Datasets:
LeroyDyer
/
Wikipedia_Subset_EN_001_50k

Dataset card Data Studio Files
xet
Community
question
stringlengths
1
181
answer
stringlengths
43
208k
conversations
listlengths
3
3
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel%20Mathieu
Michel Mathieu may refer to: Michel Mathieu (French politician) (1944–2010), High Commissioner of the Republic in French Polynesia Michel Mathieu (Canadian politician) (1838–1916), lawyer, judge and member of the Canadian House of Commons See also Michael Mathieu (born 1984), Bahamian sprinter
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel%20Mathieu", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Michel Mathieu may refer to:\n\nMichel Mathieu (French politician) (1944–2010), High Commissioner of the Republic in French Polynesia\nMichel Mathieu (Canadian politician) (1838–1916), lawyer, judge and member of the Canadian House of Commons\n\nSee also\n Michael Mathieu (born 1984), Bahamian sprinter", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Caretakers
The Caretakers (released in the UK as Borderlines) is a 1963 American drama film starring Robert Stack, Polly Bergen, Diane McBain, Joan Crawford and Janis Paige in a story about a mental hospital. The screenplay was adapted by Henry F. Greenberg from a story by Hall Bartlett and Jerry Paris based on the 1959 novel The Caretakers by Dariel Telfer. The film was produced and directed by Bartlett, co-produced by Paris and distributed by United Artists. The Caretakers is reminiscent of The Snake Pit (1948), a film set in a similar hospital. The on-screen text in opening credits states: "Dedicated to the caretakers whose research and sacrifice discover truth. For Beba, Alice, Paul, Cathy, Laurie, Pearl, Margaret, Warren, Arthur". Plot Optimistic psychiatrist Dr. Donovan MacLeod wants to prove his theory that mental patients can benefit from group therapy. His method of treatment, with no violence or punishment, is met with a great deal of resistance from his unyielding and self-righteous head nurse, Lucretia Terry, who believes in traditional methods such as strait-jackets and padded cells for treating the mentally ill. Head of the hospital Dr. Harrington is weak-willed. Terry's assistant, nurse Bracken, supports her superior's stand. After much trial and error and the harrowing near-rape of a patient, MacLeod's ideas prevail in spite of the opposition and meet some success. Patients include distraught mother Lorna Medford, former prostitute Marion, pyromaniac Edna, and former schoolteacher Irene. Cast Robert Stack as Dr. Donovan MacLeod Polly Bergen as Lorna Melford Diane McBain as Alison Joan Crawford as Lucretia Terry Virginia Munshin as Ruth Ellen Corby as Irene Barbara Barrie as Edna Herbert Marshall as Dr. Harrington Sharon Hugueny as Connie Robert Vaughn as Jim Melford Susan Oliver as Cathy Ana St. Clair as Ana Constance Ford as Nurse Bracken Van Williams as Dr. Larry Denning Janis Paige as Marion Production Co-writer/co-producer Jerry Paris appears in The Caretakers as a passerby Lorna bumps into on the street. Joan Crawford arranged for each day's scenes with veteran actor Herbert Marshall, an old friend who was in frail health, to be shot first, thus allowing him to finish his work early in the day. Crawford was on the board of directors of PepsiCo, and product placements for Pepsi-Cola include a scene at the hospital picnic, which features a wagon that is dispensing the soft drink. Reception Variety wrote "Miss Crawford doesn't so much play her handful of scenes as she dresses for them, looking as if she were en route to a Pepsi board meeting", and called the film a "superficial, ineptly-plotted drama" Bosley Crowther of The New York Times noted "Altogether, this woman's melodrama is shallow, showy, and cheap - a badly commercial exploitation of very sensitive material." Some individual performances were better received by reviewers. Variety said "Diane McBain and Susan Oliver, as nurses, and Sharon Hugueny, as a young patient, do nicely." James Powers wrote in the Hollywood Reporter, "Diane McBain and Susan Oliver are good as young nurses." Despite some negative reviews, the film grossed over $3 million worldwide, ranking #57 on Variety's list of top-grossing films for 1963. Awards and nominations The Caretakers received an Academy Award nomination for Best Cinematography, Black-and-White for Lucien Ballard. It received Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Motion Picture - Drama, Best Motion Picture Actress - Drama for Polly Bergen, and Best Motion Picture Director for Hall Bartlett. Home media The Caretakers was released on Region 1 DVD on April 15, 2010, through Amazon.com as part of the MGM Limited Edition Collection. See also List of American films of 1963 References Sources External links 1963 films 1963 drama films American black-and-white films American drama films Films scored by Elmer Bernstein Films about psychiatry Films based on American novels Films set in psychiatric hospitals United Artists films Films directed by Hall Bartlett 1960s English-language films 1960s American films
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Caretakers", "role": "user" }, { "content": "The Caretakers (released in the UK as Borderlines) is a 1963 American drama film starring Robert Stack, Polly Bergen, Diane McBain, Joan Crawford and Janis Paige in a story about a mental hospital.\n\nThe screenplay was adapted by Henry F. Greenberg from a story by Hall Bartlett and Jerry Paris based on the 1959 novel The Caretakers by Dariel Telfer. The film was produced and directed by Bartlett, co-produced by Paris and distributed by United Artists. The Caretakers is reminiscent of The Snake Pit (1948), a film set in a similar hospital. The on-screen text in opening credits states: \"Dedicated to the caretakers whose research and sacrifice discover truth. For Beba, Alice, Paul, Cathy, Laurie, Pearl, Margaret, Warren, Arthur\".\n\nPlot\nOptimistic psychiatrist Dr. Donovan MacLeod wants to prove his theory that mental patients can benefit from group therapy. His method of treatment, with no violence or punishment, is met with a great deal of resistance from his unyielding and self-righteous head nurse, Lucretia Terry, who believes in traditional methods such as strait-jackets and padded cells for treating the mentally ill.\n\nHead of the hospital Dr. Harrington is weak-willed. Terry's assistant, nurse Bracken, supports her superior's stand. After much trial and error and the harrowing near-rape of a patient, MacLeod's ideas prevail in spite of the opposition and meet some success.\n\nPatients include distraught mother Lorna Medford, former prostitute Marion, pyromaniac Edna, and former schoolteacher Irene.\n\nCast\n Robert Stack as Dr. Donovan MacLeod\n Polly Bergen as Lorna Melford\n Diane McBain as Alison\n Joan Crawford as Lucretia Terry\n Virginia Munshin as Ruth\n Ellen Corby as Irene\n Barbara Barrie as Edna\n Herbert Marshall as Dr. Harrington\n Sharon Hugueny as Connie\n Robert Vaughn as Jim Melford\n Susan Oliver as Cathy\n Ana St. Clair as Ana\n Constance Ford as Nurse Bracken\n Van Williams as Dr. Larry Denning\n Janis Paige as Marion\n\nProduction\nCo-writer/co-producer Jerry Paris appears in The Caretakers as a passerby Lorna bumps into on the street.\n\nJoan Crawford arranged for each day's scenes with veteran actor Herbert Marshall, an old friend who was in frail health, to be shot first, thus allowing him to finish his work early in the day.\n\nCrawford was on the board of directors of PepsiCo, and product placements for Pepsi-Cola include a scene at the hospital picnic, which features a wagon that is dispensing the soft drink.\n\nReception\nVariety wrote \"Miss Crawford doesn't so much play her handful of scenes as she dresses for them, looking as if she were en route to a Pepsi board meeting\", and called the film a \"superficial, ineptly-plotted drama\" Bosley Crowther of The New York Times noted \"Altogether, this woman's melodrama is shallow, showy, and cheap - a badly commercial exploitation of very sensitive material.\" Some individual performances were better received by reviewers. Variety said \"Diane McBain and Susan Oliver, as nurses, and Sharon Hugueny, as a young patient, do nicely.\" James Powers wrote in the Hollywood Reporter, \"Diane McBain and Susan Oliver are good as young nurses.\"\n\nDespite some negative reviews, the film grossed over $3 million worldwide, ranking #57 on Variety's list of top-grossing films for 1963.\n\nAwards and nominations\nThe Caretakers received an Academy Award nomination for Best Cinematography, Black-and-White for Lucien Ballard. It received Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Motion Picture - Drama, Best Motion Picture Actress - Drama for Polly Bergen, and Best Motion Picture Director for Hall Bartlett.\n\nHome media\nThe Caretakers was released on Region 1 DVD on April 15, 2010, through Amazon.com as part of the MGM Limited Edition Collection.\n\nSee also\nList of American films of 1963\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nExternal links\n \n \n\n1963 films\n1963 drama films\nAmerican black-and-white films\nAmerican drama films\nFilms scored by Elmer Bernstein\nFilms about psychiatry\nFilms based on American novels\nFilms set in psychiatric hospitals\nUnited Artists films\nFilms directed by Hall Bartlett\n1960s English-language films\n1960s American films", "role": "assistant" } ]
Marc Hetherington
{{Infobox scientist | name = Marc J. Hetherington | image = Marc Hetherington 2011.jpg | caption = Hetherington in 2011 | birth_date = | birth_place = | birth_name = | death_date = | death_place = | residence = | citizenship = | nationality = American | ethnicity = | fields = Political science, health care in the United States, participatory democracy | workplaces = Vanderbilt UniversityBowdoin CollegePrinceton UniversityUniversity of VirginiaUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill | alma_mater = University of Pittsburgh (B.A.) University of Texas at Austin (Ph.D.) | doctoral_advisor = | academic_advisors = | doctoral_students = | notable_students = | known_for = Why Trust Matters, Parties, Politics, and Public Policy in America, Authoritarianism and Polarization in American Politics, Why Washington Won't Work | author_abbrev_bot = | author_abbrev_zoo = | influences = | influenced = | awards = | signature = }} Marc Joseph Hetherington (born June 20, 1968) is an American political scientist. He is a professor of political science at The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Biography Hetherington has taught at the University of Virginia, Princeton University, Bowdoin College, and Vanderbilt University. He received a bachelor degree from University of Pittsburgh and a PhD in Government from the University of Texas at Austin. Hetherington is author of Why Trust Matters: Declining Political Trust and the Demise of American Liberalism and Parties, Politics, and Public Policy in America with William Keefe, and of Authoritarianism and Polarization in American Politics'' with Jonathan Weiler. Hetherington is married to Suzanne Globetti, a political scientist at The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and currently resides in Chapel Hill. References 1968 births Living people University of Pittsburgh alumni University of Texas at Austin College of Liberal Arts alumni Vanderbilt University faculty American political scientists Voting theorists
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Marc Hetherington", "role": "user" }, { "content": "{{Infobox scientist\n| name = Marc J. Hetherington\n| image = Marc Hetherington 2011.jpg\n| caption = Hetherington in 2011\n| birth_date = \n| birth_place = \n| birth_name = \n| death_date = \n| death_place = \n| residence = \n| citizenship = \n| nationality = American\n| ethnicity = \n| fields = Political science, health care in the United States, participatory democracy\n| workplaces = Vanderbilt UniversityBowdoin CollegePrinceton UniversityUniversity of VirginiaUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill\n| alma_mater = University of Pittsburgh (B.A.) University of Texas at Austin (Ph.D.)\n| doctoral_advisor = \n| academic_advisors = \n| doctoral_students = \n| notable_students = \n| known_for = Why Trust Matters, Parties, Politics, and Public Policy in America, Authoritarianism and Polarization in American Politics, Why Washington Won't Work\n| author_abbrev_bot = \n| author_abbrev_zoo = \n| influences = \n| influenced = \n| awards = \n| signature = \n}}\n\nMarc Joseph Hetherington (born June 20, 1968) is an American political scientist. He is a professor of political science at The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.\n\n Biography \nHetherington has taught at the University of Virginia, Princeton University, Bowdoin College, and Vanderbilt University. He received a bachelor degree from University of Pittsburgh and a PhD in Government from the University of Texas at Austin.\n\nHetherington is author of Why Trust Matters: Declining Political Trust and the Demise of American Liberalism and Parties, Politics, and Public Policy in America with William Keefe, and of Authoritarianism and Polarization in American Politics'' with Jonathan Weiler.\n\nHetherington is married to Suzanne Globetti, a political scientist at The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and currently resides in Chapel Hill.\n\nReferences \n\n1968 births\nLiving people\nUniversity of Pittsburgh alumni\nUniversity of Texas at Austin College of Liberal Arts alumni\nVanderbilt University faculty\nAmerican political scientists\nVoting theorists", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%20Garhoud%20Bridge
Al Garhoud Bridge (in Arabic: جسر القرهود) is one of three road bridges over Dubai Creek, and one of five crossings, in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Al Garhoud Bridge forms the eastern end of the road toll (called Salik) that went into effect on 1 July 2007. Since the beginning of Salik, Al Garhoud Bridge has seen low amounts of traffic for Dubai. Old Al Garhoud Bridge The old Al Garhoud Bridge was the second bridge constructed that crossed the Creek, after Al Maktoum Bridge. The bridge opened in 1976. In 2007, nearly 9,000 vehicles crossed the bridge every hour at peak flow. It has been the cause of huge traffic jams in Dubai. The main reason for this was the number of roads that fed into the bridge. On the Bur Dubai-bound lanes, seven lanes (from three different roads) converged into three lanes. For the Deira-bound lanes, five lanes converged into three lanes. Also, the bridge had to be closed to allow large boats to pass under it. The bridge had a total of 6 lanes: 3 lanes in each direction. New Al Garhoud Bridge To solve the major traffic problems caused by the old bridge, a replacement was constructed between 2006 and 2008 by Belgian main contractor BESIX. The bridge, which cost 415 million dirhams, is meant to add more lanes of road that cross Dubai Creek. The new Al Garhoud Bridge has a total of 14 lanes, 7 in each direction. It is able to handle 16,000 vehicles per hour. Construction of the bridge began in February 2006 and by 26 September 2007, 76% of the construction was completed. The bridge is long and above the water. On 15 December 2007, four lanes on the Deira-bound side were opened to vehicle traffic. Then on 15 March 2008, as had been scheduled, remaining lanes on both sides were opened. The old bridge was demolished after the new bridge opened. Shortly after the bridge opened, the Roads and Transport Authority announced that Al Garhoud Bridge would be decorated with artwork that look like sand dunes during the day and waves at night with the aid of lighting. Photo gallery Construction Photos on 31 January 2007 Construction Photos on 1 May 2007 Construction Photo on 31 May 2007 Construction Photo on 18 October 2007 References Bridges in Dubai Bridges in the United Arab Emirates Bridges completed in 1976 Bridges completed in 2008 1976 establishments in the United Arab Emirates
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%20Garhoud%20Bridge", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Al Garhoud Bridge (in Arabic: جسر القرهود) is one of three road bridges over Dubai Creek, and one of five crossings, in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Al Garhoud Bridge forms the eastern end of the road toll (called Salik) that went into effect on 1 July 2007. Since the beginning of Salik, Al Garhoud Bridge has seen low amounts of traffic for Dubai.\n\nOld Al Garhoud Bridge \nThe old Al Garhoud Bridge was the second bridge constructed that crossed the Creek, after Al Maktoum Bridge. The bridge opened in 1976. In 2007, nearly 9,000 vehicles crossed the bridge every hour at peak flow. It has been the cause of huge traffic jams in Dubai. The main reason for this was the number of roads that fed into the bridge. On the Bur Dubai-bound lanes, seven lanes (from three different roads) converged into three lanes. For the Deira-bound lanes, five lanes converged into three lanes. Also, the bridge had to be closed to allow large boats to pass under it. The bridge had a total of 6 lanes: 3 lanes in each direction.\n\nNew Al Garhoud Bridge \n\nTo solve the major traffic problems caused by the old bridge, a replacement was constructed between 2006 and 2008 by Belgian main contractor BESIX.\nThe bridge, which cost 415 million dirhams, is meant to add more lanes of road that cross Dubai Creek. The new Al Garhoud Bridge has a total of 14 lanes, 7 in each direction. It is able to handle 16,000 vehicles per hour. Construction of the bridge began in February 2006 and by 26 September 2007, 76% of the construction was completed. The bridge is long and above the water. On 15 December 2007, four lanes on the Deira-bound side were opened to vehicle traffic. Then on 15 March 2008, as had been scheduled, remaining lanes on both sides were opened. The old bridge was demolished after the new bridge opened. Shortly after the bridge opened, the Roads and Transport Authority announced that Al Garhoud Bridge would be decorated with artwork that look like sand dunes during the day and waves at night with the aid of lighting.\n\nPhoto gallery\nConstruction Photos on 31 January 2007\n\nConstruction Photos on 1 May 2007\n\nConstruction Photo on 31 May 2007\n\nConstruction Photo on 18 October 2007\n\nReferences \n\nBridges in Dubai\nBridges in the United Arab Emirates\nBridges completed in 1976\nBridges completed in 2008\n1976 establishments in the United Arab Emirates", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who%20Shot%20Johnny%20Rock%3F
Who Shot Johnny Rock? is a live-action full-motion video laserdisc video game produced by American Laser Games and released for the arcades in 1991, and then for the DOS, Sega CD, 3DO and CD-i platforms around 1994. As part of a series of similar-styled games released by the company, Who Shot Johnny Rock? introduces a different setting than most of the others, while maintaining almost identical gameplay. The game was re-released by Digital Leisure around 2003 with updated video and sound, in addition to several bonus options. Plot The game is set in a Hollywood version of 1930s Chicago, where one plays a private detective that has been hired to find out who murdered a nightclub singer named Johnny Rock. The player must attempt to reach Johnny Rock's killer, shooting villains and interrogating individuals. The game takes the player through the gangs of four gangsters with suggestive names - Measles, Mumps, Smallpox, and Lockjaw Lil, each of whom knew Rock and are suspects in his murder - and locations such as a warehouse, a pool hall, a garage and a casino. Gameplay As is the case with other American Laser Games releases, the game is played from a first-person perspective of the player watching the full motion video, listening to the various characters and shooting the right enemies at the right times with a powerful Tommy gun. Most other games produced by the company - with minor exceptions such as The Last Bounty Hunter, where the player can use a shotgun for a limited amount of time - feature no more than a simple pistol, which must be used to eliminate successive foes. The player character narrates the story. Unlike previous games, such as Mad Dog McCree and Crime Patrol, the player's Tommy gun does not need to be reloaded, but one does need to buy extra ammunition. Also, when health is lost, the player must purchase extra lives from the city doctor. If money runs out, the game is over. The player must also try to avoid hitting innocent bystanders, as doing so results in having to pay funeral expenses. The doctor also gives advice (usually fake) and criticizes the player's actions. Along the way, the player must collect clues, which will eventually allow the player to determine Johnny Rock's murderer. One of the final sequences takes place in Rock's mansion, where a final clue will point to the killer, who must be defeated and apprehended to win the game. The identity of the killer is determined randomly on each playthrough from one of the four suspected gangsters. As in most rail shooters by American Laser Games, the DOS and 3DO versions include mouse and light gun support. The Sega CD version supports the Konami Justifier light gun. Development Who Shot Johnny Rock? was showcased at the 1991 Las Vegas Amusement Expo, at the time under the title Who Killed Johnny Rock? Reception Sinclair User magazine awarded the arcade version "Best Follow-Up Game" in 1991. Electronic Gaming Monthly gave the 3DO version a 4.8 out of 10. They commented that the game's whodunnit concept is appealing, but that the graphics are poor by 3DO standards, the gameplay is frustrating, and the cursor moves too slow when using the control pad, making it impossible to progress in the game without a Gamegun, which was sold separately. Computer Gaming World said in June 1994 of the PC version that "The storyline and acting are decent for this sort of game, but the gameplay is simplistic to the extreme". The game appeared on the 1992/1993 series of GamesMaster, with Tony Slattery playing. During the segment, Slattery stated that he hated video games, and later failed the challenge by shooting an innocent victim. References External links 1991 video games 3DO Interactive Multiplayer games Arcade video games CD-i games Detective video games Digital Leisure games DOS games Full motion video based games Interactive movie video games Light gun games Menacer Organized crime video games Sega CD games Single-player video games Video games developed in the United States Video games set in Chicago
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who%20Shot%20Johnny%20Rock%3F", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Who Shot Johnny Rock? is a live-action full-motion video laserdisc video game produced by American Laser Games and released for the arcades in 1991, and then for the DOS, Sega CD, 3DO and CD-i platforms around 1994. As part of a series of similar-styled games released by the company, Who Shot Johnny Rock? introduces a different setting than most of the others, while maintaining almost identical gameplay. The game was re-released by Digital Leisure around 2003 with updated video and sound, in addition to several bonus options.\n\nPlot\nThe game is set in a Hollywood version of 1930s Chicago, where one plays a private detective that has been hired to find out who murdered a nightclub singer named Johnny Rock. The player must attempt to reach Johnny Rock's killer, shooting villains and interrogating individuals. The game takes the player through the gangs of four gangsters with suggestive names - Measles, Mumps, Smallpox, and Lockjaw Lil, each of whom knew Rock and are suspects in his murder - and locations such as a warehouse, a pool hall, a garage and a casino.\n\nGameplay\nAs is the case with other American Laser Games releases, the game is played from a first-person perspective of the player watching the full motion video, listening to the various characters and shooting the right enemies at the right times with a powerful Tommy gun. Most other games produced by the company - with minor exceptions such as The Last Bounty Hunter, where the player can use a shotgun for a limited amount of time - feature no more than a simple pistol, which must be used to eliminate successive foes. The player character narrates the story.\n\nUnlike previous games, such as Mad Dog McCree and Crime Patrol, the player's Tommy gun does not need to be reloaded, but one does need to buy extra ammunition. Also, when health is lost, the player must purchase extra lives from the city doctor. If money runs out, the game is over. The player must also try to avoid hitting innocent bystanders, as doing so results in having to pay funeral expenses. The doctor also gives advice (usually fake) and criticizes the player's actions.\n\nAlong the way, the player must collect clues, which will eventually allow the player to determine Johnny Rock's murderer. One of the final sequences takes place in Rock's mansion, where a final clue will point to the killer, who must be defeated and apprehended to win the game. The identity of the killer is determined randomly on each playthrough from one of the four suspected gangsters.\n\nAs in most rail shooters by American Laser Games, the DOS and 3DO versions include mouse and light gun support. The Sega CD version supports the Konami Justifier light gun.\n\nDevelopment\nWho Shot Johnny Rock? was showcased at the 1991 Las Vegas Amusement Expo, at the time under the title Who Killed Johnny Rock?\n\nReception\n\nSinclair User magazine awarded the arcade version \"Best Follow-Up Game\" in 1991.\n\nElectronic Gaming Monthly gave the 3DO version a 4.8 out of 10. They commented that the game's whodunnit concept is appealing, but that the graphics are poor by 3DO standards, the gameplay is frustrating, and the cursor moves too slow when using the control pad, making it impossible to progress in the game without a Gamegun, which was sold separately. Computer Gaming World said in June 1994 of the PC version that \"The storyline and acting are decent for this sort of game, but the gameplay is simplistic to the extreme\".\n\nThe game appeared on the 1992/1993 series of GamesMaster, with Tony Slattery playing. During the segment, Slattery stated that he hated video games, and later failed the challenge by shooting an innocent victim.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n1991 video games\n3DO Interactive Multiplayer games\nArcade video games\nCD-i games\nDetective video games\nDigital Leisure games\nDOS games\nFull motion video based games\nInteractive movie video games\nLight gun games\nMenacer\nOrganized crime video games\nSega CD games\nSingle-player video games\nVideo games developed in the United States\nVideo games set in Chicago", "role": "assistant" } ]
Swinside
