions in developed and \r\ndeveloping countries by at least 18% and 7% respectively in 2050. \r\nThere have been many individual examples of deep building retrofits, \r\nwhich incremental costs are not significantly higher than those of "


id: 161c01007e570f0a8e2b7d5ec4f46838
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"shallow retrofits. However, the literature tends to agree that cost\u0002effective or low cost deep retrofits are not universally applicable \r\nfor all cases, especially in historically urban areas, indicating a large \r\nshare of the potential in the high-cost category (Department of \r\nEnvironmental Affairs 2014; Akander et al. 2017; Paduos and Corrado \r\n2017; Semprini et al. 2017; Subramanyam et al. 2017b; Streicher et al. \r\n2017; Mata et al. 2019). Achieving deep retrofits assumes additional \r\nmeasures on the top of business-as-usual retrofits, therefore high \r\nrate of deep retrofits at acceptable costs are not possible in case of \r\nlow business-as-usual rates (Streicher et al. 2020). "


id: fc30b93d7c02a2761e0ad9c58361d2a2
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"Among key factors affecting the costs-effectiveness of achieving \r\nhigh-performance buildings remain low energy prices in many \r\ncountries worldwide (Alaidroos and Krarti 2015; Akander et al. 2017) \r\nand high discount rates reflecting low access to capital and high \r\nbarriers. Copiello et al. (2017) found that the discount rate affects the \r\neconomic results of retrofits four times higher than the energy price, \r\nand therefore the reduction in upfront costs and working out barriers \r\nare the feasibility enablers."


id: 79f20843cad0b6cd74b675e91e509a85
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"The good news is that literature expects a significant cost reduction \r\nfor many technologies, which are relevant for the construction of \r\nhigh energy-performance buildings and deep retrofits. Applying \r\na  technology learning curve to the data available for Europe and \r\nreviewing dozens of studies available, Kohler et al. (2018) estimated \r\nthe cost reduction potential of biomass boilers, heat pumps, \r\nventilation, air conditioning, thermal storages, electricity storages, \r\nsolar PVs and solar thermal systems of 14%, 20%, 46-52%, 29%, \r\n29%, 65%, 57%, and 43% respectively in 2050; no significant cost \r\nreduction potential was found, however, for established and wide\u0002spread insulation technologies. More investment into Research, \r\nDevelopment and Demonstration (RD&D) to reduce the technology \r\ncosts and more financial incentives to encourage uptake of the \r\ntechnologies would allow moving along this learning curve. "


id: f847ebe9609d7099fc53d3321640ef19
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"The fact that the largest share of the global flow area is still to be built \r\noffers a large potential for emission reduction that is, however, only \r\nfeasible if ambitious building energy codes will be applied to this new \r\nstock (see Section 9.9.3 on building codes). The highest demand for \r\nadditional floor area will occur in developing countries; the building \r\nreplacement is also the highest in developing countries because \r\ntheir building lifetime could be as short as 30 years (Lixuan et  al. \r\n2016; Alaidroos and Krarti 2015). Whereas as of 2018, 73 countries \r\nhad already had building codes or were developing them, only 41 had \r\nmandatory residential codes and 51 had mandatory non-residential \r\ncodes (Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction et al. 2019). \r\nTherefore, the feasibility of capturing this potential is a  subject to \r\ngreater coverage, adoption, and strength of building codes."


id: 41f881000691bb4ea5b84a46721c29d
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"Furthermore, some literature argues that the key to cost-effectiveness \r\nis not necessarily a reduction in costs of technologies, but a know\u0002how and skills of their choosing, combining, sequencing, and timing \r\nto take the most benefits of their interdependence, complementarity, \r\nand synergy as illustrated by many examples (Lovins 2018; Urge\u0002Vorsatz et  al. 2020). However, the scenarios reviewed lack such \r\napproaches in their cost assessments. Few indicative examples of cost \r\nreduction at scale were provided though not by the scenario literature, \r\nbut case studies of the application of One-Stop Shop (OSS) approach \r\nat scale (Section 9.9.4). In 2013, the Dutch Energiesprong network \r\nbrokered a  deal between Dutch building contractors and housing \r\nassociations to reduce the average retrofit costs from EUR130,000 \r\ndown to EUR65,000 for 111,000 homes with building prefabrication "