Swinside, which is also known as Sunkenkirk and Swineshead, is a stone circle lying beside Swinside Fell, part of Black Combe in southern Cumbria, North West England. One of around 1,300 recorded stone circles in the British Isles and Brittany, it was constructed as a part of a megalithic tradition that lasted from 3,300 to 900 BC, during what archaeologists categorise as the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Ages. In this period, the Lake District – a mountainous area in which Swinside is located – saw particularly high levels of stone circle construction, with other notable examples including the Castlerigg stone circle and Long Meg and Her Daughters. The original purposes of these circles is still debated, although most archaeologists concur that they were built for ritual or ceremonial reasons. Constructed from local slate, the ring has a diameter of about 93 ft 8ins (26.8m), and currently contains 55 stones, although when originally constructed there probably would have been around 60. An entrance-exit was included on the monument's south-eastern side, which was defined by the inclusion of two outer portal stones. In the Early Modern period, local folklore about the stones held that they had once been used in the construction of a church, but that the Devil continually thwarted these plans, creating the stone circle in the process. Archaeological investigation into the monument began in the early 20th century, with an excavation taking place in 1901. Location The stone circle at Swinside is located in the south-west corner of the Lake District in the ancient district of Millom, 5 miles north of the town of Millom (map reference ) . There is no visitors centre or car park at the site, which can only be reached by travelling on foot. To reach the site, the visitor must get to Crag Hall, where there are limited places for parking, and then walk along a rough track for 2¼ km (1¼ miles) uphill towards Swinside Farm, where the megalithic ring lies to the right of the path. Megalithic specialist Aubrey Burl called Swinside "the loveliest of all the circles" in north-western Europe. In his study of the stone circles of Cumbria, archaeologist John Waterhouse commented that Swinside "can be compared only to Castlerigg and Long Meg and her Daughters in its visual impact; but its charm – for great charm it undoubtedly has – is greater even than theirs." Background During the Late Neolithic, British society underwent a series of major changes. Between 3500 and 3300 BC, prehistoric Britons ceased their continual expansion and cultivation of wilderness and instead focused on settling and farming the most agriculturally productive areas of the island: Orkney, eastern Scotland, Anglesey, the upper Thames, Wessex, Essex, Yorkshire and the river valleys of the Wash. This period was also signalled by what archaeologists have interpreted as a change in religious beliefs across Britain. Communities stopped building the large chambered tombs for the dead, and instead, they began the construction of large wooden and stone circles. The prominent megalithic-specialist and archaeologist Aubrey Burl (2000) argued that the change from building tombs to building open air rings signalled a change in religious belief for the peoples of north-western Europe. As he noted; "There was a change from the cramped, gloomy chamber or a tomb to the unroofed, wide ring, a change from darkness to light, from the dead to the living, from the grave to the sky." Purpose Exactly for what purpose prehistoric Britons originally constructed stone circles is a question that continues to elude archaeologists. Despite this, many suggestions have been put forward, most of which argue that they were a form of a church. Based on his study of those examples found at Orkney in northern Scotland, the archaeologist Colin Richards suggested that the stone and wooden circles built in Late Neolithic Britain might have represented the centre of the world, or axis mundi, for those who constructed them, an idea adopted by fellow archaeologist Aaron Watson as a possibility in his discussion of why Late Neolithic peoples constructed the great ring at Avebury in southern England. Construction The stones used in the construction of Swinside were porphyritic slate collected from the adjacent fells, and are of the type that was known locally as 'grey cobbles' by the 20th century. The ring has a diameter of about 93 ft 8ins (26.8m), and currently contains 55 stones, although when originally constructed there probably would have been around 60. Swinside's builders included a "well defined" entrance, 2.1 m (7 ft) wide, at the south-eastern side, which was signalled by the placing of two large portal stones outside the circumference of the circle. Such portal openings can also be found at other stone circles in the Lake District, such as Long Meg and Her Daughters. These features are also found in stone circles in Dumfriesshire. In particular, Swinside has a number of features in common with the Girdle Stanes. Folklore Local folklore holds that at night, the Devil would pull down the stones of a church that was being constructed in the daytime, in the process creating the stone circle; it is for this reason that the site has also been called Sunkenkirk. In the 1930s, it was recorded that there was a local belief that it was impossible to count all of the stones. Antiquarian and archaeological investigation In 1901 the Cumberland & Westmorland Antiquarian & Archaeological Society sponsored the first archaeological excavation at Swinside. Under the direction of C. W. Dymond FSA and W. G. Collingwood, the dig lasted from midday on Tuesday 26 March 1901 through to the evening of the following day. Two crosstrenches were dug, each 18 inches (45 cm) wide, covering just over one-thirteenth of the interior of the site. The excavators reported finding a lump of charcoal and a piece of decayed bone as well as some modern coins in the turf layer. See also Birkrigg stone circle, 12 miles to the southeast Grey Croft stone circle, 12 miles to the northwest References Footnotes Bibliography Academic books Academic papers and articles External links Swinside stone circle at Megalithia.com. Images of and notes about Sunkenkirk at The Modern Antiquarian. Stone circles in Cumbria Hamlets in Cumbria Borough of Copeland
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Swinside", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Swinside, which is also known as Sunkenkirk and Swineshead, is a stone circle lying beside Swinside Fell, part of Black Combe in southern Cumbria, North West England. One of around 1,300 recorded stone circles in the British Isles and Brittany, it was constructed as a part of a megalithic tradition that lasted from 3,300 to 900 BC, during what archaeologists categorise as the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Ages.\n\nIn this period, the Lake District – a mountainous area in which Swinside is located – saw particularly high levels of stone circle construction, with other notable examples including the Castlerigg stone circle and Long Meg and Her Daughters. The original purposes of these circles is still debated, although most archaeologists concur that they were built for ritual or ceremonial reasons. Constructed from local slate, the ring has a diameter of about 93 ft 8ins (26.8m), and currently contains 55 stones, although when originally constructed there probably would have been around 60. An entrance-exit was included on the monument's south-eastern side, which was defined by the inclusion of two outer portal stones.\n\nIn the Early Modern period, local folklore about the stones held that they had once been used in the construction of a church, but that the Devil continually thwarted these plans, creating the stone circle in the process. Archaeological investigation into the monument began in the early 20th century, with an excavation taking place in 1901.\n\nLocation \nThe stone circle at Swinside is located in the south-west corner of the Lake District in the ancient district of Millom, 5 miles north of the town of Millom (map reference ) . There is no visitors centre or car park at the site, which can only be reached by travelling on foot. To reach the site, the visitor must get to Crag Hall, where there are limited places for parking, and then walk along a rough track for 2¼ km (1¼ miles) uphill towards Swinside Farm, where the megalithic ring lies to the right of the path.\n\nMegalithic specialist Aubrey Burl called Swinside \"the loveliest of all the circles\" in north-western Europe. In his study of the stone circles of Cumbria, archaeologist John Waterhouse commented that Swinside \"can be compared only to Castlerigg and Long Meg and her Daughters in its visual impact; but its charm – for great charm it undoubtedly has – is greater even than theirs.\"\n\nBackground \n\nDuring the Late Neolithic, British society underwent a series of major changes. Between 3500 and 3300 BC, prehistoric Britons ceased their continual expansion and cultivation of wilderness and instead focused on settling and farming the most agriculturally productive areas of the island: Orkney, eastern Scotland, Anglesey, the upper Thames, Wessex, Essex, Yorkshire and the river valleys of the Wash.\n\nThis period was also signalled by what archaeologists have interpreted as a change in religious beliefs across Britain. Communities stopped building the large chambered tombs for the dead, and instead, they began the construction of large wooden and stone circles. The prominent megalithic-specialist and archaeologist Aubrey Burl (2000) argued that the change from building tombs to building open air rings signalled a change in religious belief for the peoples of north-western Europe. As he noted; \"There was a change from the cramped, gloomy chamber or a tomb to the unroofed, wide ring, a change from darkness to light, from the dead to the living, from the grave to the sky.\"\n\nPurpose \nExactly for what purpose prehistoric Britons originally constructed stone circles is a question that continues to elude archaeologists. Despite this, many suggestions have been put forward, most of which argue that they were a form of a church.\n\nBased on his study of those examples found at Orkney in northern Scotland, the archaeologist Colin Richards suggested that the stone and wooden circles built in Late Neolithic Britain might have represented the centre of the world, or axis mundi, for those who constructed them, an idea adopted by fellow archaeologist Aaron Watson as a possibility in his discussion of why Late Neolithic peoples constructed the great ring at Avebury in southern England.\n\nConstruction \n\nThe stones used in the construction of Swinside were porphyritic slate collected from the adjacent fells, and are of the type that was known locally as 'grey cobbles' by the 20th century. The ring has a diameter of about 93 ft 8ins (26.8m), and currently contains 55 stones, although when originally constructed there probably would have been around 60.\n\nSwinside's builders included a \"well defined\" entrance, 2.1 m (7 ft) wide, at the south-eastern side, which was signalled by the placing of two large portal stones outside the circumference of the circle. Such portal openings can also be found at other stone circles in the Lake District, such as Long Meg and Her Daughters. These features are also found in stone circles in Dumfriesshire. In particular, Swinside has a number of features in common with the Girdle Stanes.\n\nFolklore \nLocal folklore holds that at night, the Devil would pull down the stones of a church that was being constructed in the daytime, in the process creating the stone circle; it is for this reason that the site has also been called Sunkenkirk.\n\nIn the 1930s, it was recorded that there was a local belief that it was impossible to count all of the stones.\n\nAntiquarian and archaeological investigation \nIn 1901 the Cumberland & Westmorland Antiquarian & Archaeological Society sponsored the first archaeological excavation at Swinside. Under the direction of C. W. Dymond FSA and W. G. Collingwood, the dig lasted from midday on Tuesday 26 March 1901 through to the evening of the following day. Two crosstrenches were dug, each 18 inches (45 cm) wide, covering just over one-thirteenth of the interior of the site. The excavators reported finding a lump of charcoal and a piece of decayed bone as well as some modern coins in the turf layer.\n\nSee also \nBirkrigg stone circle, 12 miles to the southeast\nGrey Croft stone circle, 12 miles to the northwest\n\nReferences\n\nFootnotes\n\nBibliography \nAcademic books\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nAcademic papers and articles\n\nExternal links \n\n Swinside stone circle at Megalithia.com.\n Images of and notes about Sunkenkirk at The Modern Antiquarian.\n\nStone circles in Cumbria\nHamlets in Cumbria\nBorough of Copeland", "role": "assistant" } ]
O-Zone (novel)
O-zone is a science fiction novel by the American author Paul Theroux published in 1986. Synopsis Missouri is a nuclear wasteland after leakage of stored radioactive waste, off limits to all but the very rich. Eight of them, referred to as 'Owners', visit this O-Zone as their personal playground. Some of them come to the disturbing realizations that the life-forms outside of their walled in cities, assumed to be just 'things', seem as human as the Owners themselves. References External links 1986 American novels American science fiction novels Novels by Paul Theroux Novels set in Missouri Dystopian novels Post-apocalyptic novels Novels set in the 2020s
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "O-Zone (novel)", "role": "user" }, { "content": "O-zone is a science fiction novel by the American author Paul Theroux published in 1986.\n\nSynopsis\nMissouri is a nuclear wasteland after leakage of stored radioactive waste, off limits to all but the very rich. Eight of them, referred to as 'Owners', visit this O-Zone as their personal playground. Some of them come to the disturbing realizations that the life-forms outside of their walled in cities, assumed to be just 'things', seem as human as the Owners themselves.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n1986 American novels\nAmerican science fiction novels\nNovels by Paul Theroux\nNovels set in Missouri\nDystopian novels\nPost-apocalyptic novels\nNovels set in the 2020s", "role": "assistant" } ]
Maryland Route 824
Maryland Route 824 (MD 824) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland. Known as Blythedale Road, the state highway, which is officially MD 824A, runs from MD 222 north to MD 222 and MD 275 in Perryville in western Cecil County. MD 824 is the old alignment of U.S. Route 222 (US 222), which is now MD 222, in Perryville. MD 824 was assigned to the old road after US 222 was relocated for its interchange with Interstate 95 (I-95) in the early 1960s. Route description MD 824 begins at an intersection with MD 222 (Perryville Road) in the hamlet of Blythedale between downtown Perryville and MD 222's interchange with I-95 (John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway). The highway starts east as Reservoir Road but immediately turns north along two-lane undivided Blythedale Road. After passing under I-95 and intersecting Principio Road in the valley of Mill Creek, MD 824 curves to the west toward its northern terminus at a four-way intersection with MD 222 and MD 275. MD 222 heads south toward the I-95 interchange as Perryville Road and west as Bainbridge Road toward Port Deposit, and MD 275 heads north as Perrylawn Drive toward Rising Sun. History MD 824 is the old alignment of US 222, and its course was originally constructed as MD 268. The highway was constructed as a concrete road in 1920 and 1921. MD 268 was replaced by a southern extension of US 222 from Conowingo to Perryville in 1938. The highway was proposed to be widened to in 1934, and that expansion came between 1942 and 1944 when US 222 was expanded to improve access between US 40 and United States Naval Training Center Bainbridge, east of Port Deposit. MD 824A was assigned to the highway after US 222 was relocated for its interchange with I-95 when the freeway was constructed in 1962 and 1963. The highway was resurfaced in 1978. Junction list Auxiliary route MD 824 (without suffix) was the designation for Weaver's Corner Road, which extended for parallel to US 222 between a pair of dead ends on both sides of Old Conowingo Road at Oakwood. The highway was assigned after US 222 was relocated through Oakwood in 1951 and 1952. MD 824 was transferred from state to county maintenance through a December 27, 1979, road transfer agreement. See also References External links MDRoads: MD 824 MD 824 at AARoads.com 824 Maryland Route 824
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Maryland Route 824", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Maryland Route 824 (MD 824) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland. Known as Blythedale Road, the state highway, which is officially MD 824A, runs from MD 222 north to MD 222 and MD 275 in Perryville in western Cecil County. MD 824 is the old alignment of U.S. Route 222 (US 222), which is now MD 222, in Perryville. MD 824 was assigned to the old road after US 222 was relocated for its interchange with Interstate 95 (I-95) in the early 1960s.\n\nRoute description\n\nMD 824 begins at an intersection with MD 222 (Perryville Road) in the hamlet of Blythedale between downtown Perryville and MD 222's interchange with I-95 (John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway). The highway starts east as Reservoir Road but immediately turns north along two-lane undivided Blythedale Road. After passing under I-95 and intersecting Principio Road in the valley of Mill Creek, MD 824 curves to the west toward its northern terminus at a four-way intersection with MD 222 and MD 275. MD 222 heads south toward the I-95 interchange as Perryville Road and west as Bainbridge Road toward Port Deposit, and MD 275 heads north as Perrylawn Drive toward Rising Sun.\n\nHistory\nMD 824 is the old alignment of US 222, and its course was originally constructed as MD 268. The highway was constructed as a concrete road in 1920 and 1921. MD 268 was replaced by a southern extension of US 222 from Conowingo to Perryville in 1938. The highway was proposed to be widened to in 1934, and that expansion came between 1942 and 1944 when US 222 was expanded to improve access between US 40 and United States Naval Training Center Bainbridge, east of Port Deposit. MD 824A was assigned to the highway after US 222 was relocated for its interchange with I-95 when the freeway was constructed in 1962 and 1963. The highway was resurfaced in 1978.\n\nJunction list\n\nAuxiliary route\nMD 824 (without suffix) was the designation for Weaver's Corner Road, which extended for parallel to US 222 between a pair of dead ends on both sides of Old Conowingo Road at Oakwood. The highway was assigned after US 222 was relocated through Oakwood in 1951 and 1952. MD 824 was transferred from state to county maintenance through a December 27, 1979, road transfer agreement.\n\nSee also\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nMDRoads: MD 824\nMD 824 at AARoads.com\n\n824\nMaryland Route 824", "role": "assistant" } ]
Pink Floyd live performances
Pink Floyd was considered a pioneer in the live music experience for combining intense visual experiences with music to create a show in which the performers themselves were almost secondary. As well as visuals, Pink Floyd set standards in sound quality with innovative use of sound effects and panning quadrophonic speaker systems. Special effects Besides the music, an elaborate part to any Pink Floyd live show is the special effects. Dynamic lighting Pink Floyd were among the first bands to use a dedicated travelling light show in conjunction with their performances. During the Barrett era, dynamic liquid light shows were projected onto enormous screens behind the band while they played, and the band also incorporated large numbers of strobe lights, which were controlled manually by an engineer. This had the effect of totally obscuring the band itself, except for their shadows, which Barrett took advantage of: he would hold his arms up during parts where he was not required to play, making his shadow grow, shrink and undulate, adding to the visual spectacle. They developed many of these lighting techniques through their early association with light artist Mike Leonard. When psychedelia fell out of fashion from around 1970 onwards, elevated platforms of the type conventionally used for roof maintenance in high buildings were brought on tour and filled with lighting equipment to be raised and lowered during performances. Following Roger Waters' departure in 1985, the Pink Floyd light show reached a pinnacle. Marc Brickman, the group's lighting designer, utilized hundreds of automated intelligent lighting fixtures and lasers, which were state-of-the-art at the time. By the 1994 Division Bell tour, the band was using extremely powerful, isotope-splitting copper-vapour lasers. These gold-coloured lasers were worth over $120,000 a piece and previously had only been used in nuclear research and high speed photography. A large circular projection panel dubbed "Mr Screen" first made an appearance during performances of Dark Side of the Moon in 1974 and became a staple thereafter. The high quality, extreme wide angle projection required special high-speed, 35mm, 10,000 watt xenon film projectors, with custom lenses, all designed, built and toured by Associates & Ferren. Specially recorded films and animations were projected onto it, and for the 1977 "In the Flesh" and 1980–1981 "The Wall Live" tours, coloured spotlights were fixed around the rim, an effect which reached its zenith with the dancing patterns of multi-coloured lights in the A Momentary Lapse of Reason and Division Bell tours. In the latter, the screen could be retracted behind the stage when not required, and was tilted horizontally with its peripheral lights focused onto the stage into a single spotlight during the final guitar solo in "Comfortably Numb". Several generations of giant glitter balls began with the Dark Side of the Moon tour. By the Division Bell tour, the ball had evolved into a globe 4.9 metres in diameter, which rose from the mixing station to a height of 21.3 metres before opening into an array of petals 7.3 metres wide during the final guitar solo of "Comfortably Numb", revealing a 12 kilowatt Phobeus HMI lamp inside. Props and pyrotechnics Pyrotechnics (such as exploding flashpots, an exploding gong and fireworks) and dry ice were used extensively throughout Pink Floyd's career. In 1973's tour to promote The Dark Side of the Moon, a large scale model plane flew over the audience and crashed onto the stage with a spectacular explosion, an effect repeated at the start of The Wall and the Division Bell shows. During shows to promote A Momentary Lapse of Reason, a similar effect was achieved with a flying bed. Oversized helium balloons were first introduced during the Dark Side of the Moon tours, but in 1975, this element began to play a central part in the live show. For the U.S. leg of the 1975 tour, a pyramid shaped dirigible was floated above the stage. It proved unstable in windy conditions and blew into the crowd, which tore it into pieces for souvenirs. The trademark giant pig was brought in for Animals in 1977, floating over the audience, as well as a grotesque 'Nuclear Family', a refrigerator filled with worms, a television and a Cadillac. In some shows, an envelope of propane gas was put inside the pig, causing it to explode. The inflatables reached their peak in 1980–1981 during The Wall shows, in which several of the characters from the album were brought to life in the form of fully mobile, giant string puppets with menacing spotlights for eyes, taking the traditional balloons to a new level. The characters were designed by the notable satirical artist, Gerald Scarfe. Special effects reached a new and outrageous level during these Wall shows. For example, a long, high wall made from 340 white bricks was built between the audience and the band during the first half of the show. The final brick was placed as Roger Waters sang "goodbye" at the end of the song "Goodbye Cruel World." For the second half of the show, the band was largely invisible, except for a hole in the wall that simulated a hotel room where Roger Waters "acted out" the story of Pink, and an appearance by David Gilmour on top of the wall to perform the climactic guitar solo in "Comfortably Numb." Other parts of the story were told by Gerald Scarfe's animations projected onto the wall itself (these animations were later integrated into the film Pink Floyd: The Wall). At the finale of the concert, the wall was demolished amidst sound effects and a spectacular light show. Major tours and concerts 30 September 1966 – The All Saints Church Hall Concert - London Free School/International Times Benefit Show 29–30 April 1967 – The 14 Hour Technicolour Dream concerts 12 May 1967 – Games for May concert 4–12 November 1967 – First US Tour 29 June 1968 – Midsummer High Weekend concert February – December 1968 – Pink Floyd World Tour 1968 May – September 1969 – The Man and The Journey Tour 25 October 1969 - Actuel Festival Amougies, Belgium 27 June 1970 – The Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music concert 28 June 1970 - The Holland Pop Festival in Kralingen Rotterdam September 1970 – October 1971 – Atom Heart Mother World Tour October – November 1971 – Meddle Tour January 1972 – November 1973 – Dark Side of the Moon Tour June 1974 – French Summer Tour November – December 1974 – British Winter Tour April – July 1975 – Wish You Were Here Tour January – July 1977 – In the Flesh Tour February 1980 – June 1981 – The Wall Tour (Is There Anybody Out There? The Wall Live 1980–81) September 1987 – August 1988 – A Momentary Lapse of Reason Tour (as documented by Delicate Sound of Thunder) May 1989 – July 1989 – Another Lapse Tour 30 June 1990 – Knebworth Festival concert 18 September 1993 – Cowdray Ruins concert March – October 1994 – The Division Bell Tour (as documented by Pulse) 17 January 1996 – Rock and Roll Hall of Fame performance 2 July 2005 – Live 8 concert 10 May 2007 – Syd Barrett Tribute concert Notable performance history Barrett era The earliest shows for what is considered to be "Pink Floyd" occurred in 1965 and included Bob Klose as a member of the band, which at the time played mainly R&B covers. Klose left the band after 1965. The remaining four members played very small (generally no more than 50 people), mostly unadvertised shows at the Marquee Club in London through June 1966. The set list continued to include R&B, but some original psychedelia was also being introduced. On 30 September 1966, Pink Floyd were invited to play All Saint's Church Hall to raise money for the nascent International Times newspaper, and quickly became the "house band". At these shows, the band began its use of visual effects and gradually stopped covering R&B. Word of these shows quickly spread in the London underground culture and soon the band became very well-attended and developed a cult following. On 23 December 1966, the first of the "International Times" associated gigs to be held at the UFO Club was performed. Mainstream interest about the counter-culture was increasing and a very small portion of their 20 January 1967 show at the UFO Club was broadcast as part of Granada TV's documentary entitled It's So Far Out, It's Straight Down, which constitutes the first audial or visual record of the band live. Pink Floyd were among the 30 bands that played The 14 Hour Technicolour Dream benefit gig organised for the "International Times" legal defence fund and held at the Alexandra Palace in London on the eve of 30 April 1967. Some of the other bands who played were The Who, The Move, The Pretty Things, Soft Machine, Tomorrow and The Creation. Notables in attendance included musician John Lennon, artist John Dunbar, actor Michael Caine, artist and musician Yoko Ono, actress Julie Christie, musician Mick Jagger and artist David Hockney. Although both the BBC and filmmaker Peter Whitehead filmed portions of the event, there is no known footage of Pink Floyd. On 12 May 1967, Pink Floyd performed at Queen Elizabeth Hall in London a concert entitled Games for May. At this show, they debuted a multi-speaker pan pot system controlled by a joystick from the stage that allowed them to move the sound to anywhere a speaker had been set up. This precursor to their later "Azimuth Coordinator" unfortunately was stolen after the show. After their debut single, "Arnold Layne", charted well in the UK, the band was invited to perform on the BBC2 music show The Look of the Week on 14 May 1967. The setlist for the broadcast consisted of "Pow R. Toc H." and "Astronomy Domine". This was their first British television appearance. Pink Floyd were invited to appear on the BBC2 music show Top of the Pops in July 1967 for three weeks after their second single "See Emily Play" reached No. 6 on the UK charts. By this time Syd Barrett's behavior had become somewhat unpredictable. On one occasion, the increasingly difficult Barrett remarked that if John Lennon did not have to appear on Top of the Pops neither did he. Consequently, their management company, Blackhill Enterprises, convinced the band to cancel all of their August shows and go to Spain to recuperate. Increasingly, throughout the summer and into the fall of 1967, copious drug use (especially LSD) and pressure by the record company to constantly write new hit songs continued to take a toll on Barrett's mental state. He became unable to make a meaningful contribution to the group on stage, playing his guitar incoherently and sometimes not playing at all. By the time of the band's first tour of the US in early November 1967, his condition was plainly showing. He stared blankly into space on their 4 November American Bandstand performance, listlessly strummed and barely managed to mime the vocals to "Apples and Oranges". On 5 November, things got worse: they appeared on The Pat Boone Show and Barrett sat in stubborn silence, refusing to answer any question put to him. He also refused to mime "See Emily Play": Waters was forced to mime the track instead (Waters confirmed this on the VH1's Legends: Pink Floyd episode). After 22 December show, the rest of the band quietly put out the word that they were in need of a guitarist. Although both Jeff Beck and Davy O'List were considered, it was David Gilmour, then unobligated, who was brought on to augment Barrett as need arose during live shows. For the first four shows of 1968, Pink Floyd was a five-man live act again. When they were on the way to their show at Southampton University on 26 January 1968, they decided not to pick up Barrett. Transition and experimentation A typical 1968 set list would include some of the following: "Astronomy Domine" "Interstellar Overdrive" "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" "Pow R. Toc H." "Let There Be More Light" "The Massed Gadgets of Hercules" (first performed on 23 May 1968, renamed "A Saucerful of Secrets" ) "Flaming" "Keep Smiling People" (a prototype version of "Careful with That Axe, Eugene") Although their management company Blackhill Enterprises parted ways with them over their decision about Syd Barrett on 29 June 1968, Pink Floyd headlined the first free Hyde Park concert organized by Blackhill. Others performing were Tyrannosaurus Rex, Roy Harper and Jethro Tull. A second tour of the US during July and August 1968 (see A Saucerful of Secrets US Tour) was launched to tie into the release of their second album, A Saucerful of Secrets. Increasingly throughout 1968 and 1969, shows consisted of post-Barrett compositions, with notable exceptions being "Astronomy Domine" and "Interstellar Overdrive", both of which were performed into the 1970s. Their audiences changed during this time as well: while Barrett-era crowds consisted mainly of hippies who would dance in time with the music, they now drew more "intellectual" crowd, who would sit and remain quiet until the last note of a song was played. By early 1969, most of their excess earnings were funneled into upgrading their sound equipment rather than maintaining a permanent light show. If visuals were to be used at all, they had to be provided by the venue or the local promoter. A typical 1969 set list would include some of the following: See: The Man And The Journey Tour "The Man/The Journey" "Astronomy Domine" "Interstellar Overdrive" "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" "Pow R. Toc H." "Let There Be More Light" "A Saucerful of Secrets" "Cymbaline" "Green is the Colour" "Main Theme" (rarely played) "Careful with That Axe, Eugene" The shows at Mothers, Birmingham on 27 April 1969 and the College of Commerce, Manchester on 2 May 1969 were recorded for the live part of the Ummagumma album. One source also claims that the show at Bromley Technical College on 26 April 1969 was also recorded for the album. On 14 April 1969, at Royal Festival Hall, they debuted their new pan pot 360 degree sound system dubbed the "Azimuth Coordinator". This show, named "More Furious Madness from the Massed Gadgets of Auximenes", consisted of two experimental "suites", "The Man" and "The Journey". Most of the songs were either renamed earlier material or under a different name than they would eventually be released. A UK tour occurred during May and June 1969 culminating in the show dubbed "The Final Lunacy" at Royal Albert Hall on 26 June 1969. Considered one of the most experimental concerts by Pink Floyd, it featured a crew member dressed as a gorilla, a cannon that fired, and band members sawing wood on the stage. At the finale of "The Journey" suite the band was joined on stage by the brass section of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and the ladies of the Ealing Central Amateur Choir, and at the very end a huge pink smoke bomb was let off. An additional complete performance of "The Man/The Journey" occurred at the Concertgebouw, Amsterdam on 17 September and was taped and later broadcast by Dutch radio station Hilversum 3. Portions of the suites were being performed as late as early 1970. The "Atom Heart Mother" era A typical 1970 set list would include some of the following: "Astronomy Domine" "Interstellar Overdrive" "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" "A Saucerful of Secrets" "Cymbaline" "Green is the Colour" "Main Theme"  (rarely played, and only in early 1970) "Careful with That Axe, Eugene" "Sysyphus" pts. 1-4  (rarely played, and only in early 1970) "Grantchester Meadows" "Embryo" "The Violent Sequence"  (rarely played, and only in early 1970) "Heart Beat, Pig Meat" performed at Manchester Opera House on 8 February 1970 "Atom Heart Mother" "Fat Old Sun"  (beginning in September) "Alan's Psychedelic Breakfast"  (only played a few times in December) Early in 1970, Pink Floyd performed at gigs a piece from their film soundtrack for Michelangelo Antonioni's film Zabriskie Point referred to as "The Violent Sequence". This was the musical basis for "Us and Them", from their The Dark Side of the Moon album. Lacking only the lyrics, it is identical to the final song and is the earliest part of the seminal album to have been performed live. The song "Embryo" was also a part of the live repertoire around this time, but was never to appear on a studio album, until the compilation album Works. On 18 January 1970 (possibly 17 January 1970), the band began performing a then untitled instrumental piece, which would eventually become the title track to their next album Atom Heart Mother. At this point, it had no orchestra or choir accompaniment. The song officially debuted at the Bath Festival, Somerset England on 27 June 1970 under the title "The Amazing Pudding" (later the name of a Pink Floyd fanzine) and for the first time with orchestra and choir accompaniment. Announced as "The Atom Heart Mother" by the British broadcaster John Peel on his BBC Radio 1 show "Peel's Sunday Concert" on 16 July 1970, a name suggested by him to the band, it was also announced as "The Atomic Heart Mother" two days later at the Hyde Park free concert. Partly because of the difficulties of finding and hiring local orchestras and choirs, the band often played what is referred to as the "small band" version of the song when they performed it live. On 28 June 1970 Fink Floyd was the end-performance of the Kralingen Music Festival or "Stamping Ground" in a park near Rotterdam, The Netherlands. On 18 July Pink Floyd headlined a free concert in Hyde Park organised by Blackhill Enterprises. They closed the show with Atom Heart Mother, which had been given the name after Roger Waters read an article in a newspaper about a woman who had been given a prototype heart pacemaker Pink Floyd also appeared at a Free festival In Canterbury on 31 August which was filmed. This was the end leg of the Medicine Ball Caravan tour organised by Warner Brothers, which was later made into a film of the same name. It appears that the Pink Floyd footage was not included in the movie but spectators report that Atom Heart Mother was part of the set that was recorded. The audience must have been one of the smallest to see Pink Floyd at this era, only 1500 were present as the festival was not widely promoted. In contrast, over 500,000 people witnessed their show at Fête de L'Humanité, Paris on 12 September 1970, their largest crowd ever. Filmed by French TV, the show was never broadcast. Experimental on the album Atom Heart Mother, the song "Alan's Psychedelic Breakfast" was performed at a few gigs in December 1970. "Breakfast" being made was part of the song. The first part of this lasted around four minutes. The second part of "breakfast" preparation was around a minute followed by a 3-minute tape of British DJ Jimmy Young, whom the band disliked. For a great recording of some of their material from this period check out the Fillmore West show in San Francisco, California on 29 April 1970 on Wolfgang's Vault. This show includes material from Ummagumma and Atom Heart Mother. Early performances of "Echoes" A typical 1971 set list would include some of the following: "Astronomy Domine"  (dropped from the setlist in June) "Interstellar Overdrive"  (dropped from the setlist in November 1970) "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" "A Saucerful of Secrets" "Cymbaline" "Green Is the Colour"  (dropped from the setlist in August) "Careful with That Axe, Eugene" "Embryo" "Atom Heart Mother" "Fat Old Sun" "Echoes" "One of These Days"  (beginning in late September / early October) January 1971 saw the band working on a track in the studio of then unconnected parts whose working title was either "Nothing — Parts 1 to 24" or "Nothing Parts 1–36". This song made its live debut under the working title "Return of the Son of Nothing" on 22 April 1971 in Norwich, England and like "Atom Heart Mother" before it, it was a work in progress. This was later to be released as "Echoes" on the album Meddle. Although announced as "Echoes" on 6 August 1971 at Hakone, Japan, the song was still performed with the additional lyrics at later August gigs. The show on 18 September 1971 at Montreux, Switzerland and subsequent shows do not have the additional lyrics. In 1972, during a German tour, Waters sardonically introduced Echoes as "Looking Through the Knotholes in Granny's Wooden Leg" (a Goon Show reference) on one occasion and "The March of the Dam Busters" on another. On another occasion, during a live radio broadcast, Waters had instructed compére John Peel to announce "One of These Days" to the home audience as "A poignant appraisal of the contemporary social situation." After the band's Crystal Palace Garden Party performance (London, 15 May 1971), it was discovered that the use of fireworks caused some fishes to die, in a pond directly in front of the stage. The band was subsequently pressured to compensate for the damage. Eclipse - A Piece for Assorted Lunatics A typical 1972 set list included: First Set: "Breathe in the Air" "The Travel Sequence" "Time" "Home Again" "The Mortality Sequence" (aka "Religion") "Money" "The Violent Sequence" "Scat" "Lunatic" "Eclipse" Second Set: "One of These Days" "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun"  (or as an encore) "Careful with That Axe, Eugene"  (or as an encore) "Echoes"  (or as an encore) "Atom Heart Mother"  (rarely, last performance on 22 May 1972) "A Saucerful of Secrets"  (rarely in second set, usually as an encore) "Childhood's End"  (rarely, introduced in November 1972) Encore: Rotated one of these three songs: "A Saucerful of Secrets"  (last performance on 23 September 1972) "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun"  (or in second set) "Echoes"  (or in second set) Occasionally, multiple song encores were performed, adding: "Blues" Playing 98 shows (the most until 1994), 1972 was the last time Pink Floyd varied their set lists each night on a tour until their final one. Songs played in the second set and encore were swapped constantly, and the band even varied the number of songs played in the encore from the usual one, to two or three. 1972 saw Pink Floyd debut the performance of a not just a song (like on previous tours), but an entire album prior to its release. The original title was Eclipse (A Piece for Assorted Lunatics), then The Dark Side of the Moon - A Piece for Assorted Lunatics, the name under which it made its press debut in February 1972 at London's Rainbow Theatre. The title changed for the first part of the US tour to Eclipse (A Piece for Assorted Lunatics) during April and May before reverting to Dark Side of the Moon - A Piece for Assorted Lunatics in September for the second part of the US tour and finally released in 1973 under the title of Dark Side of the Moon. One of the two shows at The Dome, Brighton, England on 28 June and 29 June was filmed by Peter Clifton for inclusion on his film Sounds of the City. Clips of these appear occasionally on television and the performance of "Careful with That Axe, Eugene" is on the various artists video Superstars in Concert. In November 1972, during the middle of the European leg of their 1972 world tour and again in January 1973, Pink Floyd performed with the Roland Petit Ballet. The portion of the setlist for which the ballet was choreographed was "One of These Days", "Careful with That Axe, Eugene", "Obscured by Clouds", "When You're In" and "Echoes". Dark Side of the Moon An early 1973 set list (until mid-March) included: First Set: "Echoes" "Obscured by Clouds"/"When You're In" (The two songs incorporated into a longer piece with a jamming guitar & keyboard section in the middle) "Childhood's End" (rarely) "Careful with That Axe, Eugene" Second Set: The Dark Side of the Moon entire album Encore: "One of These Days" For the remainder of 1973 (except 4 November), the set list included: First Set: "Obscured by Clouds" "When You're In" "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" "Careful with That Axe, Eugene" "Echoes" Second Set: The Dark Side of the Moon entire album Encore: "One of These Days" In 1973, the band moved Dark Side of the Moon to the second set (where it would reside through 1975), and played the album version of the piece, notably the revamped versions of "On the Run" and "The Great Gig in the Sky." 1973 saw Pink Floyd go on two relatively short tours of the US, one in March to coincide with the release of The Dark Side of the Moon and a later one in June. Sandwiched between them were two nights at London's Earl's Court on 18 May and 19 May where they debuted the special effect of a plane crashing into the stage at the end of the song "On the Run". This was also the first year that the band took additional musicians on tour with them, unlike the earlier performances of "Atom Heart Mother" where the band would often hire local musicians. Because of the overwhelming chart success of both The Dark Side of the Moon, which reached No. 1 in the US in late April, No. 2 in the UK, and the US-released single "Money", the nature of Pink Floyd's audiences changed in June 1973. David Gilmour said of the change "It was 'Money' that made the difference rather than 'The Dark Side of the Moon'. It gave us a much larger following, for which we should be thankful. ... People at the front shouting, 'Play Money! Gimme something I can shake my ass to!' We had to get used to it, but previously we'd been playing to 10,000 seaters where, in the quiet passages, you could hear a pin drop." They could now sell out stadiums. On 4 November 1973, Pink Floyd played two shows at London's Rainbow Theatre to benefit musician Robert Wyatt formerly the drummer of Soft Machine, a band they'd played with in their UFO Club days. Wyatt fell from a fourth floor window in June 1973, breaking his back and making him a paraplegic. The set list for these two shows were: Main Set: The Dark Side of the Moon entire album Encore: "Obscured by Clouds" "When You're In" 1974 Tours A French Summer Tour set list would include all of the following: "Raving and Drooling" "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" "Echoes" The Dark Side of the Moon (Entire album) Encore (one of the following): "Careful with That Axe, Eugene" "One of These Days" A British Winter Tour set list included all of the following: "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" "Raving and Drooling" "You've Got to be Crazy" The Dark Side of the Moon (Entire album) Encore: "Echoes" These early versions of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond", "Raving and Drooling" & "You've Got to be Crazy" were released as part of the Wish You Were Here Experience and Immersion sets. 1975 North America Tour & Knebworth '75 A typical 1975 set would include all of the following: "Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Parts I-V)" "Have a Cigar" "Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Parts VI-IX)" "Raving and Drooling" "You've Got to be Crazy" The Dark Side of the Moon (entire album) Encore: "Echoes" In 1975, the band launched a short tour that ended two months prior to the release of Wish You Were Here, which eventually sold out stadiums and arenas across America. The last gig of the tour was as the headliner of the 1975 Knebworth Festival, which also featured The Steve Miller Band, Captain Beefheart and Roy Harper (who joined Pink Floyd on the stage to sing "Have a Cigar"). It was the second Knebworth Festival, which featured artists such as The Rolling Stones, Led Zeppelin, Genesis and Frank Zappa between 1974 and 1979. Despite some technical problems, the band managed to perform a remarkable concert, which as well as the usual special effects featured a fly-past by a pair of Spitfires. This was supposed to synchronise with the start of 'Breathe' but the band had tuning difficulties and the planes flew over before the start of the set. Knebworth was the last time the band would perform "Echoes" and the entire Dark Side of the Moon with Roger Waters. In the Flesh A typical 1977 set list would include the following: Animals (entire album) Wish You Were Here (entire album) Encore: "Money" "Us and Them" "Careful with That Axe, Eugene" (performed once in Oakland, California) "More Blues" (performed once in Montreal, Quebec, Canada) In 1977, Pink Floyd embarked on a world tour in support of the "Animals" album. Although the album had not sold as well as their two previous releases, "Dark Side Of The Moon" and "Wish You Were Here", the band's popularity was at an all-time high. The band managed to sell out arenas and stadiums in both Europe and America, setting attendance records all along the way. In Chicago, the band played to an estimated audience of 95,000; in Cleveland and Montreal, they set attendance records for those venues by playing to over 80,000 people. The "In The Flesh" tour would later become widely known as their most memorable series of concert performances, and the last in which Roger Waters would accompany the band. The elaborate stage presentations, particularly those constructed for the outdoor venues, were their most complex and elaborate to date. Designed by Mark Fisher and Andrew Sanders, they featured a pyrotechnic "waterfall", umbrella-like canopies that could be deployed to protect the band from the elements, and a variety of characters associated with the "Animals" album; including "Algie", a 40-foot long inflatable pig that drifted out over the audience, the "Average American family" (which, at the time, included Mom, Dad and 2.5 children), and paper sheep that parachuted down on the crowds after being shot from cannons mounted to the sides of the stage. The musicians that accompanied the band on the tour included veteran saxophone player Dick Parry (occasionally playing keyboards as well) and guitarist Snowy White, who also filled in on bass guitar for some songs. In the first half of each show, the band played all of the songs from Animals, but in a slightly different sequence than the album (typically starting with "Sheep", then "Pigs On the Wing (Part 1)", "Dogs", "Pigs On the Wing (Part 2)" and "Pigs (Three Different Ones)"). The second half of the shows consisted of Wish You Were Here being played in its exact running order ("Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Parts 1-5)", "Welcome to the Machine", "Have a Cigar", "Wish You Were Here" and "Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Parts 6-9)"). The encores would usually consist of either "Money" or "Us and Them" from Dark Side of the Moon or both. At the Oakland, California show on May 9, they played "Careful with That Axe, Eugene" as a third encore, the last time the song was ever performed live. The tour started in Dortmund, West Germany on 23 January and proceeded through Europe, ending in Stafford, England on 31 March. Three weeks later, the North American leg of the tour opened in Miami, Florida on 22 April, concluding in Montreal, Quebec on 6 July. The show in Oakland, California on 9 May is widely regarded as one of the band's finest performances ever. During "Have a Cigar," Waters and Gilmour can be heard laughing as they sing part of the opening line. In the run-up to the band's four-night run at Madison Square Garden in New York City (1–4 July), tour promoters used an aggressive marketing strategy, filling pages of The New York Times and Billboard magazine with ads. In May, there was a Pink Floyd parade on 6th Avenue featuring both inflatable and live animals. Another memorable performance occurred in Cleveland, Ohio on 25 June. The show was held at Cleveland Municipal Stadium, just a short distance from Burke Lakefront Airport. Most of the shows opened with a recording of jet airplane taking off, but promoters secretly arranged for the band's Boeing 737 jet to do a low flyover directly over the stadium as the show opened. The FAA later fined the promoters $1,500 over the incident. The show was also delayed briefly by a fan that grabbed the tether line for the inflatable pig and wouldn't release it. At their performance in Boston two nights later, Waters jokingly said "We're going to take a PIG break, back in 20 minutes". He closed the show by gratefully commenting that this had been "the perfect end to the perfect day, good night and God bless". As the tour began, everyone was in good spirits, but the later shows were marred by Roger Waters' increasing annoyance with the raucous fans in attendance. During the last show in Montreal, a noisy fan near the stage irritated Waters to such an extent that he spat on him. The act so disgusted David Gilmour that he left the stage prior to the final encore, "More Blues", leaving Snowy White to fill in as the roadies began dismantling the stage equipment. The insatiable audience clamored for the band to keep playing, and a small riot broke out in front of the stage following the band's eventual exit. Later that night, Waters recounted the incident to his friend, music producer Bob Ezrin, and expressed his growing feelings of alienation toward their fans. Those feeling of detachment became the starting and focal point for Pink Floyd's next album, The Wall. The Wall live The 1980/1981 set lists comprised the entire album, The Wall. Pink Floyd mounted its most elaborate stage show in conjunction with the tour of The Wall. A band of session musicians played the first song, wearing rubber face masks taken from the real band members, then backed up the band for the remainder of the show. Most notable was the giant wall constructed between the band and the audience. The costs of the tour were estimated to have reached US$1.5 million even before the first performance. The New York Times stated in its 2 March 1980 edition that: The 'Wall' show remains a milestone in rock history though and there's no point in denying it. Never again will one be able to accept the technical clumsiness, distorted sound and meagre visuals of most arena rock concerts as inevitable" and concluded that "the 'Wall' show will be the touchstone against which all future rock spectacles must be measured. The show was designed by Mark Fisher with Art Direction by Gerald Scarfe. The Wall concert was only performed a handful of times each in four cities: Los Angeles, Uniondale (Long Island), Dortmund, and London (at Earl's Court). The primary 'tour' occurred in 1980, but the band performed eight shows at Dortmund (14–20 February 1981) and five more shows at Earl's Court (13–17 June) for filming, with the intention of integrating the shows into the upcoming movie. The resulting footage was deemed substandard and scrapped; years later, Roger Waters has given conflicted answers on the status of the concert films stating from "trying to locate this footage for historical purposes but was unsuccessful and considers it to be lost forever" to "I have all of the film but am reluctant to release". There are several unofficial videos of the entire live show in circulation and some footage is shown on the Behind the Wall documentary. Gilmour and Mason attempted to convince Waters to expand the show for a more lucrative, large-scale stadium tour, but because of the nature of the material (one of the primary themes is the distance between an artist and his audience) Waters balked at this. In fact, Waters had reportedly been offered a guaranteed US$1 million for each additional stadium concert, but declined the offer, insisting that such a tour would be hypocritical. These shows are documented on the album Is There Anybody Out There? The Wall Live 1980-81. Waters recreated the Wall show in Berlin in 1990, alongside the ruins of the Berlin Wall, and was joined by a number of guest artists (including Bryan Adams, Scorpions, Van Morrison, The Band, Tim Curry, Cyndi Lauper, Sinéad O'Connor, Marianne Faithfull, Joni Mitchell, Ute Lemper and Thomas Dolby). This concert was even bigger than the previous ones, as Waters built a long and high wall. The size of the theatrical features of The Wall were increased to cater for a sold-out audience of 200,000 people and of another estimated 500 million, in 35 countries, watching on television. After the concert began, the gates were opened and an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 people were able to watch the concert. This show is available on The Wall Live in Berlin album and DVD. Roger staged another tour of The Wall in 2010 saying of the story "It has occurred to me that maybe the story of my fear and loss with its concomitant inevitable residue of ridicule, shame and punishment, provides an allegory for broader concerns: Nationalism, racism, sexism, religion, Whatever! All these issues and ‘isms are driven by the same fears that drove my young life." A Momentary Lapse of Reason After the release of A Momentary Lapse of Reason in 1987, Pink Floyd embarked on an 11-week tour to promote the album. The two remaining members of the band, David Gilmour and Nick Mason, along with Richard Wright, had just won a legal battle against Roger Waters and the future of the group was uncertain. Having the success of The Wall shows to live up to, the concerts' special effects were more impressive than ever. The initial "promotional tour" was extended, and finally lasted almost two years, ending in 1989 after playing around 200 concerts to about 5.5 million people in total, including 3 dates at Madison Square Garden (5–7 October 1987) and 2 nights on Wembley Stadium (5–6 August 1988). The tour took Pink Floyd to various exotic locations they had never played before such as shows in the forecourt of the Palace of Versailles, Moscow's Olympic Stadium, and Venice, despite fears and protests that the sound would damage the latter city's foundations. These shows are documented by the Delicate Sound of Thunder album and video. Pink Floyd was the second highest grossing act of 1987 and the highest grossing of 1988 in the U.S. Financially, Pink Floyd was the biggest act of these two years combined, grossing almost US$60 million from touring, about the same as U2 and Michael Jackson, their closest rivals, combined. Worldwide, the band grossed around US$135 million. The tour marked the first time that the band played in Russia, Norway, Spain, New Zealand and was the first time they had played in Australia since 1973. A further concert was held at the Knebworth Festival in 1990, a charity event that also featured other Silver Clef Award winners. Pink Floyd was the last act to play, to an audience of 125,000. During this gig Clare Torry sang backing vocals making it the second and last time she did so. Vicki and Sam Brown also attended as backing vocalists, as well as Candy Dulfer with a saxophone solo. The £60,000 firework display that ended the concert was entirely financed by the band. The Division Bell The Division Bell Tour in 1994 was promoted by Canadian concert impresario Michael Cohl and became the highest-grossing tour in rock music history to that date, with the band playing the entirety of The Dark Side of the Moon in some shows, for the first time since 1975. The concerts featured more elaborate special effects than the previous tour, including two custom designed airships. The arch-shaped stage was designed by Marc Brickman and Mark Fisher with lighting by Marc Brickman. Three stages leapfrogged around North America and Europe, each long and featuring a arch modelled on the Hollywood Bowl. All in all, the tour required 700 tons of steel carried by 53 articulated trucks, a crew of 161 people and an initial investment of US$4 million plus US$25 million of running costs just to stage. This tour played to 5.5 million people in 68 cities; each concert gathered an average 45,000 audience. At the end of the year, the Division Bell Tour was announced as the biggest tour ever, with worldwide gross of over £150 million (about US$250 million). In the U.S. alone, it grossed US$103.5 million from 59 concerts. However, this record was short-lived; less than a year later, The Rolling Stones' Voodoo Lounge Tour (like the Division Bell Tour, also sponsored in part by Volkswagen) finished with a worldwide gross of over US$300 million. The Stones and U2 (with their Vertigo Tour) remain the only acts ever to achieve a higher worldwide gross from a tour, even when adjusting for inflation. These shows are documented by the Pulse album and Pulse (1995 film). Post-Pulse era 1996: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame performance In 1996, Gilmour and Wright performed "Wish You Were Here" with Billy Corgan (of The Smashing Pumpkins fame) at their Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction. 