id: f518ff7ef7bbd700f587082196045c4e
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"Low rates of building retrofits are the major feasibility constraint \r\nof building decarbonisation in Developed Countries. Long building \r\nlifetime and their slow replacement caused a lock-in of low energy \r\nperformance in old buildings of Developed Countries, especially in \r\nurban areas. A few studies of developing countries, mostly medium \r\nand high-income, also considered building retrofits (Prada-Hernandez \r\net al. 2015; Yu et al. 2018b; Zhou et al. 2018; Krarti 2019; Kamal et al. \r\n2019). The studies in Developed Countries tend to rely on either of the "


id: d2903819e26302a6f7c35fc2269851f6
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"systems and project delivery models while targeting energy savings \r\nof 45-80% (Urge-Vorsatz et al. 2020); out of which 10,000 retrofits \r\nhave been realised by 2020. The French Observatory of Low Energy \r\nBuildings reported to achieve the cost-effective deep renovations of \r\n818 dwellings and 27 detached houses in France setting a cap for \r\nabsolute primary energy consumption to achieve after renovation \r\nand a  cap for the budget to deliver it. The cost-effectiveness was, \r\nhowever, calculated with grants and public subsidies (Saheb 2018). "


id: 4704f97cfc03e20d12a40edce485e2ef
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
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"As discussed in Section  9.6.1, the alternative and low-cost \r\nopportunity to reduce the sector emissions in the countries with high \r\nfloor area per capita and the low stock turnover is offered by the \r\nintroduction of the sufficiency approach. Section  9.9.3.1 discusses \r\na range of policy instruments, which could support the realisation of \r\nthe sufficiency potential. As the approach is new, the literature does \r\nnot yet report experiences of these measures. In the framework of \r\nproject OptiWohn, the German cities of Gottingen, Koln und Tubingen \r\njust started testing the sufficiency approach and policy measures \r\nfor sufficiency (Stadt Gottingen 2020). Therefore, the feasibility \r\nof realising the sufficiency potential depends on its recognition by \r\nthe energy and climate policy and the introduction of supporting \r\nmeasures (Samadi et al. 2017; Ellsworth-Krebs 2020; Goldstein et al. \r\n2020). More research is needed to understand which measures will \r\nwork and which will not. "


id: f165b0ccaa686105314d362fb422f3a0
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
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"The potential is a dynamic value, increasing with the technological \r\nprogress. Most potential studies reviewed in Section 9.6.1 consider \r\ntoday mature commercialised or near to commercialisation \r\ntechnologies with demonstrated characteristics 'freezing them' \r\nin the potential estimates until the study target year. Until 2050, \r\nmany of these technologies will further improve, and furthermore \r\nnew advanced technologies may emerge. Therefore, the potential \r\nestimates are likely to be low estimates of the real potential volumes. \r\nFurthermore, models apply many other assumptions and they cannot \r\nalways capture right emerging societal or innovation trends; these \r\ntrends may also significantly impact the potential size into both \r\ndirections (Brugger et al. 2021)."


id: 87ab74442d4dc29e69c3ecbb5d477099
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"With the declining amount of emissions during the building \r\noperation stage, the share of building embodied emissions in their \r\nlifetime emissions will grow, also due to additional building material \r\n(Penaloza et al. 2018; Cabeza et al. 2021). Reviewing 650 lifecycle \r\nassessment case studies, Rock et al. (2020) estimated the contribution \r\nof embodied emissions to building lifetime emissions up to 45-50% \r\nfor highly efficient buildings, surpassing 90% in extreme cases. "