2001: David Gilmour & Nick Mason statements about Pink Floyd touring again in the future In an interview with BBC Radio 2 in October, 2001, Gilmour implied that the Echoes: The Best of Pink Floyd compilation (released in November 2001) "probably" signaled the end of the band. "You never know exactly what the future (holds)", Gilmour said. "I'm not going to slam any doors too firmly, but I don't see myself doing any more of that, and I certainly don't see myself going out on a big Floyd tour again." A few days later in an interview with Launch.com, Nick Mason contradicted the statement, saying "I don't feel I've retired yet. You know, if everyone wanted to, we could certainly still do something. I've spent 30 years waiting for the planets to align. I'm quite used to it." 2002: David Gilmour in Concert DVD release David Gilmour released a solo concert DVD called David Gilmour in Concert in November 2002 which was compiled from shows on 22 June 2001 and 17 January 2002 at The Royal Festival Hall in London. Richard Wright, Robert Wyatt, and Bob Geldof (Pink in The Wall film) make guest appearances. 2003: Steve O'Rourke's funeral performance Longtime manager Steve O'Rourke died on 30 October 2003. Gilmour, Mason and Wright performed "Fat Old Sun" and "The Great Gig in the Sky" at his funeral at Chichester Cathedral, contrary to reports in the media claiming they played "Wish You Were Here". 2005: Live 8 performance On 2 July 2005 Pink Floyd performed at the London Live 8 concert with Roger Waters rejoining David Gilmour, Nick Mason and Richard Wright. It was the quartet's first performance together in over 24 years — the band's last show with Waters was at Earls Court in London on 17 June 1981. Gilmour announced the Live 8 reunion on 12 June 2005: The band's set consisted of "Speak to Me/Breathe/Breathe (Reprise)", "Money", "Wish You Were Here", and "Comfortably Numb". This is the only known occurrence when Pink Floyd played "Breathe" and "Breathe (Reprise)" together as a single piece. As on the original recordings, Gilmour sang the lead vocals on "Breathe" and "Money", and shared them with Waters on "Comfortably Numb". For "Wish You Were Here", Waters sang half of the verse's lyrics, unlike the original recording. When Waters was not singing, he was often enthusiastically mouthing the lyrics off-microphone. During the guitar introduction of "Wish You Were Here", Waters said: They were augmented by guitarist/bassist Tim Renwick (guitarist on Roger Waters' 1984 solo tour, who has since become Pink Floyd's backing guitarist on stage); keyboardist/lap steel guitarist/backup vocalist Jon Carin (Pink Floyd's backing keyboardist from 1987 onward who performed on the 1999–2000 North American leg of Waters' "In the Flesh" tour, his 2006–2008 "Dark Side of the Moon Live" tour, his 2010–2011 "The Wall" tour and David Gilmour's 2006 On an Island tour); saxophonist Dick Parry during "Money" (who played on the original recordings of "Money", "Us and Them", and "Shine on You Crazy Diamond"); and backing singer Carol Kenyon during "Comfortably Numb". During "Breathe", on the screen behind them, film of the iconic pig from the Animals album was shown flying over Battersea Power Station (itself visible on the horizon in television broadcasts of the performance), and during "Money", a shot of The Dark Side of the Moon record being played was shown. During "Comfortably Numb", the three giant screens showed the Pink Floyd Wall (from the cover of The Wall), and during the final guitar solo, the words "Make Poverty History" were written on the wall. At the end, after the last song had been played, Gilmour said "thank you very much, good night" and started to walk off the stage. Waters called him back, however, and the band shared a group hug that became one of the most famous pictures of Live 8. As they proceeded to walk off, Nick Mason threw his drumsticks into the audience. With Wright's subsequent death, in September 2008, this was to be the final concert to feature all four bandmates playing together. 2007: Syd Barrett tribute concert On 10 May 2007 Pink Floyd (Wright, Gilmour and Mason), joined by Andy Bell of Oasis on bass and Jon Carin on keys, performed at London's Barbican Centre as part of "The Madcap's Last Laugh", a tribute concert for Syd Barrett who had died the previous year. They played "Arnold Layne", and later joined other artists to perform "Bike". This would be the last time Wright appeared as part of Pink Floyd, before his own death the following year. Roger Waters appeared in the concert performing his own song "Flickering Flame", also with Jon Carin on keys, but did not take part in either song with the members of Pink Floyd. In 2020, the live recording of "Arnold Layne" from this concert was released as a single for Record Store Day. Backing musicians See: Pink Floyd live backing musicians Because of the increasingly complex nature of Pink Floyd's music, more and more musicians besides the band were required on stage to recreate sounds achieved in the studio. Some performances of Atom Heart Mother featured an entire orchestra and choir, reputedly a nightmare to bring on tour. Less 'weighty' contributions from other musicians followed. In 1973 Dick Parry provided saxophone for Dark Side of the Moon and reprised this for live performances in every subsequent tour except those promoting The Wall and A Momentary Lapse of Reason, the latter in which Scott Page provided sax. For 1977's Animals promotion, Snowy White was brought in as an additional guitarist. He returned for The Wall shows along with a complete "surrogate band" consisting of Peter Wood (keyboards), Willie Wilson (drums) and Andy Bown (bass). Andy Roberts replaced White for the 1981 shows. For the A Momentary Lapse of Reason and Division Bell tours, Jon Carin (whom David Gilmour had met at Live Aid playing in Bryan Ferry's backing band) provided additional synthesizers and keyboards, Guy Pratt replaced Roger Waters on bass, Tim Renwick provided additional guitar and Gary Wallis additional percussion. Several backing vocalists, (the most notable of whom are Rachel Fury, Clare Torry, Sam Brown, Margaret Taylor, Durga McBroom and Carol Kenyon) have accompanied the band on and off from Dark Side of the Moon onwards. During their performance at Live 8, Pink Floyd used Tim Renwick, Jon Carin, Dick Parry and Carol Kenyon. Notes References Fitch, Vernon. The Pink Floyd Encyclopedia, 2005, Mason, Nick. Inside Out: A Personal History of Pink Floyd, 2004. Schaffner, Nicholas. Saucerful of Secrets: The Pink Floyd Odyssey, 1991. Povey, Glenn and Russell, Ian. Pink Floyd: In The Flesh: the complete performance history, 1997. Scarfe, Gerald. "The Making of Pink Floyd: The Wall", 2010. External links Mark Fisher's Pink Floyd gallery Pink Floyd concert tours Concerts
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Pink Floyd live performances", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Pink Floyd was considered a pioneer in the live music experience for combining intense visual experiences with music to create a show in which the performers themselves were almost secondary. As well as visuals, Pink Floyd set standards in sound quality with innovative use of sound effects and panning quadrophonic speaker systems.\n\nSpecial effects\nBesides the music, an elaborate part to any Pink Floyd live show is the special effects.\n\nDynamic lighting\nPink Floyd were among the first bands to use a dedicated travelling light show in conjunction with their performances. During the Barrett era, dynamic liquid light shows were projected onto enormous screens behind the band while they played, and the band also incorporated large numbers of strobe lights, which were controlled manually by an engineer. This had the effect of totally obscuring the band itself, except for their shadows, which Barrett took advantage of: he would hold his arms up during parts where he was not required to play, making his shadow grow, shrink and undulate, adding to the visual spectacle. They developed many of these lighting techniques through their early association with light artist Mike Leonard.\n\nWhen psychedelia fell out of fashion from around 1970 onwards, elevated platforms of the type conventionally used for roof maintenance in high buildings were brought on tour and filled with lighting equipment to be raised and lowered during performances. Following Roger Waters' departure in 1985, the Pink Floyd light show reached a pinnacle. Marc Brickman, the group's lighting designer, utilized hundreds of automated intelligent lighting fixtures and lasers, which were state-of-the-art at the time. By the 1994 Division Bell tour, the band was using extremely powerful, isotope-splitting copper-vapour lasers. These gold-coloured lasers were worth over $120,000 a piece and previously had only been used in nuclear research and high speed photography.\n\nA large circular projection panel dubbed \"Mr Screen\" first made an appearance during performances of Dark Side of the Moon in 1974 and became a staple thereafter. The high quality, extreme wide angle projection required special high-speed, 35mm, 10,000 watt xenon film projectors, with custom lenses, all designed, built and toured by Associates & Ferren. Specially recorded films and animations were projected onto it, and for the 1977 \"In the Flesh\" and 1980–1981 \"The Wall Live\" tours, coloured spotlights were fixed around the rim, an effect which reached its zenith with the dancing patterns of multi-coloured lights in the A Momentary Lapse of Reason and Division Bell tours. In the latter, the screen could be retracted behind the stage when not required, and was tilted horizontally with its peripheral lights focused onto the stage into a single spotlight during the final guitar solo in \"Comfortably Numb\".\n\nSeveral generations of giant glitter balls began with the Dark Side of the Moon tour. By the Division Bell tour, the ball had evolved into a globe 4.9 metres in diameter, which rose from the mixing station to a height of 21.3 metres before opening into an array of petals 7.3 metres wide during the final guitar solo of \"Comfortably Numb\", revealing a 12 kilowatt Phobeus HMI lamp inside.\n\nProps and pyrotechnics\nPyrotechnics (such as exploding flashpots, an exploding gong and fireworks) and dry ice were used extensively throughout Pink Floyd's career. In 1973's tour to promote The Dark Side of the Moon, a large scale model plane flew over the audience and crashed onto the stage with a spectacular explosion, an effect repeated at the start of The Wall and the Division Bell shows. During shows to promote A Momentary Lapse of Reason, a similar effect was achieved with a flying bed.\n\nOversized helium balloons were first introduced during the Dark Side of the Moon tours, but in 1975, this element began to play a central part in the live show. For the U.S. leg of the 1975 tour, a pyramid shaped dirigible was floated above the stage. It proved unstable in windy conditions and blew into the crowd, which tore it into pieces for souvenirs. The trademark giant pig was brought in for Animals in 1977, floating over the audience, as well as a grotesque 'Nuclear Family', a refrigerator filled with worms, a television and a Cadillac. In some shows, an envelope of propane gas was put inside the pig, causing it to explode. The inflatables reached their peak in 1980–1981 during The Wall shows, in which several of the characters from the album were brought to life in the form of fully mobile, giant string puppets with menacing spotlights for eyes, taking the traditional balloons to a new level. The characters were designed by the notable satirical artist, Gerald Scarfe.\n\nSpecial effects reached a new and outrageous level during these Wall shows. For example, a long, high wall made from 340 white bricks was built between the audience and the band during the first half of the show. The final brick was placed as Roger Waters sang \"goodbye\" at the end of the song \"Goodbye Cruel World.\" For the second half of the show, the band was largely invisible, except for a hole in the wall that simulated a hotel room where Roger Waters \"acted out\" the story of Pink, and an appearance by David Gilmour on top of the wall to perform the climactic guitar solo in \"Comfortably Numb.\" Other parts of the story were told by Gerald Scarfe's animations projected onto the wall itself (these animations were later integrated into the film Pink Floyd: The Wall). At the finale of the concert, the wall was demolished amidst sound effects and a spectacular light show.\n\nMajor tours and concerts\n30 September 1966 – The All Saints Church Hall Concert - London Free School/International Times Benefit Show\n29–30 April 1967 – The 14 Hour Technicolour Dream concerts\n12 May 1967 – Games for May concert\n4–12 November 1967 – First US Tour\n29 June 1968 – Midsummer High Weekend concert\nFebruary – December 1968 – Pink Floyd World Tour 1968\nMay – September 1969 – The Man and The Journey Tour\n25 October 1969 - Actuel Festival Amougies, Belgium\n27 June 1970 – The Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music concert\n28 June 1970 - The Holland Pop Festival in Kralingen Rotterdam\nSeptember 1970 – October 1971 – Atom Heart Mother World Tour\nOctober – November 1971 – Meddle Tour\nJanuary 1972 – November 1973 – Dark Side of the Moon Tour\nJune 1974 – French Summer Tour\nNovember – December 1974 – British Winter Tour\nApril – July 1975 – Wish You Were Here Tour\nJanuary – July 1977 – In the Flesh Tour\nFebruary 1980 – June 1981 – The Wall Tour (Is There Anybody Out There? The Wall Live 1980–81)\nSeptember 1987 – August 1988 – A Momentary Lapse of Reason Tour (as documented by Delicate Sound of Thunder)\nMay 1989 – July 1989 – Another Lapse Tour\n30 June 1990 – Knebworth Festival concert\n18 September 1993 – Cowdray Ruins concert\nMarch – October 1994 – The Division Bell Tour (as documented by Pulse)\n17 January 1996 – Rock and Roll Hall of Fame performance\n2 July 2005 – Live 8 concert\n10 May 2007 – Syd Barrett Tribute concert\n\nNotable performance history\n\nBarrett era\nThe earliest shows for what is considered to be \"Pink Floyd\" occurred in 1965 and included Bob Klose as a member of the band, which at the time played mainly R&B covers. Klose left the band after 1965. The remaining four members played very small (generally no more than 50 people), mostly unadvertised shows at the Marquee Club in London through June 1966. The set list continued to include R&B, but some original psychedelia was also being introduced.\n\nOn 30 September 1966, Pink Floyd were invited to play All Saint's Church Hall to raise money for the nascent International Times newspaper, and quickly became the \"house band\". At these shows, the band began its use of visual effects and gradually stopped covering R&B. Word of these shows quickly spread in the London underground culture and soon the band became very well-attended and developed a cult following. On 23 December 1966, the first of the \"International Times\" associated gigs to be held at the UFO Club was performed. Mainstream interest about the counter-culture was increasing and a very small portion of their 20 January 1967 show at the UFO Club was broadcast as part of Granada TV's documentary entitled It's So Far Out, It's Straight Down, which constitutes the first audial or visual record of the band live.\n\nPink Floyd were among the 30 bands that played The 14 Hour Technicolour Dream benefit gig organised for the \"International Times\" legal defence fund and held at the Alexandra Palace in London on the eve of 30 April 1967. Some of the other bands who played were The Who, The Move, The Pretty Things, Soft Machine, Tomorrow and The Creation. Notables in attendance included musician John Lennon, artist John Dunbar, actor Michael Caine, artist and musician Yoko Ono, actress Julie Christie, musician Mick Jagger and artist David Hockney. Although both the BBC and filmmaker Peter Whitehead filmed portions of the event, there is no known footage of Pink Floyd.\n\nOn 12 May 1967, Pink Floyd performed at Queen Elizabeth Hall in London a concert entitled Games for May. At this show, they debuted a multi-speaker pan pot system controlled by a joystick from the stage that allowed them to move the sound to anywhere a speaker had been set up. This precursor to their later \"Azimuth Coordinator\" unfortunately was stolen after the show.\n\nAfter their debut single, \"Arnold Layne\", charted well in the UK, the band was invited to perform on the BBC2 music show The Look of the Week on 14 May 1967. The setlist for the broadcast consisted of \"Pow R. Toc H.\" and \"Astronomy Domine\". This was their first British television appearance.\n\nPink Floyd were invited to appear on the BBC2 music show Top of the Pops in July 1967 for three weeks after their second single \"See Emily Play\" reached No. 6 on the UK charts. By this time Syd Barrett's behavior had become somewhat unpredictable. On one occasion, the increasingly difficult Barrett remarked that if John Lennon did not have to appear on Top of the Pops neither did he. Consequently, their management company, Blackhill Enterprises, convinced the band to cancel all of their August shows and go to Spain to recuperate.\n\nIncreasingly, throughout the summer and into the fall of 1967, copious drug use (especially LSD) and pressure by the record company to constantly write new hit songs continued to take a toll on Barrett's mental state. He became unable to make a meaningful contribution to the group on stage, playing his guitar incoherently and sometimes not playing at all. By the time of the band's first tour of the US in early November 1967, his condition was plainly showing. He stared blankly into space on their 4 November American Bandstand performance, listlessly strummed and barely managed to mime the vocals to \"Apples and Oranges\". On 5 November, things got worse: they appeared on The Pat Boone Show and Barrett sat in stubborn silence, refusing to answer any question put to him. He also refused to mime \"See Emily Play\": Waters was forced to mime the track instead (Waters confirmed this on the VH1's Legends: Pink Floyd episode). After 22 December show, the rest of the band quietly put out the word that they were in need of a guitarist.\n\nAlthough both Jeff Beck and Davy O'List were considered, it was David Gilmour, then unobligated, who was brought on to augment Barrett as need arose during live shows. For the first four shows of 1968, Pink Floyd was a five-man live act again. When they were on the way to their show at Southampton University on 26 January 1968, they decided not to pick up Barrett.\n\nTransition and experimentation\n\nA typical 1968 set list would include some of the following:\n\"Astronomy Domine\"\n\"Interstellar Overdrive\"\n\"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun\"\n\"Pow R. Toc H.\"\n\"Let There Be More Light\"\n\"The Massed Gadgets of Hercules\" (first performed on 23 May 1968, renamed \"A Saucerful of Secrets\" )\n\"Flaming\"\n\"Keep Smiling People\" (a prototype version of \"Careful with That Axe, Eugene\")\n\nAlthough their management company Blackhill Enterprises parted ways with them over their decision about Syd Barrett on 29 June 1968, Pink Floyd headlined the first free Hyde Park concert organized by Blackhill. Others performing were Tyrannosaurus Rex, Roy Harper and Jethro Tull.\n\nA second tour of the US during July and August 1968 (see A Saucerful of Secrets US Tour) was launched to tie into the release of their second album, A Saucerful of Secrets. Increasingly throughout 1968 and 1969, shows consisted of post-Barrett compositions, with notable exceptions being \"Astronomy Domine\" and \"Interstellar Overdrive\", both of which were performed into the 1970s. Their audiences changed during this time as well: while Barrett-era crowds consisted mainly of hippies who would dance in time with the music, they now drew more \"intellectual\" crowd, who would sit and remain quiet until the last note of a song was played. By early 1969, most of their excess earnings were funneled into upgrading their sound equipment rather than maintaining a permanent light show. If visuals were to be used at all, they had to be provided by the venue or the local promoter.\n\nA typical 1969 set list would include some of the following:\n\nSee: The Man And The Journey Tour\n\n\"The Man/The Journey\"\n\"Astronomy Domine\"\n\"Interstellar Overdrive\"\n\"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun\"\n\"Pow R. Toc H.\"\n\"Let There Be More Light\"\n\"A Saucerful of Secrets\"\n\"Cymbaline\"\n\"Green is the Colour\"\n\"Main Theme\" (rarely played)\n\"Careful with That Axe, Eugene\"\n\nThe shows at Mothers, Birmingham on 27 April 1969 and the College of Commerce, Manchester on 2 May 1969 were recorded for the live part of the Ummagumma album. One source also claims that the show at Bromley Technical College on 26 April 1969 was also recorded for the album.\n\nOn 14 April 1969, at Royal Festival Hall, they debuted their new pan pot 360 degree sound system dubbed the \"Azimuth Coordinator\". This show, named \"More Furious Madness from the Massed Gadgets of Auximenes\", consisted of two experimental \"suites\", \"The Man\" and \"The Journey\". Most of the songs were either renamed earlier material or under a different name than they would eventually be released.\n\nA UK tour occurred during May and June 1969 culminating in the show dubbed \"The Final Lunacy\" at Royal Albert Hall on 26 June 1969. Considered one of the most experimental concerts by Pink Floyd, it featured a crew member dressed as a gorilla, a cannon that fired, and band members sawing wood on the stage. At the finale of \"The Journey\" suite the band was joined on stage by the brass section of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and the ladies of the Ealing Central Amateur Choir, and at the very end a huge pink smoke bomb was let off.\n\nAn additional complete performance of \"The Man/The Journey\" occurred at the Concertgebouw, Amsterdam on 17 September and was taped and later broadcast by Dutch radio station Hilversum 3. Portions of the suites were being performed as late as early 1970.\n\nThe \"Atom Heart Mother\" era\nA typical 1970 set list would include some of the following:\n\"Astronomy Domine\"\n\"Interstellar Overdrive\"\n\"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun\"\n\"A Saucerful of Secrets\"\n\"Cymbaline\"\n\"Green is the Colour\"\n\"Main Theme\"  (rarely played, and only in early 1970)\n\"Careful with That Axe, Eugene\"\n\"Sysyphus\" pts. 1-4  (rarely played, and only in early 1970)\n\"Grantchester Meadows\"\n\"Embryo\"\n\"The Violent Sequence\"  (rarely played, and only in early 1970)\n\"Heart Beat, Pig Meat\" performed at Manchester Opera House on 8 February 1970\n\"Atom Heart Mother\"\n\"Fat Old Sun\"  (beginning in September)\n\"Alan's Psychedelic Breakfast\"  (only played a few times in December)\n\nEarly in 1970, Pink Floyd performed at gigs a piece from their film soundtrack for Michelangelo Antonioni's film Zabriskie Point referred to as \"The Violent Sequence\". This was the musical basis for \"Us and Them\", from their The Dark Side of the Moon album. Lacking only the lyrics, it is identical to the final song and is the earliest part of the seminal album to have been performed live. The song \"Embryo\" was also a part of the live repertoire around this time, but was never to appear on a studio album, until the compilation album Works.\n\nOn 18 January 1970 (possibly 17 January 1970), the band began performing a then untitled instrumental piece, which would eventually become the title track to their next album Atom Heart Mother. At this point, it had no orchestra or choir accompaniment. The song officially debuted at the Bath Festival, Somerset England on 27 June 1970 under the title \"The Amazing Pudding\" (later the name of a Pink Floyd fanzine) and for the first time with orchestra and choir accompaniment.\n\nAnnounced as \"The Atom Heart Mother\" by the British broadcaster John Peel on his BBC Radio 1 show \"Peel's Sunday Concert\" on 16 July 1970, a name suggested by him to the band, it was also announced as \"The Atomic Heart Mother\" two days later at the Hyde Park free concert. Partly because of the difficulties of finding and hiring local orchestras and choirs, the band often played what is referred to as the \"small band\" version of the song when they performed it live.\n\nOn 28 June 1970 Fink Floyd was the end-performance of the Kralingen Music Festival or \"Stamping Ground\" in a park near Rotterdam, The Netherlands.