id: 3329b2e0a8ade0e44ad81584d3bc76a
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"Similar to buildings, the energy consumption and associated \r\nemissions of appliances and equipment is driven by the replacement \r\nof old appliances and the additional stock due to the increase \r\nin penetration and saturation of appliances. The feasibility of \r\nappliance stock replacement with efficient options is higher than \r\nthe feasibility of building stock replacement or retrofit due to their \r\nsmaller size, shorter lifetime, and cheaper costs (Chu and Bowman \r\n2006; Spiliotopoulos 2019). Some literature argues that once \r\nappliances achieve a  particular level of efficiency their exchange \r\ndoes not bring benefits from the resource efficiency point of view "


id: ca3e8bce0c26c784d8cc6910aecb283
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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"The impacts of climate change on buildings can affect building \r\nstructures, building construction, building material properties, indoor \r\nclimate and building energy use (Andric et al. 2019). Many of those \r\nimpacts and their respective adaptation strategies interact with GHG \r\nmitigation in different ways."


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"A large body of literature on climate impacts on buildings focuses \r\non the impacts of climate change on heating and cooling needs \r\n(de Wilde and Coley 2012; Wan et al. 2012; Andric et al. 2019). The \r\nassociated impacts on energy consumption are expected to be higher \r\nin hot summer and warm winter climates, where cooling needs are \r\nmore relevant (Li et al. 2012; Wan et al. 2012; Andric et al. 2019). If not \r\nmet, this higher demand for thermal comfort can impact health, sleep \r\nquality and work productivity, having disproportionate effects on \r\nvulnerable populations and exacerbating energy poverty (Biardeau \r\net al. 2020; Sun et al. 2020; Falchetta and Mistry 2021) (Section 9.8). "


id: 7cea45c5acd9d9c8ec835e90013de84f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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vector_id: 17250
content:
"The impacts of increased energy demand for cooling can have \r\nsystemic repercussions (Ciscar and Dowling 2014; Ralston Fonseca \r\net al. 2019), which in turn can affect the provision of other energy \r\nservices. Space cooling can be an important determinant of peak \r\ndemand, especially in periods of extreme heat (International Energy \r\nAgency 2018). Warmer climates and higher frequency and intensity \r\nof heat waves can lead to higher loads (Dirks et al. 2015; Auffhammer \r\net al. 2017), increasing the risk of grid failure and supply interruptions."


id: 56439ac50206ee6818f4e5929b53a2d6
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 11058
content:
"Although heating demand in cold climate regions can be expected \r\nto decrease with climate change and, to a  certain extent, outweigh \r\nthe increase in cooling demand, the effects on total primary energy \r\nrequirements are uncertain (Li et al. 2012; Wan et al. 2012). Studies \r\nhave found that increases in buildings energy expenditures for cooling "


id: b912735b8c9f8c2d01edb16d522f1cca
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 26650
content:
"Buildings are capital-intensive and long-lasting assets designed to \r\nperform under a  wide range of climate conditions (Hallegatte 2009; \r\nPyke et al. 2012). Their long lifespan means that the building stock will \r\nbe exposed to future climate (Hallegatte 2009; de Wilde and Coley 2012; \r\nWan et al. 2012) and, as such, adaptation measures will be necessary. "


id: d6abeeb5ea788d94255a3e30de23fd75
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 31279
content:
"more than compensate the savings from lower heating demands in \r\nmost regions (Clarke et al. 2018). In addition, climate change may affect \r\nthe economic feasibility of district heating systems (Andric et al. 2019). "


id: 8d9d3955262f2e4e53b639e4a79df77f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 19809
content:
"Adaptation options interacts with mitigation efforts because \r\nmeasures to cope with climate change impacts can increase energy \r\nand material consumption, which may lead to higher GHG emissions \r\n(Kalvelage et  al. 2014; Davide et  al. 2019; Sharifi 2020). Energy \r\nconsumption is required to adapt to climate change. Mitigation \r\nmeasures, in turn, influence the degree of vulnerability of buildings \r\nto future climate and, thus, the adaptation required."