\n\nOn 18 July Pink Floyd headlined a free concert in Hyde Park organised by Blackhill Enterprises. They closed the show with Atom Heart Mother, which had been given the name after Roger Waters read an article in a newspaper about a woman who had been given a prototype heart pacemaker\n\nPink Floyd also appeared at a Free festival In Canterbury on 31 August which was filmed. This was the end leg of the Medicine Ball Caravan tour organised by Warner Brothers, which was later made into a film of the same name. It appears that the Pink Floyd footage was not included in the movie but spectators report that Atom Heart Mother was part of the set that was recorded. The audience must have been one of the smallest to see Pink Floyd at this era, only 1500 were present as the festival was not widely promoted.\n\nIn contrast, over 500,000 people witnessed their show at Fête de L'Humanité, Paris on 12 September 1970, their largest crowd ever. Filmed by French TV, the show was never broadcast.\n\nExperimental on the album Atom Heart Mother, the song \"Alan's Psychedelic Breakfast\" was performed at a few gigs in December 1970. \"Breakfast\" being made was part of the song. The first part of this lasted around four minutes. The second part of \"breakfast\" preparation was around a minute followed by a 3-minute tape of British DJ Jimmy Young, whom the band disliked.\n\nFor a great recording of some of their material from this period check out the Fillmore West show in San Francisco, California on 29 April 1970 on Wolfgang's Vault. This show includes material from Ummagumma and Atom Heart Mother.\n\nEarly performances of \"Echoes\"\nA typical 1971 set list would include some of the following:\n\"Astronomy Domine\"  (dropped from the setlist in June)\n\"Interstellar Overdrive\"  (dropped from the setlist in November 1970)\n\"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun\"\n\"A Saucerful of Secrets\"\n\"Cymbaline\"\n\"Green Is the Colour\"  (dropped from the setlist in August)\n\"Careful with That Axe, Eugene\"\n\"Embryo\"\n\"Atom Heart Mother\"\n\"Fat Old Sun\"\n\"Echoes\"\n\"One of These Days\"  (beginning in late September / early October)\n\nJanuary 1971 saw the band working on a track in the studio of then unconnected parts whose working title was either \"Nothing — Parts 1 to 24\" or \"Nothing Parts 1–36\". This song made its live debut under the working title \"Return of the Son of Nothing\" on 22 April 1971 in Norwich, England and like \"Atom Heart Mother\" before it, it was a work in progress. This was later to be released as \"Echoes\" on the album Meddle.\n\nAlthough announced as \"Echoes\" on 6 August 1971 at Hakone, Japan, the song was still performed with the additional lyrics at later August gigs. The show on 18 September 1971 at Montreux, Switzerland and subsequent shows do not have the additional lyrics. In 1972, during a German tour, Waters sardonically introduced Echoes as \"Looking Through the Knotholes in Granny's Wooden Leg\" (a Goon Show reference) on one occasion and \"The March of the Dam Busters\" on another. On another occasion, during a live radio broadcast, Waters had instructed compére John Peel to announce \"One of These Days\" to the home audience as \"A poignant appraisal of the contemporary social situation.\"\n\nAfter the band's Crystal Palace Garden Party performance (London, 15 May 1971), it was discovered that the use of fireworks caused some fishes to die, in a pond directly in front of the stage. The band was subsequently pressured to compensate for the damage.\n\nEclipse - A Piece for Assorted Lunatics\n\nA typical 1972 set list included:\n\nFirst Set:\n \"Breathe in the Air\"\n \"The Travel Sequence\"\n \"Time\"\n \"Home Again\"\n \"The Mortality Sequence\" (aka \"Religion\")\n \"Money\"\n \"The Violent Sequence\"\n \"Scat\"\n \"Lunatic\"\n \"Eclipse\"\n\nSecond Set:\n\"One of These Days\"\n\"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun\"  (or as an encore)\n\"Careful with That Axe, Eugene\"  (or as an encore)\n\"Echoes\"  (or as an encore)\n\"Atom Heart Mother\"  (rarely, last performance on 22 May 1972)\n\"A Saucerful of Secrets\"  (rarely in second set, usually as an encore)\n\"Childhood's End\"  (rarely, introduced in November 1972)\n\nEncore:\nRotated one of these three songs:\n\"A Saucerful of Secrets\"  (last performance on 23 September 1972)\n\"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun\"  (or in second set)\n\"Echoes\"  (or in second set)\nOccasionally, multiple song encores were performed, adding:\n \"Blues\"\n\nPlaying 98 shows (the most until 1994), 1972 was the last time Pink Floyd varied their set lists each night on a tour until their final one. Songs played in the second set and encore were swapped constantly, and the band even varied the number of songs played in the encore from the usual one, to two or three.\n\n1972 saw Pink Floyd debut the performance of a not just a song (like on previous tours), but an entire album prior to its release. The original title was Eclipse (A Piece for Assorted Lunatics), then The Dark Side of the Moon - A Piece for Assorted Lunatics, the name under which it made its press debut in February 1972 at London's Rainbow Theatre. The title changed for the first part of the US tour to Eclipse (A Piece for Assorted Lunatics) during April and May before reverting to Dark Side of the Moon - A Piece for Assorted Lunatics in September for the second part of the US tour and finally released in 1973 under the title of Dark Side of the Moon.\n\nOne of the two shows at The Dome, Brighton, England on 28 June and 29 June was filmed by Peter Clifton for inclusion on his film Sounds of the City. Clips of these appear occasionally on television and the performance of \"Careful with That Axe, Eugene\" is on the various artists video Superstars in Concert.\n\nIn November 1972, during the middle of the European leg of their 1972 world tour and again in January 1973, Pink Floyd performed with the Roland Petit Ballet. The portion of the setlist for which the ballet was choreographed was \"One of These Days\", \"Careful with That Axe, Eugene\", \"Obscured by Clouds\", \"When You're In\" and \"Echoes\".\n\nDark Side of the Moon\n\nAn early 1973 set list (until mid-March) included:\n\nFirst Set:\n\"Echoes\"\n\"Obscured by Clouds\"/\"When You're In\" (The two songs incorporated into a longer piece with a jamming guitar & keyboard section in the middle)\n\"Childhood's End\" (rarely)\n\"Careful with That Axe, Eugene\"\nSecond Set:\nThe Dark Side of the Moon entire album\nEncore:\n\"One of These Days\"\n\nFor the remainder of 1973 (except 4 November), the set list included:\n\nFirst Set:\n\"Obscured by Clouds\"\n\"When You're In\"\n\"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun\"\n\"Careful with That Axe, Eugene\"\n\"Echoes\"\nSecond Set: \nThe Dark Side of the Moon entire album\nEncore:\n\"One of These Days\"\n\nIn 1973, the band moved Dark Side of the Moon to the second set (where it would reside through 1975), and played the album version of the piece, notably the revamped versions of \"On the Run\" and \"The Great Gig in the Sky.\" 1973 saw Pink Floyd go on two relatively short tours of the US, one in March to coincide with the release of The Dark Side of the Moon and a later one in June. Sandwiched between them were two nights at London's Earl's Court on 18 May and 19 May where they debuted the special effect of a plane crashing into the stage at the end of the song \"On the Run\". This was also the first year that the band took additional musicians on tour with them, unlike the earlier performances of \"Atom Heart Mother\" where the band would often hire local musicians.\n\nBecause of the overwhelming chart success of both The Dark Side of the Moon, which reached No. 1 in the US in late April, No. 2 in the UK, and the US-released single \"Money\", the nature of Pink Floyd's audiences changed in June 1973. David Gilmour said of the change \"It was 'Money' that made the difference rather than 'The Dark Side of the Moon'. It gave us a much larger following, for which we should be thankful. ... People at the front shouting, 'Play Money! Gimme something I can shake my ass to!' We had to get used to it, but previously we'd been playing to 10,000 seaters where, in the quiet passages, you could hear a pin drop.\" They could now sell out stadiums.\n\nOn 4 November 1973, Pink Floyd played two shows at London's Rainbow Theatre to benefit musician Robert Wyatt formerly the drummer of Soft Machine, a band they'd played with in their UFO Club days. Wyatt fell from a fourth floor window in June 1973, breaking his back and making him a paraplegic. The set list for these two shows were:\n\nMain Set:\nThe Dark Side of the Moon entire album\nEncore:\n\"Obscured by Clouds\"\n\"When You're In\"\n\n1974 Tours\n\nA French Summer Tour set list would include all of the following:\n\"Raving and Drooling\"\n\"Shine On You Crazy Diamond\"\n\"Echoes\"\nThe Dark Side of the Moon (Entire album)\nEncore (one of the following):\n\"Careful with That Axe, Eugene\"\n\"One of These Days\"\n\nA British Winter Tour set list included all of the following:\n\"Shine On You Crazy Diamond\"\n\"Raving and Drooling\"\n\"You've Got to be Crazy\"\nThe Dark Side of the Moon (Entire album)\nEncore:\n\"Echoes\"\n\nThese early versions of \"Shine On You Crazy Diamond\", \"Raving and Drooling\" & \"You've Got to be Crazy\" were released as part of the Wish You Were Here Experience and Immersion sets.\n\n1975 North America Tour & Knebworth '75\n\nA typical 1975 set would include all of the following:\n\n\"Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Parts I-V)\"\n\"Have a Cigar\"\n\"Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Parts VI-IX)\"\n\"Raving and Drooling\"\n\"You've Got to be Crazy\"\nThe Dark Side of the Moon (entire album)\nEncore:\n\"Echoes\"\n\nIn 1975, the band launched a short tour that ended two months prior to the release of Wish You Were Here, which eventually sold out stadiums and arenas across America.\n\nThe last gig of the tour was as the headliner of the 1975 Knebworth Festival, which also featured The Steve Miller Band, Captain Beefheart and Roy Harper (who joined Pink Floyd on the stage to sing \"Have a Cigar\"). It was the second Knebworth Festival, which featured artists such as The Rolling Stones, Led Zeppelin, Genesis and Frank Zappa between 1974 and 1979.\n\nDespite some technical problems, the band managed to perform a remarkable concert, which as well as the usual special effects featured a fly-past by a pair of Spitfires. This was supposed to synchronise with the start of 'Breathe' but the band had tuning difficulties and the planes flew over before the start of the set. Knebworth was the last time the band would perform \"Echoes\" and the entire Dark Side of the Moon with Roger Waters.\n\nIn the Flesh\n\nA typical 1977 set list would include the following:\nAnimals (entire album)\nWish You Were Here (entire album)\nEncore:\n\"Money\"\n\"Us and Them\"\n\"Careful with That Axe, Eugene\" (performed once in Oakland, California)\n\"More Blues\" (performed once in Montreal, Quebec, Canada)\n\nIn 1977, Pink Floyd embarked on a world tour in support of the \"Animals\" album. Although the album had not sold as well as their two previous releases, \"Dark Side Of The Moon\" and \"Wish You Were Here\", the band's popularity was at an all-time high. The band managed to sell out arenas and stadiums in both Europe and America, setting attendance records all along the way. In Chicago, the band played to an estimated audience of 95,000; in Cleveland and Montreal, they set attendance records for those venues by playing to over 80,000 people. The \"In The Flesh\" tour would later become widely known as their most memorable series of concert performances, and the last in which Roger Waters would accompany the band. The elaborate stage presentations, particularly those constructed for the outdoor venues, were their most complex and elaborate to date. Designed by Mark Fisher and Andrew Sanders, they featured a pyrotechnic \"waterfall\", umbrella-like canopies that could be deployed to protect the band from the elements, and a variety of characters associated with the \"Animals\" album; including \"Algie\", a 40-foot long inflatable pig that drifted out over the audience, the \"Average American family\" (which, at the time, included Mom, Dad and 2.5 children), and paper sheep that parachuted down on the crowds after being shot from cannons mounted to the sides of the stage. The musicians that accompanied the band on the tour included veteran saxophone player Dick Parry (occasionally playing keyboards as well) and guitarist Snowy White, who also filled in on bass guitar for some songs.\n\nIn the first half of each show, the band played all of the songs from Animals, but in a slightly different sequence than the album (typically starting with \"Sheep\", then \"Pigs On the Wing (Part 1)\", \"Dogs\", \"Pigs On the Wing (Part 2)\" and \"Pigs (Three Different Ones)\"). The second half of the shows consisted of Wish You Were Here being played in its exact running order (\"Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Parts 1-5)\", \"Welcome to the Machine\", \"Have a Cigar\", \"Wish You Were Here\" and \"Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Parts 6-9)\"). The encores would usually consist of either \"Money\" or \"Us and Them\" from Dark Side of the Moon or both. At the Oakland, California show on May 9, they played \"Careful with That Axe, Eugene\" as a third encore, the last time the song was ever performed live.\n\nThe tour started in Dortmund, West Germany on 23 January and proceeded through Europe, ending in Stafford, England on 31 March. Three weeks later, the North American leg of the tour opened in Miami, Florida on 22 April, concluding in Montreal, Quebec on 6 July. The show in Oakland, California on 9 May is widely regarded as one of the band's finest performances ever. During \"Have a Cigar,\" Waters and Gilmour can be heard laughing as they sing part of the opening line. In the run-up to the band's four-night run at Madison Square Garden in New York City (1–4 July), tour promoters used an aggressive marketing strategy, filling pages of The New York Times and Billboard magazine with ads. In May, there was a Pink Floyd parade on 6th Avenue featuring both inflatable and live animals.\n\nAnother memorable performance occurred in Cleveland, Ohio on 25 June. The show was held at Cleveland Municipal Stadium, just a short distance from Burke Lakefront Airport. Most of the shows opened with a recording of jet airplane taking off, but promoters secretly arranged for the band's Boeing 737 jet to do a low flyover directly over the stadium as the show opened. The FAA later fined the promoters $1,500 over the incident. The show was also delayed briefly by a fan that grabbed the tether line for the inflatable pig and wouldn't release it. At their performance in Boston two nights later, Waters jokingly said \"We're going to take a PIG break, back in 20 minutes\". He closed the show by gratefully commenting that this had been \"the perfect end to the perfect day, good night and God bless\".\n\nAs the tour began, everyone was in good spirits, but the later shows were marred by Roger Waters' increasing annoyance with the raucous fans in attendance. During the last show in Montreal, a noisy fan near the stage irritated Waters to such an extent that he spat on him. The act so disgusted David Gilmour that he left the stage prior to the final encore, \"More Blues\", leaving Snowy White to fill in as the roadies began dismantling the stage equipment. The insatiable audience clamored for the band to keep playing, and a small riot broke out in front of the stage following the band's eventual exit. Later that night, Waters recounted the incident to his friend, music producer Bob Ezrin, and expressed his growing feelings of alienation toward their fans. Those feeling of detachment became the starting and focal point for Pink Floyd's next album, The Wall.\n\nThe Wall live\n\nThe 1980/1981 set lists comprised the entire album, The Wall.\n\nPink Floyd mounted its most elaborate stage show in conjunction with the tour of The Wall. A band of session musicians played the first song, wearing rubber face masks taken from the real band members, then backed up the band for the remainder of the show. Most notable was the giant wall constructed between the band and the audience.\n\nThe costs of the tour were estimated to have reached US$1.5 million even before the first performance. The New York Times stated in its 2 March 1980 edition that:\n\nThe 'Wall' show remains a milestone in rock history though and there's no point in denying it. Never again will one be able to accept the technical clumsiness, distorted sound and meagre visuals of most arena rock concerts as inevitable\" and concluded that \"the 'Wall' show will be the touchstone against which all future rock spectacles must be measured. The show was designed by Mark Fisher with Art Direction by Gerald Scarfe.\n\nThe Wall concert was only performed a handful of times each in four cities: Los Angeles, Uniondale (Long Island), Dortmund, and London (at Earl's Court). The primary 'tour' occurred in 1980, but the band performed eight shows at Dortmund (14–20 February 1981) and five more shows at Earl's Court (13–17 June) for filming, with the intention of integrating the shows into the upcoming movie. The resulting footage was deemed substandard and scrapped; years later, Roger Waters has given conflicted answers on the status of the concert films stating from \"trying to locate this footage for historical purposes but was unsuccessful and considers it to be lost forever\" to \"I have all of the film but am reluctant to release\". There are several unofficial videos of the entire live show in circulation and some footage is shown on the Behind the Wall documentary.\n\nGilmour and Mason attempted to convince Waters to expand the show for a more lucrative, large-scale stadium tour, but because of the nature of the material (one of the primary themes is the distance between an artist and his audience) Waters balked at this. In fact, Waters had reportedly been offered a guaranteed US$1 million for each additional stadium concert, but declined the offer, insisting that such a tour would be hypocritical.\n\nThese shows are documented on the album Is There Anybody Out There? The Wall Live 1980-81.\n\nWaters recreated the Wall show in Berlin in 1990, alongside the ruins of the Berlin Wall, and was joined by a number of guest artists (including Bryan Adams, Scorpions, Van Morrison, The Band, Tim Curry, Cyndi Lauper, Sinéad O'Connor, Marianne Faithfull, Joni Mitchell, Ute Lemper and Thomas Dolby). This concert was even bigger than the previous ones, as Waters built a long and high wall. The size of the theatrical features of The Wall were increased to cater for a sold-out audience of 200,000 people and of another estimated 500 million, in 35 countries, watching on television. After the concert began, the gates were opened and an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 people were able to watch the concert. This show is available on The Wall Live in Berlin album and DVD.\n\nRoger staged another tour of The Wall in 2010 saying of the story \"It has occurred to me that maybe the story of my fear and loss with its concomitant inevitable residue of ridicule, shame and punishment, provides an allegory for broader concerns: Nationalism, racism, sexism, religion, Whatever! All these issues and ‘isms are driven by the same fears that drove my young life.\"\n\nA Momentary Lapse of Reason\n\nAfter the release of A Momentary Lapse of Reason in 1987, Pink Floyd embarked on an 11-week tour to promote the album. The two remaining members of the band, David Gilmour and Nick Mason, along with Richard Wright, had just won a legal battle against Roger Waters and the future of the group was uncertain. Having the success of The Wall shows to live up to, the concerts' special effects were more impressive than ever. The initial \"promotional tour\" was extended, and finally lasted almost two years, ending in 1989 after playing around 200 concerts to about 5.5 million people in total, including 3 dates at Madison Square Garden (5–7 October 1987) and 2 nights on Wembley Stadium (5–6 August 1988). The tour took Pink Floyd to various exotic locations they had never played before such as shows in the forecourt of the Palace of Versailles, Moscow's Olympic Stadium, and Venice, despite fears and protests that the sound would damage the latter city's foundations.\n\nThese shows are documented by the Delicate Sound of Thunder album and video.\n\nPink Floyd was the second highest grossing act of 1987 and the highest grossing of 1988 in the U.S. Financially, Pink Floyd was the biggest act of these two years combined, grossing almost US$60 million from touring, about the same as U2 and Michael Jackson, their closest rivals, combined. Worldwide, the band grossed around US$135 million.\n\nThe tour marked the first time that the band played in Russia, Norway, Spain, New Zealand and was the first time they had played in Australia since 1973.\n\nA further concert was held at the Knebworth Festival in 1990, a charity event that also featured other Silver Clef Award winners. Pink Floyd was the last act to play, to an audience of 125,000. During this gig Clare Torry sang backing vocals making it the second and last time she did so. Vicki and Sam Brown also attended as backing vocalists, as well as Candy Dulfer with a saxophone solo. The £60,000 firework display that ended the concert was entirely financed by the band.\n\nThe Division Bell\n\nThe Division Bell Tour in 1994 was promoted by Canadian concert impresario Michael Cohl and became the highest-grossing tour in rock music history to that date, with the band playing the entirety of The Dark Side of the Moon in some shows, for the first time since 1975.\n\nThe concerts featured more elaborate special effects than the previous tour, including two custom designed airships. The arch-shaped stage was designed by Marc Brickman and Mark Fisher with lighting by Marc Brickman. Three stages leapfrogged around North America and Europe, each long and featuring a arch modelled on the Hollywood Bowl. All in all, the tour required 700 tons of steel carried by 53 articulated trucks, a crew of 161 people and an initial investment of US$4 million plus US$25 million of running costs just to stage. This tour played to 5.5 million people in 68 cities; each concert gathered an average 45,000 audience. At the end of the year, the Division Bell Tour was announced as the biggest tour ever, with worldwide gross of over £150 million (about US$250 million). In the U.S. alone, it grossed US$103.5 million from 59 concerts. However, this record was short-lived; less than a year later, The Rolling Stones' Voodoo Lounge Tour (like the Division Bell Tour, also sponsored in part by Volkswagen) finished with a worldwide gross of over US$300 million. The Stones and U2 (with their Vertigo Tour) remain the only acts ever to achieve a higher worldwide gross from a tour, even when adjusting for inflation.\n\nThese shows are documented by the Pulse album and Pulse (1995 film).\n\nPost-Pulse era\n\n1996: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame performance \nIn 1996, Gilmour and Wright performed \"Wish You Were Here\" with Billy Corgan (of The Smashing Pumpkins fame) at their Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction.\n\n2001: David Gilmour & Nick Mason statements about Pink Floyd touring again in the future \nIn an interview with BBC Radio 2 in October, 2001, Gilmour implied that the Echoes: The Best of Pink Floyd compilation (released in November 2001) \"probably\" signaled the end of the band. \"You never know exactly what the future (holds)\", Gilmour said. \"I'm not going to slam any doors too firmly, but I don't see myself doing any more of that, and I certainly don't see myself going out on a big Floyd tour again.\" A few days later in an interview with Launch.com, Nick Mason contradicted the statement, saying \"I don't feel I've retired yet. You know, if everyone wanted to, we could certainly still do something. I've spent 30 years waiting for the planets to align. I'm quite used to it.\"\n\n2002: David Gilmour in Concert DVD release \nDavid Gilmour released a solo concert DVD called David Gilmour in Concert in November 2002 which was compiled from shows on 22 June 2001 and 17 January 2002 at The Royal Festival Hall in London. Richard Wright, Robert Wyatt, and Bob Geldof (Pink in The Wall film) make guest appearances.\n\n2003: Steve O'Rourke's funeral performance \nLongtime manager Steve O'Rourke died on 30 October 2003. Gilmour, Mason and Wright performed \"Fat Old Sun\" and \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" at his funeral at Chichester Cathedral, contrary to reports in the media claiming they played \"Wish You Were Here\".\n\n2005: Live 8 performance \nOn 2 July 2005 Pink Floyd performed at the London Live 8 concert with Roger Waters rejoining David Gilmour, Nick Mason and Richard Wright. It was the quartet's first performance together in over 24 years — the band's last show with Waters was at Earls Court in London on 17 June 1981.\n\nGilmour announced the Live 8 reunion on 12 June 2005:\n\nThe band's set consisted of \"Speak to Me/Breathe/Breathe (Reprise)\", \"Money\", \"Wish You Were Here\", and \"Comfortably Numb\". This is the only known occurrence when Pink Floyd played \"Breathe\" and \"Breathe (Reprise)\" together as a single piece. As on the original recordings, Gilmour sang the lead vocals on \"Breathe\" and \"Money\", and shared them with Waters on \"Comfortably Numb\". For \"Wish You Were Here\", Waters sang half of the verse's lyrics, unlike the original recording. When Waters was not singing, he was often enthusiastically mouthing the lyrics off-microphone. During the guitar introduction of \"Wish You Were Here\", Waters said:\n\nThey were augmented by guitarist/bassist Tim Renwick (guitarist on Roger Waters' 1984 solo tour, who has since become Pink Floyd's backing guitarist on stage); keyboardist/lap steel guitarist/backup vocalist Jon Carin (Pink Floyd's backing keyboardist from 1987 onward who performed on the 1999–2000 North American leg of Waters' \"In the Flesh\" tour, his 2006–2008 \"Dark Side of the Moon Live\" tour, his 2010–2011 \"The Wall\" tour and David Gilmour's 2006 On an Island tour); saxophonist Dick Parry during \"Money\" (who played on the original recordings of \"Money\", \"Us and Them\", and \"Shine on You Crazy Diamond\"); and backing singer Carol Kenyon during \"Comfortably Numb\". During \"Breathe\", on the screen behind them, film of the iconic pig from the Animals album was shown flying over Battersea Power Station (itself visible on the horizon in television broadcasts of the performance), and during \"Money\", a shot of The Dark Side of the Moon record being played was shown. During \"Comfortably Numb\", the three giant screens showed the Pink Floyd Wall (from the cover of The Wall), and during the final guitar solo, the words \"Make Poverty History\" were written on the wall.\n\nAt the end, after the last song had been played, Gilmour said \"thank you very much, good night\" and started to walk off the stage. Waters called him back, however, and the band shared a group hug that became one of the most famous pictures of Live 8. As they proceeded to walk off, Nick Mason threw his drumsticks into the audience. With Wright's subsequent death, in September 2008, this was to be the final concert to feature all four bandmates playing together.\n\n2007: Syd Barrett tribute concert \nOn 10 May 2007 Pink Floyd (Wright, Gilmour and Mason), joined by Andy Bell of Oasis on bass and Jon Carin on keys, performed at London's Barbican Centre as part of \"The Madcap's Last Laugh\", a tribute concert for Syd Barrett who had died the previous year. They played \"Arnold Layne\", and later joined other artists to perform \"Bike\". This would be the last time Wright appeared as part of Pink Floyd, before his own death the following year.\n\nRoger Waters appeared in the concert performing his own song \"Flickering Flame\", also with Jon Carin on keys, but did not take part in either song with the members of Pink Floyd.\n\nIn 2020, the live recording of \"Arnold Layne\" from this concert was released as a single for Record Store Day.\n\nBacking musicians\nSee: Pink Floyd live backing musicians\n\nBecause of the increasingly complex nature of Pink Floyd's music, more and more musicians besides the band were required on stage to recreate sounds achieved in the studio. Some performances of Atom Heart Mother featured an entire orchestra and choir, reputedly a nightmare to bring on tour. Less 'weighty' contributions from other musicians followed. In 1973 Dick Parry provided saxophone for Dark Side of the Moon and reprised this for live performances in every subsequent tour except those promoting The Wall and A Momentary Lapse of Reason, the latter in which Scott Page provided sax. For 1977's Animals promotion, Snowy White was brought in as an additional guitarist. He returned for The Wall shows along with a complete \"surrogate band\" consisting of Peter Wood (keyboards), Willie Wilson (drums) and Andy Bown (bass). Andy Roberts replaced White for the 1981 shows. For the A Momentary Lapse of Reason and Division Bell tours, Jon Carin (whom David Gilmour had met at Live Aid playing in Bryan Ferry's backing band) provided additional synthesizers and keyboards, Guy Pratt replaced Roger Waters on bass, Tim Renwick provided additional guitar and Gary Wallis additional percussion. Several backing vocalists, (the most notable of whom are Rachel Fury, Clare Torry, Sam Brown, Margaret Taylor, Durga McBroom and Carol Kenyon) have accompanied the band on and off from Dark Side of the Moon onwards. During their performance at Live 8, Pink Floyd used Tim Renwick, Jon Carin, Dick Parry and Carol Kenyon.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n Fitch, Vernon. The Pink Floyd Encyclopedia, 2005, \n Mason, Nick. Inside Out: A Personal History of Pink Floyd, 2004. \n Schaffner, Nicholas. Saucerful of Secrets: The Pink Floyd Odyssey, 1991. \n Povey, Glenn and Russell, Ian. Pink Floyd: In The Flesh: the complete performance history, 1997. \n Scarfe, Gerald. \"The Making of Pink Floyd: The Wall\", 2010.\n\nExternal links\n Mark Fisher's Pink Floyd gallery\n\nPink Floyd concert tours\nConcerts", "role": "assistant" } ]