id: c7e4043fe5fa1a0c8c0adc8d7679a124
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
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index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 29031
content:
"In cold climates, a  warming climate can potentially increase the \r\nrisk of overheating in high-performance buildings with increased \r\ninsulation and airtightness to reduce heat losses (Gupta and Gregg \r\n2012). In such situations, the need for active cooling technologies \r\nmay arise, along with higher energy consumption and GHG emissions \r\n(Gupta et al. 2015). "


id: 285e8db78f33a55d0df967ecd47e2b8f
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 3767
content:
"Changes in cloud formation can affect global solar irradiation \r\nand, therefore, the output of solar photovoltaic panels, possibly \r\naffecting on-site renewable energy production (Burnett et al. 2014). \r\nThe efficiency of solar photovoltaic panels and their electrical \r\ncomponents decreases with higher temperatures (Bahaidarah et al. \r\n2013; Simioni and Schaeffer 2019). However, studies have found that \r\nsuch effects can be relatively small (Totschnig et al. 2017), making \r\nsolar PV a robust option to adapt to climate change (Shen and Lior \r\n2016; Santos and Lucena 2021) (see Section 9.4). "


id: a95e04958faea49d3f5f58961a528839
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 24177
content:
"Climate change can also affect the performance, durability and \r\nsafety of buildings and their elements (facades, structure, etc.) \r\nthrough changes in temperature, humidity, wind, and chloride and \r\nCO2 concentrations (Bastidas-Arteaga et al. 2010; Bauer et al. 2018; \r\nRodriguez-Rosales et al. 2021; Chen et al. 2021). Historical buildings \r\nand coastal areas tend to be more vulnerable to these changes \r\n(Huijbregts et al. 2012; Mosoarca et al. 2019; Cavalagli et al. 2019; \r\nRodriguez-Rosales et al. 2021). "


id: 25adef2895b2d650b6fe0fbe2d67b398
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 3352
content:
"Mitigation alternatives through passive approaches may increase \r\nresilience to climate change impacts on thermal comfort and reduce \r\nactive cooling needs (Wan et al. 2012; van Hooff et al. 2016; Andric \r\net al. 2019; Gonzalez Mahecha et al. 2020; Rosse Caldas et al. 2020). \r\nCombining passive measures can help counteracting climate change \r\ndriven increases in energy consumption for achieving thermal \r\ncomfort (Huang and Hwang 2016)."


id: 742b2802d93a7fa81f5558a348cd80dc
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 15873
content:
"Temperature variations affect the building envelope, for example, \r\nwith cracks and detachment of coatings (Bauer et al. 2016, 2018). \r\nHigher humidity (caused by wind-driven rain, snow or floods) hastens \r\ndeterioration of bio-based materials such as wood and bamboo \r\n(Brambilla and Gasparri 2020), also deteriorating indoor air quality \r\nand users health (Huijbregts et al. 2012; Grynning et al. 2017; Lee \r\net al. 2020). "


id: ed92b78b2e6140f5d03fdd758968a692
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 34842
content:
"Studies raise the concern that measures aimed at building envelope \r\nmay increase the risk of overheating in a warming climate (Dodoo \r\nand Gustavsson 2016; Fosas et al. 2018) (Section 9.4). If this is the \r\ncase, there may be a  conflict between mitigation through energy \r\nefficiency building regulations and climate change adaptation (Fosas \r\net al. 2018). However, while overheating may occur as a result of poor \r\ninsulation design, better insulation may actually reduce overheating \r\nwhen properly projected and the overheating risk can be overcome \r\nby clever designs (Fosas et al. 2018). "


id: e73bc53d18de1ecf348054b0ae410559
created_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
updated_at: 2023-03-16 14:01:39
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_only_giec
vector_id: 33876
content:
"Climate change can accelerate the degradation of reinforced \r\nconcrete structures due to the increase of chloride ingress (Bastidas\u0002Arteaga et al. 2010) and the concentration of CO2, which increase \r\nthe corrosion of the embedded steel (Stewart et  al. 2012; Peng \r\nand Stewart 2016; Chen et al. 2021). Corrosion rates are higher in \r\nplaces with higher humidity and humidity fluctuations (Guo et  al. \r\n2019), and degradation could be faster with combined effects of \r\nhigher temperatures and more frequent and intense precipitations \r\n(Bastidas-Arteaga et al. 2010; Chen et al. 2021). "