Wayne Towne Center
Wayne Towne Center is a regional shopping center located in Wayne, New Jersey, in the New York City metropolitan area, adjacent to Willowbrook Mall along Willowbrook Boulevard. As of 2008, the mall had a gross leasable area of . The center formerly operated as an indoor shopping mall from the time when JCPenney was built, in the late 1980s, until its de-malling in 2008. The inner portion of the mall, which had one floor has since been demolished. The center is anchored by JCPenney, Costco, Dick's Sporting Goods, Nordstrom Rack, and UFC Fit. Of the five anchors, JCPenney has been there the longest as it was built along with the original mall. Costco had previously been located in a former Price Club in another shopping center across Willowbrook Boulevard, and decided to move to Wayne Towne Center and its own building when its lease expired. Dick's had long been attached to the center during the de-malling process and eventually opened in 2014. Nordstrom Rack opened in 2015, and UFC Fit opened in 2022. History The complex dates back to 1974 as a strip mall called West Belt Mall that had of retail space and was steadily expanded over time, ultimately being renamed Wayne Towne Center in 1989 as a way to upgrade its image. A project begun in the mid-1990s sought to take a mall that had expanded to nearly and reconfigure the space to expand the two anchors while reducing the number of other stores by 30% to 49. Existing in the shadow of Willowbrook Mall, Wayne Towne Center has had difficulty dating back to 1993, when the Neiman Marcus Last Call outlet headed for Pennsylvania. In January 2008, the Borders Books and Music, which replaced Last Call, was one of three North Jersey locations closed by the chain. The portion of the mall that housed the Borders store was demolished in Fall 2008. Later in 2008, the mall began undergoing what is referred to as "de-malling", which refers to a process where an enclosed shopping center slowly begins a transition to a more traditional shopping center. In order to accomplish this, the remaining stores in the mall were closed one a time as were two of its anchor stores, Old Navy and Loehmann's. The TGI Friday's restaurant that was located in the mall was replaced by a freestanding location in the parking lot, and the remaining two anchors (JCPenney and Fortunoff) sealed off their mall entrances. The TGI Friday's in the frontmost parking lot was joined by Olive Garden and Bahama Breeze restaurants and a DSW Shoe Warehouse store, while a Chipotle Mexican Grill location was added in the JCPenney rear parking lot. Fortunoff went out of business in 2009, thus costing the mall its second anchor, and construction on other buildings stalled when Dick's Sporting Goods chose to pull out temporarily. In a deal closed in December 2010, the mall was purchased by Vornado Realty Trust for $12.1 million from Wells Fargo, along with annual lease payments of $2.5 million for the land. A Vornado spokesman said that the company planned to revamp the property, as Vornado had previously done at The Outlets at Bergen Town Center in Paramus, New Jersey. In March 2014, construction began again in earnest and accelerated. The Fortunoff store was demolished after asbestos abatement was completed. Dick's Sporting Goods reconsidered its decision to leave and in November 2014, a two-level store was opened adjacent to JCPenney. One month earlier, Costco opened its new location. Panera Bread opened in the vacant rear half of the Chipotle building. A La-Z-Boy furniture store was added in the JCPenney rear parking lot in mid 2015. A two-story Nordstrom Rack opened in October 2015 and a two-story 24 Hour Fitness opened in January 2016. 24 Hour Fitness closed in 2020 due to the company's bankruptcy. It was replaced by UFC Fit in 2022. References External links International Council of Shopping Centers: Wayne Towne Center 1974 establishments in New Jersey Buildings and structures in Passaic County, New Jersey Shopping malls in New Jersey Tourist attractions in Passaic County, New Jersey Wayne, New Jersey Demolished shopping malls in the United States Shopping malls established in 1974 Shopping malls in the New York metropolitan area
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Wayne Towne Center", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Wayne Towne Center is a regional shopping center located in Wayne, New Jersey, in the New York City metropolitan area, adjacent to Willowbrook Mall along Willowbrook Boulevard. As of 2008, the mall had a gross leasable area of . The center formerly operated as an indoor shopping mall from the time when JCPenney was built, in the late 1980s, until its de-malling in 2008. The inner portion of the mall, which had one floor has since been demolished.\n\nThe center is anchored by JCPenney, Costco, Dick's Sporting Goods, Nordstrom Rack, and UFC Fit. Of the five anchors, JCPenney has been there the longest as it was built along with the original mall. Costco had previously been located in a former Price Club in another shopping center across Willowbrook Boulevard, and decided to move to Wayne Towne Center and its own building when its lease expired. Dick's had long been attached to the center during the de-malling process and eventually opened in 2014. Nordstrom Rack opened in 2015, and UFC Fit opened in 2022.\n\nHistory\nThe complex dates back to 1974 as a strip mall called West Belt Mall that had of retail space and was steadily expanded over time, ultimately being renamed Wayne Towne Center in 1989 as a way to upgrade its image. A project begun in the mid-1990s sought to take a mall that had expanded to nearly and reconfigure the space to expand the two anchors while reducing the number of other stores by 30% to 49.\n\nExisting in the shadow of Willowbrook Mall, Wayne Towne Center has had difficulty dating back to 1993, when the Neiman Marcus Last Call outlet headed for Pennsylvania.\n\nIn January 2008, the Borders Books and Music, which replaced Last Call, was one of three North Jersey locations closed by the chain. The portion of the mall that housed the Borders store was demolished in Fall 2008.\n\nLater in 2008, the mall began undergoing what is referred to as \"de-malling\", which refers to a process where an enclosed shopping center slowly begins a transition to a more traditional shopping center. In order to accomplish this, the remaining stores in the mall were closed one a time as were two of its anchor stores, Old Navy and Loehmann's. The TGI Friday's restaurant that was located in the mall was replaced by a freestanding location in the parking lot, and the remaining two anchors (JCPenney and Fortunoff) sealed off their mall entrances. The TGI Friday's in the frontmost parking lot was joined by Olive Garden and Bahama Breeze restaurants and a DSW Shoe Warehouse store, while a Chipotle Mexican Grill location was added in the JCPenney rear parking lot. Fortunoff went out of business in 2009, thus costing the mall its second anchor, and construction on other buildings stalled when Dick's Sporting Goods chose to pull out temporarily.\n\nIn a deal closed in December 2010, the mall was purchased by Vornado Realty Trust for $12.1 million from Wells Fargo, along with annual lease payments of $2.5 million for the land. A Vornado spokesman said that the company planned to revamp the property, as Vornado had previously done at The Outlets at Bergen Town Center in Paramus, New Jersey.\n\nIn March 2014, construction began again in earnest and accelerated. The Fortunoff store was demolished after asbestos abatement was completed. Dick's Sporting Goods reconsidered its decision to leave and in November 2014, a two-level store was opened adjacent to JCPenney. One month earlier, Costco opened its new location. Panera Bread opened in the vacant rear half of the Chipotle building. A La-Z-Boy furniture store was added in the JCPenney rear parking lot in mid 2015. A two-story Nordstrom Rack opened in October 2015 and a two-story 24 Hour Fitness opened in January 2016. 24 Hour Fitness closed in 2020 due to the company's bankruptcy. It was replaced by UFC Fit in 2022.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n International Council of Shopping Centers: Wayne Towne Center\n\n1974 establishments in New Jersey\nBuildings and structures in Passaic County, New Jersey\nShopping malls in New Jersey\nTourist attractions in Passaic County, New Jersey\nWayne, New Jersey\nDemolished shopping malls in the United States\nShopping malls established in 1974\nShopping malls in the New York metropolitan area", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedensky
Vedensky (masculine), Vedenskaya (feminine), or Vedenskoye (neuter) may refer to: Vedensky District, a district of the Chechen Republic, Russia Vedensky (inhabited locality) (Vedenskaya, Vedenskoye), name of several rural localities in Russia
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedensky", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Vedensky (masculine), Vedenskaya (feminine), or Vedenskoye (neuter) may refer to:\nVedensky District, a district of the Chechen Republic, Russia\nVedensky (inhabited locality) (Vedenskaya, Vedenskoye), name of several rural localities in Russia", "role": "assistant" } ]
Love at Absolute Zero
Love at Absolute Zero is the debut album by the indie pop band My Favorite, released on Double Agent in 1999. The subject matter included the end of new wave, the new millennium, and growing up in suburban Long Island, New York. Critical reception AllMusic wrote that the album "translates palpable pre-millennial tension into neon-lit synthesizer drama—recalling the heyday of the new wave with none of the irony which sinks like-minded retro-futurists from Romania to the Rentals." Trouser Press called it "an excellent debut, nostalgic but forward-looking at the same time." Track listing Absolute Zero Absolute Beginners Again 17 Berlin The Truth About Lake Ronkonkama Let's Stay Alive Go Kid Go Modulate Party Crashers Between Cafes The Informers Working Class Jacket You Belong With Us References 1999 albums My Favorite albums
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Love at Absolute Zero", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Love at Absolute Zero is the debut album by the indie pop band My Favorite, released on Double Agent in 1999. The subject matter included the end of new wave, the new millennium, and growing up in suburban Long Island, New York.\n\nCritical reception\nAllMusic wrote that the album \"translates palpable pre-millennial tension into neon-lit synthesizer drama—recalling the heyday of the new wave with none of the irony which sinks like-minded retro-futurists from Romania to the Rentals.\" Trouser Press called it \"an excellent debut, nostalgic but forward-looking at the same time.\"\n\nTrack listing\n Absolute Zero\n Absolute Beginners Again\n 17 Berlin\n The Truth About Lake Ronkonkama\n Let's Stay Alive\n Go Kid Go\n Modulate\n Party Crashers\n Between Cafes\n The Informers\n Working Class Jacket\n You Belong With Us\n\nReferences\n\n1999 albums\nMy Favorite albums", "role": "assistant" } ]
Demographics of Costa Rica
This is a demographic article about Costa Rica's population, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects of the population. According to the United Nations, Costa Rica had an estimated population of people as of 2021. White and Mestizos make up 83.4% of the population, 7% are black people (including mixed race), 2.4% Amerindians, 0.2% Chinese and 7% other/none. In 2010, just under 3% of the population was of African descent. These are called Afro-Costa Ricans or West Indians and are English-speaking descendants of 19th-century black Jamaican immigrant workers. Another 1% is composed of those of Chinese origin, and less than 1% are West Asian, mainly of Lebanese descent but also Palestinians. The 2011 Census provided the following data: whites and mestizos make up 83.4% of the population, 7% are black people (including mixed race), 2.4% Amerindians, 0.2% Chinese, and 7% other/none. There is also a community of North American retirees from the United States and Canada, followed by fairly large numbers of European Union expatriates (chiefly Scandinavians and from Germany) come to retire as well, and Australians. Immigration to Costa Rica made up 9% of the population in 2012. This included permanent settlers as well as migrants who were hoping to reach the U.S. In 2015, there were some 420,000 immigrants in Costa Rica and the number of asylum seekers (mostly from Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua) rose to more than 110,000. An estimated 10% of the Costa Rican population in 2014 was made up of Nicaraguans. The indigenous population today numbers about 60,000 (just over 1% of the population), with some Miskito and Garifuna (a population of mixed African and Carib Amerindian descent) living in the coastal regions. Costa Rica's emigration is the smallest in the Caribbean Basin and is among the smallest in the Americas. By 2015 about just 133,185 (2.77%) of the country's people live in another country as immigrants. The main destination countries are the United States (85,924), Nicaragua (10,772), Panama (7,760), Canada (5,039), Spain (3,339), Mexico (2,464), Germany (1,891), Italy (1,508), Guatemala (1,162) and Venezuela (1,127). Population and ancestry In , Costa Rica had a population of . The population is increasing at a rate of 1.5% per year. At current trends the population will increase to 9,158,000 in about 46 years. The population density is 94 people per square km, the third highest in Central America. Approximately 40% lived in rural areas and 60% in urban areas. The rate of urbanization estimated for the period 2005–2015 is 2.74% per annum, one of the highest among developing countries. About 75% of the population live in the upper lands (above 500 meters) where temperature is cooler and milder. The 2011 census counted a population of 4.3 million people distributed among the following groups: 83.6% whites or mestizos, 6.7% black mixed race, 2.4% Native American, 1.1% black or Afro-Caribbean; the census showed 1.1% as Other, 2.9% (141,304 people) as None, and 2.2% (107,196 people) as unspecified. In 2011, there were over 104,000 Native American or indigenous inhabitants, representing 2.4% of the population. Most of them lived in secluded reservations, distributed among eight ethnic groups: Quitirrisí (in the Central Valley), Matambú or Chorotega (Guanacaste), Maleku (northern Alajuela), Bribri (southern Atlantic), Cabécar (Cordillera de Talamanca), Guaymí (southern Costa Rica, along the Panamá border), Boruca (southern Costa Rica) and Térraba (southern Costa Rica). Costa Ricans of European origin are primarily of Spanish descent, with significant numbers of Italian, German, English, Dutch, French, Irish, Portuguese, and Polish families, as well as a sizable Jewish community. The majority of the Afro-Costa Ricans are Creole English-speaking descendants of 19th century black Jamaican immigrant workers. The 2011 census classified 83.6% of the population as white or Mestizo; the latter have combined European and Native American descent. The Mulatto segment (mix of white and black) represented 6.7% and indigenous people made up 2.4% of the population. Native and European mixed blood populations are far less than in other Latin American countries. Exceptions are the Guanacaste province, where almost half the population is visibly mestizo, a legacy of the more pervasive unions between Spanish colonists and Chorotega Amerindians through several generations, and Limón, where the vast majority of the Afro-Costa Rican community lives. Education According to the United Nations, the country's literacy rate stands at 95.8%, the fifth highest among American countries. Costa Rica's Education Index in 2006 was 0.882; higher than that of richer countries, such as Singapore and Mexico. The gross enrollment ratio is 73.0%, smaller than that of the neighbors countries of El Salvador and Honduras. All students must complete primary school and secondary school, between 6 and 15 years. Some students drop out because they must work to help support their families. In 2007 there were 536,436 pupils enrolled in 3,771 primary schools and 377,900 students attended public and private secondary schools. The main universities are the University of Costa Rica, in San Pedro and the National University of Costa Rica, in Heredia. Costa Rica also has several small private universities. Emigration Costa Rican emigration is among the smallest in the Caribbean Basin. About 3% of the country's population lives in another country as immigrants. The main destination countries are the United States, Spain, Mexico, and other Central American countries. In 2005, there were 127,061 Costa Ricans living in another country as immigrants. Remittances were $513,000,000 in 2006 which represented 2.3% of the national GDP. Immigration Costa Rica's immigration is among the largest in the Caribbean Basin. According to the 2011 census, 385,899 residents were born abroad. The vast majority were born in Nicaragua (287,766). Other countries of origin were Colombia (20,514), United States (16,898), Spain (16,482) and Panama (11,250). Outward remittances were $246,000,000 in 2006. Migrants According to the World Bank, about 489,200 migrants lived in the country in 2010; mainly from Nicaragua, Panama, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, and Belize, while 125,306 Costa Ricans live abroad in the United States, Panama, Nicaragua, Spain, Mexico, Canada, Germany, Venezuela, Dominican Republic, and Ecuador. The number of migrants declined in later years but in 2015, there were some 420,000 immigrants in Costa Rica and the number of asylum seekers (mostly from Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua) rose to more than 110,000, a fivefold increase from 2012. In 2016, the country was called a "magnet" for migrants from South and Central America and other countries who were hoping to reach the U.S. European Costa Ricans European Costa Ricans are people from Costa Rica whose ancestry lies within the continent of Europe, most notably Spain. According to DNA studies, around 75% of the population have some level of European ancestry. Percentages of the Costa Rican population by race are known as the national census does have the question of ethnicity included in its form. As for 2012, 65.80% of Costa Ricans identify themselves as white/castizo and 13.65% as mestizo, giving around 80% of Caucasian population. This, however, is based on self-identification and not on scientific studies. According to the PLoS Genetics Geographic Patterns of Genome Admixture in Latin American Mestizos study of 2012, Costa Ricans have 68% of European ancestry, 29% Amerindian and 3% African. According to CIA Factbook, Costa Rica has a white or mestizo population of 83.6%. Cristopher Columbus and his crew were the first Europeans ever to set foot on what is now Costa Rica, having arrived to Uvita Island (modern day Limón province) in 1502 in Columbus's last trip. Costa Rica was part of the Spanish Empire and colonized by Spaniards mostly Castilians, Basque and Sephardic Jews. After independence, large migrations of wealthy Americans, Germans, French and British businessmen came to the country encouraged by the government and followed by their families and employees (many of them technicians and professionals), thus creating colonies and mixing with the population, especially the high and middle classes. Later, smaller migrations of Italians, Spaniards (mostly Catalans) and Arabs (mostly Lebanese and Syrians) took place. These migrants arrived fleeing economical crisis in their home countries, setting in large, more closed colonies. Polish migrants, mostly Ashkenazi Jews who fled anti-Semitism and Nazi persecution in Europe, also arrived in large numbers. In 1901 president Ascensión Esquivel Ibarra closed the country to all non-white immigration. All Black, Chinese, Arab, Turkish or Gypsy migration to the country was banned. After the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, a large influx of Republican refugees settled in the country, mostly Castilians, Galicians and Asturians, as well as later Chilean, Mexican and Colombian migrants who would arrive escaping from war or dictatorships, as Costa Rica is the longest running democracy in Latin America. Ethnic groups The following listing is taken from a publication of the Costa Rica 2011 Census: Mestizos and Whites - 3,597,847 = 83.64% Mulatto - 289,209 = 6.72% Indigenous - 104,143 = 2.42% Black/Afro-Caribbean - 45,228 = 1.05% Chinese - 9 170 = 0.21% Other - 36 334 = 0.84% Did not state - 95,140 = 2.21% Vital statistics (c) = Census results. Current vital statistics Structure of the population Life expectancy at birth Source: UN World Population Prospects Demographic statistics Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022. One birth every 8 minutes One death every 19 minutes One net migrant every 131 minutes Net gain of one person every 12 minutes Demographic statistics according to the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 5,204,411 (2022 est.) 4,987,142 (July 2018 est.) 4,872,543 (July 2016 est.) Ethnic groups White or Mestizo 83.6%, Mulatto 6.7%, Indigenous 2.4%, Black or African descent 1.1%, other 1.1%, none 2.9%, unspecified 2.2% (2011 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 22.08% (male 575,731/female 549,802) 15-24 years: 15.19% (male 395,202/female 379,277) 25-54 years: 43.98% (male 1,130,387/female 1,111,791) 55-64 years: 9.99% (male 247,267/female 261,847) 65 years and over: 8.76% (2020 est.) (male 205,463/female 241,221) 0-14 years: 22.43% (male 572,172 /female 546,464) 15-24 years: 15.94% (male 405,515 /female 389,433) 25-54 years: 44.04% (male 1,105,944 /female 1,090,434) 55-64 years: 9.48% (male 229,928 /female 242,696) 65 years and over: 8.11% (male 186,531 /female 218,025) (2018 est.) Median age total: 32.6 years. Country comparison to the world: 109th male: 32.1 years female: 33.1 years (2020 est.) Total: 31.7 years. Country comparison to the world: 109th Male: 31.2 years Female: 32.2 years (2018 est.) Total: 30.9 years Male: 30.4 years Female: 31.3 years (2016 est.) Birth rate 14.28 births/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 121st 15.3 births/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 121st Death rate 4.91 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 198th 4.8 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 200th Total fertility rate 1.86 children born/woman (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 134th 1.89 children born/woman (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 135th Net migration rate 0.77 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 69th 0.8 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 65th Population growth rate 1.01% (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 95th 1.13% (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 95th Contraceptive prevalence rate 70.9% (2018) Religions Roman Catholic 47.5%, Evangelical and Pentecostal 19.8%, Jehovah's Witness 1.4%, other Protestant 1.2%, other 3.1%, none 27% (2021 est.) Dependency ratios Total dependency ratio: 45.4 (2015 est.) Youth dependency ratio: 32.4 (2015 est.) Elderly dependency ratio: 12.9 (2015 est.) Potential support ratio: 7.7 (2015 est.) Urbanization urban population: 82% of total population (2022) rate of urbanization: 1.5% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.) Infant mortality rate Total: 8.3 deaths/1,000 live births Male: 9 deaths/1,000 live births Female: 7.4 deaths/1,000 live births (2016 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 79.64 years. Country comparison to the world: 58th male: 76.99 years female: 82.43 years (2022 est.) Total population: 78.9 years. Country comparison to the world: 55th Male: 76.2 years Female: 81.7 years (2018 est.) Total population: 78.6 years Male: 75.9 years Female: 81.3 years (2016 est.) HIV/AIDS Adult prevalence rate: 0.33% People living with HIV/AIDS: 10,000 Deaths:200 (2015 est.) Education expenditures 6.7% of GDP (2020) Country comparison to the world: 24th Literacy total population: 97.9% male: 97.8% female: 97.9% (2018) School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education) total: 17 years male: 16 years female: 17 years (2019) Unemployment, youth ages 15-24 total: 40.7% male: 34% female: 50.9% (2020 est.) Nationality Noun: Costa Rican(s) Adjective: Costa Rican Languages Spanish (official) English Sex ratio At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 0–14 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15–24 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 25–54 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 55–64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.86 male(s)/female Total population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2016 est.) Major infectious diseases degree of risk: intermediate (2020) food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea vectorborne diseases: dengue fever Languages Nearly all Costa Ricans speak Spanish; but many know English. Indigenous Costa Ricans also speak their own language, such as the case of the Ngobes. Religions According to the World Factbook, the main faiths are Roman Catholic, 76.3%; Evangelical, 13.7%; Jehovah's Witnesses, 1.3%; other Protestant, 0.7%; other, 4.8%; none, 3.2%. The most recent nationwide survey of religion in Costa Rica, conducted in 2007 by the University of Costa Rica, found that 70.5 percent of the population identify themselves as Roman Catholics (with 44.9 percent practicing, 25.6 percent nonpracticing), 13.8 percent are Evangelical Protestants, 11.3 percent report that they do not have a religion, and 4.3 percent declare that they belong to another religion. Apart from the dominant Catholic religion, there are several other religious groups in the country. Methodist, Lutheran, Episcopal, Baptist, and other Protestant groups have significant membership. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) claim more than 35,000 members and has a temple in San José that served as a regional worship center for Costa Rica, Panama, Nicaragua, and Honduras. Although they represent less than 1 percent of the population, Jehovah's Witnesses have a strong presence on the Caribbean coast. Seventh-day Adventists operate a university that attracts students from throughout the Caribbean Basin. The Unification Church maintains its continental headquarters for Latin America in San José. Non-Christian religious groups, including followers of Judaism, Islam, Taoism, Hare Krishna, Paganism, Wicca, Scientology, Tenrikyo, and the Baháʼí Faith, claim membership throughout the country, with the majority of worshipers residing in the Central Valley (the area of the capital). While there is no general correlation between religion and ethnicity, indigenous peoples are more likely to practice animism than other religions. Article 75 of the Costa Rican Constitution states that the "Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman Religion is the official religion of the Republic". That same article provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects this right in practice. The US government found no reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious belief or practice in 2007. See also Ethnic groups in Central America References External links UNICEF Information about Costa Rica's Demographics INEC. National Institute of Statistics and Census
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Demographics of Costa Rica", "role": "user" }, { "content": "This is a demographic article about Costa Rica's population, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects of the population.\n\nAccording to the United Nations, Costa Rica had an estimated population of people as of 2021. White and Mestizos make up 83.4% of the population, 7% are black people (including mixed race), 2.4% Amerindians, 0.2% Chinese and 7% other/none.\n\nIn 2010, just under 3% of the population was of African descent. These are called Afro-Costa Ricans or West Indians and are English-speaking descendants of 19th-century black Jamaican immigrant workers. Another 1% is composed of those of Chinese origin, and less than 1% are West Asian, mainly of Lebanese descent but also Palestinians. The 2011 Census provided the following data: whites and mestizos make up 83.4% of the population, 7% are black people (including mixed race), 2.4% Amerindians, 0.2% Chinese, and 7% other/none.\n\nThere is also a community of North American retirees from the United States and Canada, followed by fairly large numbers of European Union expatriates (chiefly Scandinavians and from Germany) come to retire as well, and Australians. Immigration to Costa Rica made up 9% of the population in 2012. This included permanent settlers as well as migrants who were hoping to reach the U.S. In 2015, there were some 420,000 immigrants in Costa Rica and the number of asylum seekers (mostly from Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua) rose to more than 110,000. An estimated 10% of the Costa Rican population in 2014 was made up of Nicaraguans.\n\nThe indigenous population today numbers about 60,000 (just over 1% of the population), with some Miskito and Garifuna (a population of mixed African and Carib Amerindian descent) living in the coastal regions.\n\nCosta Rica's emigration is the smallest in the Caribbean Basin and is among the smallest in the Americas. By 2015 about just 133,185 (2.77%) of the country's people live in another country as immigrants. The main destination countries are the United States (85,924), Nicaragua (10,772), Panama (7,760), Canada (5,039), Spain (3,339), Mexico (2,464), Germany (1,891), Italy (1,508), Guatemala (1,162) and Venezuela (1,127).\n\nPopulation and ancestry\n\nIn , Costa Rica had a population of . The population is increasing at a rate of 1.5% per year. At current trends the population will increase to 9,158,000 in about 46 years. The population density is 94 people per square km, the third highest in Central America.\n\nApproximately 40% lived in rural areas and 60% in urban areas. The rate of urbanization estimated for the period 2005–2015 is 2.74% per annum, one of the highest among developing countries. About 75% of the population live in the upper lands (above 500 meters) where temperature is cooler and milder.\n\nThe 2011 census counted a population of 4.3 million people distributed among the following groups: 83.6% whites or mestizos, 6.7% black mixed race, 2.4% Native American, 1.1% black or Afro-Caribbean; the census showed 1.1% as Other, 2.9% (141,304 people) as None, and 2.2% (107,196 people) as unspecified.\n\nIn 2011, there were over 104,000 Native American or indigenous inhabitants, representing 2.4% of the population. Most of them lived in secluded reservations, distributed among eight ethnic groups: Quitirrisí (in the Central Valley), Matambú or Chorotega (Guanacaste), Maleku (northern Alajuela), Bribri (southern Atlantic), Cabécar (Cordillera de Talamanca), Guaymí (southern Costa Rica, along the Panamá border), Boruca (southern Costa Rica) and Térraba (southern Costa Rica).\n\nCosta Ricans of European origin are primarily of Spanish descent, with significant numbers of Italian, German, English, Dutch, French, Irish, Portuguese, and Polish families, as well as a sizable Jewish community. The majority of the Afro-Costa Ricans are Creole English-speaking descendants of 19th century black Jamaican immigrant workers.\n\nThe 2011 census classified 83.6% of the population as white or Mestizo; the latter have combined European and Native American descent. The Mulatto segment (mix of white and black) represented 6.7% and indigenous people made up 2.4% of the population. Native and European mixed blood populations are far less than in other Latin American countries. Exceptions are the Guanacaste province, where almost half the population is visibly mestizo, a legacy of the more pervasive unions between Spanish colonists and Chorotega Amerindians through several generations, and Limón, where the vast majority of the Afro-Costa Rican community lives.\n\nEducation\nAccording to the United Nations, the country's literacy rate stands at 95.8%, the fifth highest among American countries. Costa Rica's Education Index in 2006 was 0.882; higher than that of richer countries, such as Singapore and Mexico. The gross enrollment ratio is 73.0%, smaller than that of the neighbors countries of El Salvador and Honduras.\n\nAll students must complete primary school and secondary school, between 6 and 15 years. Some students drop out because they must work to help support their families. In 2007 there were 536,436 pupils enrolled in 3,771 primary schools and 377,900 students attended public and private secondary schools.\n\nThe main universities are the University of Costa Rica, in San Pedro and the National University of Costa Rica, in Heredia. Costa Rica also has several small private universities.\n\nEmigration\n\nCosta Rican emigration is among the smallest in the Caribbean Basin. About 3% of the country's population lives in another country as immigrants. The main destination countries are the United States, Spain, Mexico, and other Central American countries. In 2005, there were 127,061 Costa Ricans living in another country as immigrants. Remittances were $513,000,000 in 2006 which represented 2.3% of the national GDP.\n\nImmigration\n\nCosta Rica's immigration is among the largest in the Caribbean Basin. According to the 2011 census, 385,899 residents were born abroad. The vast majority were born in Nicaragua (287,766). Other countries of origin were Colombia (20,514), United States (16,898), Spain (16,482) and Panama (11,250). Outward remittances were $246,000,000 in 2006.\n\nMigrants\nAccording to the World Bank, about 489,200 migrants lived in the country in 2010; mainly from Nicaragua, Panama, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, and Belize, while 125,306 Costa Ricans live abroad in the United States, Panama, Nicaragua, Spain, Mexico, Canada, Germany, Venezuela, Dominican Republic, and Ecuador. The number of migrants declined in later years but in 2015, there were some 420,000 immigrants in Costa Rica and the number of asylum seekers (mostly from Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua) rose to more than 110,000, a fivefold increase from 2012. In 2016, the country was called a \"magnet\" for migrants from South and Central America and other countries who were hoping to reach the U.S.\n\nEuropean Costa Ricans\n\nEuropean Costa Ricans are people from Costa Rica whose ancestry lies within the continent of Europe, most notably Spain. According to DNA studies, around 75% of the population have some level of European ancestry.\n\nPercentages of the Costa Rican population by race are known as the national census does have the question of ethnicity included in its form. As for 2012, 65.80% of Costa Ricans identify themselves as white/castizo and 13.65% as mestizo, giving around 80% of Caucasian population. This, however, is based on self-identification and not on scientific studies. According to the PLoS Genetics Geographic Patterns of Genome Admixture in Latin American Mestizos study of 2012, Costa Ricans have 68% of European ancestry, 29% Amerindian and 3% African. According to CIA Factbook, Costa Rica has a white or mestizo population of 83.6%.\n\nCristopher Columbus and his crew were the first Europeans ever to set foot on what is now Costa Rica, having arrived to Uvita Island (modern day Limón province) in 1502 in Columbus's last trip. Costa Rica was part of the Spanish Empire and colonized by Spaniards mostly Castilians, Basque and Sephardic Jews. \n\nAfter independence, large migrations of wealthy Americans, Germans, French and British businessmen came to the country encouraged by the government and followed by their families and employees (many of them technicians and professionals), thus creating colonies and mixing with the population, especially the high and middle classes. \n\nLater, smaller migrations of Italians, Spaniards (mostly Catalans) and Arabs (mostly Lebanese and Syrians) took place. These migrants arrived fleeing economical crisis in their home countries, setting in large, more closed colonies. Polish migrants, mostly Ashkenazi Jews who fled anti-Semitism and Nazi persecution in Europe, also arrived in large numbers. \n\nIn 1901 president Ascensión Esquivel Ibarra closed the country to all non-white immigration. All Black, Chinese, Arab, Turkish or Gypsy migration to the country was banned. After the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, a large influx of Republican refugees settled in the country, mostly Castilians, Galicians and Asturians, as well as later Chilean, Mexican and Colombian migrants who would arrive escaping from war or dictatorships, as Costa Rica is the longest running democracy in Latin America.\n\nEthnic groups\nThe following listing is taken from a publication of the Costa Rica 2011 Census:\nMestizos and Whites - 3,597,847 = 83.64%\nMulatto - 289,209 = 6.72%\nIndigenous - 104,143 = 2.42%\nBlack/Afro-Caribbean - 45,228 = 1.05%\nChinese - 9 170 = 0.21%\nOther - 36 334 = 0.84%\nDid not state - 95,140 = 2.21%\n\nVital statistics\n\n(c) = Census results.\n\nCurrent vital statistics\n\nStructure of the population\n\nLife expectancy at birth\n\nSource: UN World Population Prospects\n\nDemographic statistics\nDemographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.\n\nOne birth every 8 minutes\t\nOne death every 19 minutes\t\nOne net migrant every 131 minutes\t\nNet gain of one person every 12 minutes\n\nDemographic statistics according to the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.\n\nPopulation\n5,204,411 (2022 est.)\n4,987,142 (July 2018 est.)\n4,872,543 (July 2016 est.)\n\nEthnic groups\nWhite or Mestizo 83.6%, Mulatto 6.7%, Indigenous 2.4%, Black or African descent 1.1%, other 1.1%, none 2.9%, unspecified 2.2% (2011 est.)\n\nAge structure\n\n0-14 years: 22.08% (male 575,731/female 549,802)\n15-24 years: 15.19% (male 395,202/female 379,277)\n25-54 years: 43.98% (male 1,130,387/female 1,111,791)\n55-64 years: 9.99% (male 247,267/female 261,847)\n65 years and over: 8.76% (2020 est.) (male 205,463/female 241,221)\n\n0-14 years: 22.43% (male 572,172 /female 546,464)\n15-24 years: 15.94% (male 405,515 /female 389,433)\n25-54 years: 44.04% (male 1,105,944 /female 1,090,434)\n55-64 years: 9.48% (male 229,928 /female 242,696)\n65 years and over: 8.11% (male 186,531 /female 218,025) (2018 est.)\n\nMedian age\ntotal: 32.6 years. Country comparison to the world: 109th\nmale: 32.1 years\nfemale: 33.1 years (2020 est.)\n\nTotal: 31.7 years. Country comparison to the world: 109th\nMale: 31.2 years \nFemale: 32.2 years (2018 est.)\n\nTotal: 30.9 years\nMale: 30.4 years\nFemale: 31.3 years (2016 est.)\n\nBirth rate\n14.28 births/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 121st\n15.3 births/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 121st\n\nDeath rate\n4.91 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 198th\n4.8 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 200th\n\nTotal fertility rate\n1.86 children born/woman (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 134th\n1.89 children born/woman (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 135th\n\nNet migration rate\n0.77 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 69th\n0.8 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 65th\n\nPopulation growth rate\n1.01% (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 95th\n1.13% (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 95th\n\nContraceptive prevalence rate\n70.9% (2018)\n\nReligions\nRoman Catholic 47.5%, Evangelical and Pentecostal 19.8%, Jehovah's Witness 1.4%, other Protestant 1.2%, other 3.1%, none 27% (2021 est.)\n\nDependency ratios\nTotal dependency ratio: 45.4 (2015 est.)\nYouth dependency ratio: 32.4 (2015 est.)\nElderly dependency ratio: 12.9 (2015 est.)\nPotential support ratio: 7.7 (2015 est.)\n\nUrbanization\n\nurban population: 82% of total population (2022)\nrate of urbanization: 1.5% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)\n\nInfant mortality rate\nTotal: 8.3 deaths/1,000 live births\nMale: 9 deaths/1,000 live births\nFemale: 7.4 deaths/1,000 live births (2016 est.)\n\nLife expectancy at birth\ntotal population: 79.64 years. Country comparison to the world: 58th\nmale: 76.99 years\nfemale: 82.43 years (2022 est.)\n\nTotal population: 78.9 years. Country comparison to the world: 55th\nMale: 76.2 years \nFemale: 81.7 years (2018 est.)\n\nTotal population: 78.6 years \nMale: 75.9 years\nFemale: 81.3 years (2016 est.)\n\nHIV/AIDS\nAdult prevalence rate: 0.33%\nPeople living with HIV/AIDS: 10,000\nDeaths:200 (2015 est.)\n\nEducation expenditures\n6.7% of GDP (2020) Country comparison to the world: 24th\n\nLiteracy\ntotal population: 97.9%\nmale: 97.8%\nfemale: 97.9% (2018)\n\nSchool life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)\ntotal: 17 years\nmale: 16 years\nfemale: 17 years (2019)\n\nUnemployment, youth ages 15-24\ntotal: 40.7%\nmale: 34%\nfemale: 50.9% (2020 est.)\n\nNationality\nNoun: Costa Rican(s)\nAdjective: Costa Rican\n\nLanguages\nSpanish (official)\nEnglish\n\nSex ratio\nAt birth: 1.05 male(s)/female\n0–14 years: 1.05 male(s)/female\n15–24 years: 1.04 male(s)/female\n25–54 years: 1.01 male(s)/female\n55–64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female\n65 years and over: 0.86 male(s)/female\nTotal population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2016 est.)\n\nMajor infectious diseases\ndegree of risk: intermediate (2020)\nfood or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea\nvectorborne diseases: dengue fever\n\nLanguages\n\nNearly all Costa Ricans speak Spanish; but many know English. Indigenous Costa Ricans also speak their own language, such as the case of the Ngobes.\n\nReligions\n\nAccording to the World Factbook, the main faiths are Roman Catholic, 76.3%; Evangelical, 13.7%; Jehovah's Witnesses, 1.3%; other Protestant, 0.7%; other, 4.8%; none, 3.2%.\n\nThe most recent nationwide survey of religion in Costa Rica, conducted in 2007 by the University of Costa Rica, found that 70.5 percent of the population identify themselves as Roman Catholics (with 44.9 percent practicing, 25.6 percent nonpracticing), 13.8 percent are Evangelical Protestants, 11.3 percent report that they do not have a religion, and 4.3 percent declare that they belong to another religion.\n\nApart from the dominant Catholic religion, there are several other religious groups in the country. Methodist, Lutheran, Episcopal, Baptist, and other Protestant groups have significant membership. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) claim more than 35,000 members and has a temple in San José that served as a regional worship center for Costa Rica, Panama, Nicaragua, and Honduras.\n\nAlthough they represent less than 1 percent of the population, Jehovah's Witnesses have a strong presence on the Caribbean coast. Seventh-day Adventists operate a university that attracts students from throughout the Caribbean Basin. The Unification Church maintains its continental headquarters for Latin America in San José.\n\nNon-Christian religious groups, including followers of Judaism, Islam, Taoism, Hare Krishna, Paganism, Wicca, Scientology, Tenrikyo, and the Baháʼí Faith, claim membership throughout the country, with the majority of worshipers residing in the Central Valley (the area of the capital). While there is no general correlation between religion and ethnicity, indigenous peoples are more likely to practice animism than other religions.\n\nArticle 75 of the Costa Rican Constitution states that the \"Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman Religion is the official religion of the Republic\". That same article provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects this right in practice. The US government found no reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious belief or practice in 2007.\n\nSee also\nEthnic groups in Central America\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nUNICEF Information about Costa Rica's Demographics\nINEC. National Institute of Statistics and Census", "role": "assistant" } ]
Lurpak
Lurpak is a Danish brand of butter owned by Arla Foods. It is sold in over 75 countries worldwide, and is known for its distinctive silver packaging. Lurpak came into existence in October 1901 after a combination of several Danish dairy farmers decided to create and register a common brand and mark for butter to increase sales. Its logo is based on the lur, an ancient instrument once used in Scandinavia. Lurpak's principal market is the United Kingdom. Lurpak butter is made from milk, but their spreadable range contains rapeseed oil. Product range Lurpak Slightly Salted Butter Lurpak Cheese Spread Lurpak Lighter Spreadable Lurpak Lightest Spreadable Lurpak Organic Spreadable Lurpak Unsalted Lurpak Spreadable Slightly Salted Butter Lurpak Spreadable Margarine Butter Lurpak With Crushed Garlic Lurpak Olive Oil Spread Lurpak Softest Slightly Salted (launched Spring 2018) Advertising campaigns In 1985, Lurpak launched a television campaign for the United Kingdom featuring Douglas, a trombonist made from butter, trying to play the famous classical composition Flight of the Bumblebee by Rimsky-Korsakov at the end of each advert spot (usually being stopped by the voiceover "Not now, Douglas!"), in tribute to Arthur Tolcher's appearances on the television show Morecambe and Wise. This was created by Aardman Animations, and featured the voice of Penelope Keith, with the intro to the Agnus Dei from Faure's Requiem as background music. This ran for almost twenty years, until Lurpak repositioned with the "Good Food Deserves Lurpak" campaign, created by Wieden+Kennedy, and featuring the voice of Rutger Hauer. Similar brands In the United Kingdom, discount retailer Aldi has introduced its own brand lookalike "butter blended with rapeseed oil", named Norpak, which is manufactured in Ireland. Lidl and Tesco also have their own brand lookalikes, named Danpak and Butterpak, respectively. References External links Lurpak UK site Products introduced in 1901 Food brands of Denmark Arla Foods Brand name dairy products Butter Multinational companies headquartered in Denmark
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Lurpak", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Lurpak is a Danish brand of butter owned by Arla Foods. It is sold in over 75 countries worldwide, and is known for its distinctive silver packaging. Lurpak came into existence in October 1901 after a combination of several Danish dairy farmers decided to create and register a common brand and mark for butter to increase sales. Its logo is based on the lur, an ancient instrument once used in Scandinavia.\n\nLurpak's principal market is the United Kingdom.\n\nLurpak butter is made from milk, but their spreadable range contains rapeseed oil.\n\nProduct range\n\n Lurpak Slightly Salted Butter\n Lurpak Cheese Spread\n Lurpak Lighter Spreadable\n Lurpak Lightest Spreadable\n Lurpak Organic Spreadable\n Lurpak Unsalted\n Lurpak Spreadable Slightly Salted Butter\n Lurpak Spreadable Margarine Butter\n Lurpak With Crushed Garlic\n Lurpak Olive Oil Spread\n Lurpak Softest Slightly Salted (launched Spring 2018)\n\nAdvertising campaigns\nIn 1985, Lurpak launched a television campaign for the United Kingdom featuring Douglas, a trombonist made from butter, trying to play the famous classical composition Flight of the Bumblebee by Rimsky-Korsakov at the end of each advert spot (usually being stopped by the voiceover \"Not now, Douglas!\"), in tribute to Arthur Tolcher's appearances on the television show Morecambe and Wise. This was created by Aardman Animations, and featured the voice of Penelope Keith, with the intro to the Agnus Dei from Faure's Requiem as background music. This ran for almost twenty years, until Lurpak repositioned with the \"Good Food Deserves Lurpak\" campaign, created by Wieden+Kennedy, and featuring the voice of Rutger Hauer.\n\nSimilar brands \nIn the United Kingdom, discount retailer Aldi has introduced its own brand lookalike \"butter blended with rapeseed oil\", named Norpak, which is manufactured in Ireland. Lidl and Tesco also have their own brand lookalikes, named Danpak and Butterpak, respectively.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n Lurpak UK site\n \n\nProducts introduced in 1901\nFood brands of Denmark\nArla Foods\nBrand name dairy products\nButter\nMultinational companies headquartered in Denmark", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FC%20Ruggell
FC Ruggell is a Liechtensteiner amateur football (soccer) team that plays in Ruggell. They currently play in the Swiss Football League, in 2. Liga, which is the sixth tier of Swiss football. Like all Liechtensteiner clubs, they play in the Swiss football pyramid. They have reached the final of the Liechtenstein Football Cup on 7 occasions, most recently in 2019, where they lost 3–2 against FC Vaduz. History Formation and early years (1958–1970) The club was founded after 10 sports enthusiasts from Ruggell met at the Gasthaus Rössle - a local Inn - at midday of 9 March 1958. The first match played under the name FC Ruggell was in the Liechtenstein Junior Tournament in Triesen, which Ruggell's Youth C-Team took place in, with their first match happening on 7 September 1958. The following year the club competed in a senior league match for the first time, spending the 1959/60 season in the Swiss 4. Liga. In 1963 the club reached the final of the Liechtenstein Cup for the first time, losing 3:1 against FC Schaan. The team won its first honour in 1970, winning the league title in 4. Liga but losing the promotion playoffs to FC Gams. 3. Liga (1970–1983) In 1973 Ruggell won their league once again, however this time they won their playoff matches against FC Buchs and FC Untervaz, promoting them to the 3. Liga for the first time in their history. The club remained in the 3. Liga for several years after, never getting into any promotion playoffs, however did have some success in the Swiss Cup (which clubs from Liechtenstein were allowed to participate in at the time. In 1975, they beat the second division teams of Altstätten and Rorschach but were knocked out in the third round by FC Triesen. During the 1980s Ruggell's youth teams had more success, with the youth C, D and E teams winning their competitions, however the senior team wasn't performing as well, typically finishing in the lower end of the 3. Liga table. In 1981 they reached the Liechtenstein Cup Final for the fourth time, after a 5–0 victory over Vaduz in the semi-final, but lost to FC Balzers 3-0 after extra time. Playoffs and Decline (1983–2000) 1983 was the 25th anniversary of the founding of FC Ruggell, with several sporting events done in celebration. At the end of the 1984–85 season, the club was joint on points with the league leaders FC Diepoldsau, after winning a crucial final day match against local rivals FC Schann. This meant that a final match between the two teams was scheduled to decide who had won the division, with Ruggell winning the match, giving them their first 3. Liga title and their first time in the playoffs for promotion to the 2. Liga, however they failed to get promoted. In the 1988–89 season, the club had a women's team for the first time. In the 1994–95 season, the club was relegated back to the 4. Liga, however was promoted back to the 3. Liga the following season. The club was then promoted and relegated between these two divisions until the new millennium. Recent history (2000–present) In 2001 Ruggell reached the Final of the Liechtenstein Cup for the first time in 20 years, but once again they lost, this time in a 9–0 defeat to FC Vaduz. On 31 August 2002, the club's new ground - the Freizeitpark Widau - was officially opened. In 2007 the club reached the Liechtenstein Cup final for the 6th time but lost 8-0 to FC Vaduz. The team remained consistently in the 3 Liga for the rest of the 2000s and 2010s until the end of the 2015–16 season, when the club was promoted the 2. Liga for the first time. The team were the runners up of the Liechtenstein cup in 2019, having lost to FC Vaduz 3–2. On April 9, 2020, the club announced that starting from next season Michael Mäder would the club's new head coach. Honours Domestic competitions Liechtenstein Football Cup Runners-up (7): 1963, 1973, 1978, 1981, 2001, 2007, 2019 Switzerland competitions Swiss 3. Liga Winners (3): 1984–85, 2015–2016 Swiss 4. Liga Winners (4): 1969–70, 1972–73, 1995–96, 1998–99 Current squad Staff Coach Michael Mäder Assistant coach Walter Büchel Goalkeeper coach Markus Marty Physio Martina Augsburger References External links Official web site Football clubs in Liechtenstein Expatriated football clubs 1958 establishments in Liechtenstein
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FC%20Ruggell", "role": "user" }, { "content": "FC Ruggell is a Liechtensteiner amateur football (soccer) team that plays in Ruggell. They currently play in the Swiss Football League, in 2. Liga, which is the sixth tier of Swiss football. Like all Liechtensteiner clubs, they play in the Swiss football pyramid.\n\nThey have reached the final of the Liechtenstein Football Cup on 7 occasions, most recently in 2019, where they lost 3–2 against FC Vaduz.\n\nHistory\n\nFormation and early years (1958–1970) \nThe club was founded after 10 sports enthusiasts from Ruggell met at the Gasthaus Rössle - a local Inn - at midday of 9 March 1958. The first match played under the name FC Ruggell was in the Liechtenstein Junior Tournament in Triesen, which Ruggell's Youth C-Team took place in, with their first match happening on 7 September 1958. The following year the club competed in a senior league match for the first time, spending the 1959/60 season in the Swiss 4. Liga. In 1963 the club reached the final of the Liechtenstein Cup for the first time, losing 3:1 against FC Schaan. The team won its first honour in 1970, winning the league title in 4. Liga but losing the promotion playoffs to FC Gams.\n\n3. Liga (1970–1983) \nIn 1973 Ruggell won their league once again, however this time they won their playoff matches against FC Buchs and FC Untervaz, promoting them to the 3. Liga for the first time in their history. The club remained in the 3. Liga for several years after, never getting into any promotion playoffs, however did have some success in the Swiss Cup (which clubs from Liechtenstein were allowed to participate in at the time. In 1975, they beat the second division teams of Altstätten and Rorschach but were knocked out in the third round by FC Triesen. During the 1980s Ruggell's youth teams had more success, with the youth C, D and E teams winning their competitions, however the senior team wasn't performing as well, typically finishing in the lower end of the 3. Liga table. In 1981 they reached the Liechtenstein Cup Final for the fourth time, after a 5–0 victory over Vaduz in the semi-final, but lost to FC Balzers 3-0 after extra time.\n\nPlayoffs and Decline (1983–2000) \n1983 was the 25th anniversary of the founding of FC Ruggell, with several sporting events done in celebration. At the end of the 1984–85 season, the club was joint on points with the league leaders FC Diepoldsau, after winning a crucial final day match against local rivals FC Schann. This meant that a final match between the two teams was scheduled to decide who had won the division, with Ruggell winning the match, giving them their first 3. Liga title and their first time in the playoffs for promotion to the 2. Liga, however they failed to get promoted. In the 1988–89 season, the club had a women's team for the first time.\n\nIn the 1994–95 season, the club was relegated back to the 4. Liga, however was promoted back to the 3. Liga the following season. The club was then promoted and relegated between these two divisions until the new millennium.\n\nRecent history (2000–present) \nIn 2001 Ruggell reached the Final of the Liechtenstein Cup for the first time in 20 years, but once again they lost, this time in a 9–0 defeat to FC Vaduz. On 31 August 2002, the club's new ground - the Freizeitpark Widau - was officially opened. In 2007 the club reached the Liechtenstein Cup final for the 6th time but lost 8-0 to FC Vaduz. The team remained consistently in the 3 Liga for the rest of the 2000s and 2010s until the end of the 2015–16 season, when the club was promoted the 2. Liga for the first time. The team were the runners up of the Liechtenstein cup in 2019, having lost to FC Vaduz 3–2. On April 9, 2020, the club announced that starting from next season Michael Mäder would the club's new head coach.\n\nHonours\n\nDomestic competitions \n\nLiechtenstein Football Cup\nRunners-up (7): 1963, 1973, 1978, 1981, 2001, 2007, 2019\n\nSwitzerland competitions \n\n Swiss 3. Liga\n\n Winners (3): 1984–85, 2015–2016\n\n Swiss 4. Liga\n\n Winners (4): 1969–70, 1972–73, 1995–96, 1998–99\n\nCurrent squad\n\nStaff \nCoach\n Michael Mäder\n\nAssistant coach\n Walter Büchel\n\nGoalkeeper coach\n Markus Marty\n\nPhysio\n Martina Augsburger\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \nOfficial web site\n\n \nFootball clubs in Liechtenstein\nExpatriated football clubs\n1958 establishments in Liechtenstein", "role": "assistant" } ]
First Professional Football League (Bulgaria)
The First Professional Football League (), commonly known as Parva Liga or Bulgarian First League (currently known as the efbet League for sponsorship reasons), is a professional association football league, being the top tier of Bulgarian football league system. Contested by 16 teams, it operates on a system of promotion and relegation with the Second Professional Football League. The Bulgarian football championship was inaugurated in 1924 as the Bulgarian State Football Championship and has been played in a league format since 1948, when the A Group was established. The champions of the First League have the right to participate in the qualifying rounds of the UEFA Champions League based on the league's European coefficient. Additionally, two UEFA Europa Conference League spots are allocated to the second team in the final standings and the winner of the European playoffs. A further fourth spot may also be granted to the fourth placed team in the final league ranking, given that the Bulgarian Cup holder has finished among the top three teams at the end of the season. A total of 74 clubs have competed in the Bulgarian top-tier since its establishment. Since 1948, eleven different teams have been crowned champions of Bulgaria. The three most successful clubs are CSKA Sofia with 31 titles, Levski Sofia with 26 titles and Ludogorets Razgrad with 11 titles. The current champions Ludogorets Razgrad won their eleventh consecutive title in their eleventh First League season in 2021–22. Historically, the competition has been dominated by Sofia-based teams. Together they have won a total number of 70 titles. History Foundation The first football championship in Bulgaria was held in 1924 as a knockout tournament. It was organised by the Bulgarian National Sports Federation (BNSF). The six inaugural teams were Vladislav Varna, Orel Vratsa, Levski Sofia, Krakra Pernik, Pobeda Plovdiv and Chernomorets Burgas, each having won and representing its regional sports federation, called sportna federatsiya. The championship was abandoned, because of a dispute between Vladislav and Levski over the replay of the final game. In the following 1925 season, SK Vladislav became the first champion of Bulgaria. The championship was reorganised for three seasons, from season 1937–38 to 1939–40, ten teams participated in a round-robin tournament, called the National Football Division. A Republican Football Group The inaugural season of the A Republican Football Group began in the autumn of 1948. The ten teams participating in the league were Levski, Septemvri, Lokomotiv, Slavia and Spartak from the capital city Sofia, and Botev Varna, Botev Burgas, Slavia Plovdiv, Marek Stanke Dimitrov, Benkovski in a spring-autumn cycle like in the Soviet Union. In the autumn of 1949, qualification tournaments were played to determine the teams that would play in the next 1950 season. In the next two seasons the number of teams in the league was increased to 12, and for the 1953 season there were 15 teams (the 16th team was the Bulgaria national team). In seasons 1954 and 1955 there were 14 teams in the league, and in seasons 1956 and 1957 there were 10. In 1958, the championship was again stopped after the spring half-season, as had happened in 1948. New re-organizations were accepted and the league was again going to be played in the autumn-spring format. Despite the fact that the teams had played just 1 match, CDNA was crowned as the champion of Bulgaria. The frequent changes in the number of teams in A Group continued in the 1960s. In the first two seasons after the reforms in 1958, the number of teams in the league was 12, in the period 1960–1962 – 14, until season 1967/68, when the teams were 16. There were new reforms at the end of the 1960s. There were many mergers between Bulgarian clubs. The most-famous are between CSKA Red Flag and Septemvri Sofia in CSKA September Flag, the capital teams Levski and Spartak in Levski-Spartak, Lokomotiv and Slavia in Slavia, the Plovdiv teams Botev, Spartak and Academic in Trakiya. Mergers happened between other Bulgarian clubs too. These mergers between clubs and reforms in A Group were made at the winter break of the 1968/69 season. After the winter reforms in 1968 until 2000, A Group remained with 16 teams, except in seasons 1971/72 and 1972/73, when 18 teams competed in the league. Premier Professional Football League The Bulgarian Football Union decided to make reforms. The Premier Professional Football League, created in the autumn of 2000, had 14 teams participating in it. At the end of the 2000/01 season, the last two teams were directly relegated to the lower division and the team that finished 12th had the chance to compete in the promotion/relegation play-off for the remaining place in the league. Levski Sofia became champions in the first season of the Premier League. In the 2001/02 season there was experimentation with the regulations. The championship was divided into two phases. In the first phase the teams played a regular season, each team playing twice against all the others, once home and once away. The second phase was a play-off phase. In the following season, 2002/03, the championship returned to the regulations of 2000/01 – 14 teams playing in a home and away format. For the first time in 6 years, CSKA Sofia became champions. A Group The Bulgarian A Professional Football Group was created in 2003. The group was formed by 16 teams, each playing twice against all the others, once home and once away. In the first season of the newly created A Group, the 2003–04 season, for the first time in history, Lokomotiv Plovdiv became champions, finishing with 75 points. In 2004–05, CSKA Sofia won A Group for the 30th time. For the next two seasons, Levski Sofia were champions under manager Stanimir Stoilov. From 2005–06 the league's name has been A Football Group. In 2007–08, CSKA became champions of A Group for a record-breaking 31st time without a loss out of 30 matches. But in the summer, UEFA didn't give a licence for the club to play in the UEFA Champions League qualifying rounds and Levski Sofia entered to play in the tournament instead of CSKA. In the following season Levski Sofia won their last A Group title, finishing one point ahead of CSKA. Later on, two years in a row Litex Lovech won another two titles like in 1997–98 and 1998–99. In 2011–12, after winning promotion from B Group, Ludogorets Razgrad became the second team after Litex to win the A Group in their first season. The Bulgarian Football Union made some changes in the format of A Group prior to season 2013–14 with the reduction of the number of the teams participating in the top league from 16 to 14 and the reintroduction of the two phase league with a regular season and a playoff/play out phase. For the 2014–15 season, the league was once more decreased, this time to 12 teams, keeping the two phase format. This season was memorable since two of the most popular and successful clubs, CSKA Sofia and Lokomotiv Sofia, were both excluded from the league, despite finishing in the top 5 places. Both teams had accumulated debts and did not have the financial resources to pay them, so the BFU decided to take away their professional licenses. This was the first time in the history of the A Group that CSKA was relegated. For the 2015–16 season, the BFU decided to further decrease the number of teams competing, this time to just 10, with a quadruple round robin format introduced, a format used in the Croatian First Football League and Albanian Kategoria Superiore. First Professional Football League On 7 June 2016 the league's name was changed to First Professional Football League, following approval of new licensing criteria for the clubs. The new league name also came with a new format change, the fourth such in the last four seasons. A total of 14 teams would compete, and the season would consist of two phases, a regular season phase, where each team plays each other team twice, followed by a playoff phase, where the top six teams from the regular season compete for the title as well as European competition spots, while the remaining eight teams would compete for avoiding relegation to the Second League. This format was used from 2016 up until 2021. In 2021, the BFU decided to once more change the format of the league. This time, the league would still consist of a regular season stage where teams compete against each other twice, but then the league would split into three phases. The top six clubs would again compete for the title and European spots, while teams ranked 7-10 at the end of the regular season would play in the Europa Conference Group, with the 7th placed team competing against the 4th placed team from the Championship group for a UEFA Europa Conference League spot. The bottom four teams would compete to avoid relegation. This format lasted only one season, however, as the league was expanded to 16 teams for the 2022–23 season. The three phases were kept identical though, with the exception being that six teams would compete in the relegation group instead of four. Competition format Starting from the 2022–23 season, a new league format was approved by the Bulgarian Football Union, in an attempt to improve each participating club's competitiveness, match attendance and performance in the league. It involves 16 teams playing in two phases, a regular season and playoffs. The first phase includes each club competing against every other team twice in a double round-robin system, on a home-away basis at a total of 30 games per team and played in 30 fixtures. Eight matches are played in every fixture at a total of 240 games played during the first phase. In the second phase, the top six teams form a European qualifying table, while between the 7th and 10th places will battle European Conference League play-off and bottom six teams participate in a relegation group. The winner of the top group is declared as Champions of Bulgaria and is awarded with the title. International qualification The six top teams compete against each other on a home-away basis. Three matches are played in every fixture of the top six, with the results and points after the regular season also included. At the end of the stage, every team will have played a total of 36 games. The winner of the group is declared as Champions of Bulgaria and automatically secures participation in the UEFA Champions League second qualifying round. The team that ranks second is awarded with a place in the UEFA Europa League qualifying rounds. The third team in the final standings would participate in a play-off match against a representative team from the bottom eight. Depending on the winner of the Bulgarian Cup final, a possible fourth team from the first six may compete in a play-off match for an UEFA Europa League spot instead of the third ranked team. Note: If the Bulgarian Cup winner has secured its qualification for the European tournaments for the next season through results from Parva Liga, then the place in the UEFA Europa League play-off is awarded to the fourth ranked team in the final standings. Relegation The teams in the bottom eight are split in two sub-groups of four teams, Group A and Group B, depending on their final position after the regular season standings. The teams that enter Group A are the 7th, 10th, 11th and the 14th, and the teams that participate in Group B are the 8th, 9th, 12th and the 13th. Every participant plays twice against the other three teams in their group on a home-away basis. The teams from the bottom eight also compete with the results from the regular season. After the group stages, every team will have played a total number of 32 games. Depending on their final position in Group A and Group B, two sections will be formed, one for a play-off spot in next season's European competitions and one to avoid relegation. The first two teams from each group continue in the semi-finals, and the last two teams of each group continue to the semi-finals for a relegation match. After this phase, one team is directly relegated to the Second League and the remaining two teams will compete in two relegation matches against the second and the third ranked clubs from the Second League. Tiebreakers In case of a tie on points between two or more clubs, tiebreakers are applied in the following order: Number of wins; Goal difference; Goals for; Goals against; Fewest red cards; Fewest yellow cards; Draw Current clubs The following clubs are competing in the First League during the 2023–24 season. List of champions Performance by club Bold indicates clubs which play in the 2022–23 First League. Notes: CSKA Sofia titles include those won as Septemvri pri CDNV, CDNA, and CFKA Sredets. Levski Sofia titles include those won as Levski-Spartak and Vitosha, as well as the re-awarded 1984–85 title. Botev Plovdiv total does not include 1984–85 title originally awarded to Trakia. All-time ranking (since 1948) The all-time Parva Liga table is an overall record of all match results, points and goals for each team that has participated in the league since its inception in 1948. It also shows every team's number of top three finishes, their best classification, debut season and current spell in Parva Liga, or the season they were last part of the championship. Key a. Never relegated. b. Never relegated, withdrawn with political decision during the 1950 season, due to league reogranisation. c. Club dissolved in 2006, successor clubs PSFC Chernomorets Burgas and FC Chernomorets 1919 Burgas were founded in 2005 and 2015. d. Won the championship each season they've been in Parva Liga. e. Club dissolved in 2003, successor clubs FC Etar 1924 Veliko Tarnovo and later SFC Etar Veliko Tarnovo were founded in 2002 and 2013. f. Club dissolved in 2014 and refounded in 2018. successor club FC Shumen 1929 was founded 2013 and dissolved in 2016. g. Club only supports a youth academy. h. Club dissolved in 2012, successor clubs FC Lokomotiv 1929 Mezdra and OFC Lokomotiv Mezdra were founded in 2011 and 2012. Bulgarian derbies The Eternal Derby The Eternal Derby of Bulgarian football is contested between the two most successful and most popular football clubs in Bulgaria, CSKA Sofia and Levski Sofia. Plovdiv derby The Plovdiv derby is contested between Botev and Lokomotiv. Media coverage For the start of the new 2012–13 season, the football clubs rejected requests from four TV stations due to the low payments being offered – Bulgarian National Television, Nova Television, TV7 and TV+. Finally after the first set of fixtures, the satellite broadcaster Bulsatcom with its channel TV+ bought the rights, along with BNT. Before the start of the spring half-season the rights were bought by TV7 and News7, who had rights for the first, third and fourth pick, and BNT 1 along with the international channel BNT World broadcasting the second pick of a match. The next seasons will also be broadcast on the Nova Broadcasting Group channels Diema, Diema Sport and Diema Sport 2, part of the Diema Extra paid pack, as their contract with the league was additionally extended. Sponsorship Until 2011 the official sponsor of the championship was TBI Credit and the league was officially known as TBI A Football Group. In 2011–12, A Group had a new sponsor, the Victoria FATA Insurance, and therefore the league name in that season was rebranded to Victoria A Football Championship. In early 2013, for a short period of time the naming rights of A Group were bought from the news television network News7, eventually renaming the competition's name to NEWS7 Football Championship. On 11 July 2019, the Bulgarian Football Union announced that the football division's name had been changed to efbet League, following a two-year sponsorship deal with a betting company of the same name. Statistics UEFA coefficients The following data indicates Bulgarian coefficient rankings between European football leagues. Country ranking UEFA League Ranking as of the end of 2022-23 season: 25.  (27) Nemzeti Bajnokság I (20.625) 26.  (25) Liga I (20.500) 27.  (24) First Professional Football League (20.000) 28.  (30) Slovak Super Liga (19.750) 29.  (26) Azerbaijan Premier League (16.625) Club ranking UEFA 5-year Club Ranking as of 29 May 2021: 78.  (70) Ludogorets Razgrad (21.000) 114.  (129) CSKA Sofia (13.000) 242.  (287) Lokomotiv Plovdiv (5.500) 278.  (292) Levski Sofia (4.500) 316.  (292) Slavia Sofia (4.000) 316.  (292) Botev Plovdiv (4.000) Managers The following is a table of all current Parva Liga head coaches and managers, and the time they've spent working with their respective clubs. Records All-time league appearances All-time top scorers Other records Youngest player to appear in the league – Radoslav Uzunov (aged 15 years and 1 month) Oldest player to appear in the league – Georgi Petkov (aged 47 years) Foreign player with the most appearances in the league – Vančo Trajanov (328) Foreign player with the most goals in the league – Claudiu Keșerü (113) Footballer with the most titles won - Manol Manolov (12, all with CSKA Sofia) Manager with the most titles won - Krum Milev (11, all with CSKA Sofia) Manager with the most matches in charge of a team - Dimitar Dimitrov Most goals scored in a single match - Ivo Georgiev, Petar Mihaylov, Todor Pramatarov and Tsvetan Genkov (6) Fastest goal scored in the league – Miroslav Manolov (6 seconds) Fastest red card in the league – Nenad Filipović (20 seconds) Tallest player to appear in the league – Alessandro Coppola (2.05 m) Top scorers by season Bold indicates all-time highest. See also List of foreign football players in A PFG Second Professional Football League (Bulgaria) References External links Official website League at UEFA Bulgaria – List of Champions, RSSSF.com Table, at xscores.com 1 Bul Football Professional sports leagues in Bulgaria
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "First Professional Football League (Bulgaria)", "role": "user" }, { "content": "The First Professional Football League (), commonly known as Parva Liga or Bulgarian First League (currently known as the efbet League for sponsorship reasons), is a professional association football league, being the top tier of Bulgarian football league system. Contested by 16 teams, it operates on a system of promotion and relegation with the Second Professional Football League.\n\nThe Bulgarian football championship was inaugurated in 1924 as the Bulgarian State Football Championship and has been played in a league format since 1948, when the A Group was established. The champions of the First League have the right to participate in the qualifying rounds of the UEFA Champions League based on the league's European coefficient. Additionally, two UEFA Europa Conference League spots are allocated to the second team in the final standings and the winner of the European playoffs. A further fourth spot may also be granted to the fourth placed team in the final league ranking, given that the Bulgarian Cup holder has finished among the top three teams at the end of the season.\n\nA total of 74 clubs have competed in the Bulgarian top-tier since its establishment. Since 1948, eleven different teams have been crowned champions of Bulgaria. The three most successful clubs are CSKA Sofia with 31 titles, Levski Sofia with 26 titles and Ludogorets Razgrad with 11 titles. The current champions Ludogorets Razgrad won their eleventh consecutive title in their eleventh First League season in 2021–22. Historically, the competition has been dominated by Sofia-based teams. Together they have won a total number of 70 titles.\n\nHistory\n\nFoundation\n\nThe first football championship in Bulgaria was held in 1924 as a knockout tournament. It was organised by the Bulgarian National Sports Federation (BNSF). The six inaugural teams were Vladislav Varna, Orel Vratsa, Levski Sofia, Krakra Pernik, Pobeda Plovdiv and Chernomorets Burgas, each having won and representing its regional sports federation, called sportna federatsiya. The championship was abandoned, because of a dispute between Vladislav and Levski over the replay of the final game. In the following 1925 season, SK Vladislav became the first champion of Bulgaria. The championship was reorganised for three seasons, from season 1937–38 to 1939–40, ten teams participated in a round-robin tournament, called the National Football Division.\n\nA Republican Football Group\nThe inaugural season of the A Republican Football Group began in the autumn of 1948. The ten teams participating in the league were Levski, Septemvri, Lokomotiv, Slavia and Spartak from the capital city Sofia, and Botev Varna, Botev Burgas, Slavia Plovdiv, Marek Stanke Dimitrov, Benkovski in a spring-autumn cycle like in the Soviet Union. In the autumn of 1949, qualification tournaments were played to determine the teams that would play in the next 1950 season. In the next two seasons the number of teams in the league was increased to 12, and for the 1953 season there were 15 teams (the 16th team was the Bulgaria national team). In seasons 1954 and 1955 there were 14 teams in the league, and in seasons 1956 and 1957 there were 10.\n\nIn 1958, the championship was again stopped after the spring half-season, as had happened in 1948. New re-organizations were accepted and the league was again going to be played in the autumn-spring format. Despite the fact that the teams had played just 1 match, CDNA was crowned as the champion of Bulgaria.\n\nThe frequent changes in the number of teams in A Group continued in the 1960s. In the first two seasons after the reforms in 1958, the number of teams in the league was 12, in the period 1960–1962 – 14, until season 1967/68, when the teams were 16.\n\nThere were new reforms at the end of the 1960s. There were many mergers between Bulgarian clubs. The most-famous are between CSKA Red Flag and Septemvri Sofia in CSKA September Flag, the capital teams Levski and Spartak in Levski-Spartak, Lokomotiv and Slavia in Slavia, the Plovdiv teams Botev, Spartak and Academic in Trakiya. Mergers happened between other Bulgarian clubs too. These mergers between clubs and reforms in A Group were made at the winter break of the 1968/69 season.\n\nAfter the winter reforms in 1968 until 2000, A Group remained with 16 teams, except in seasons 1971/72 and 1972/73, when 18 teams competed in the league.\n\nPremier Professional Football League\nThe Bulgarian Football Union decided to make reforms. The Premier Professional Football League, created in the autumn of 2000, had 14 teams participating in it. At the end of the 2000/01 season, the last two teams were directly relegated to the lower division and the team that finished 12th had the chance to compete in the promotion/relegation play-off for the remaining place in the league. Levski Sofia became champions in the first season of the Premier League.\n\nIn the 2001/02 season there was experimentation with the regulations. The championship was divided into two phases. In the first phase the teams played a regular season, each team playing twice against all the others, once home and once away. The second phase was a play-off phase.\n\nIn the following season, 2002/03, the championship returned to the regulations of 2000/01 – 14 teams playing in a home and away format. For the first time in 6 years, CSKA Sofia became champions.\n\nA Group\n\nThe Bulgarian A Professional Football Group was created in 2003. The group was formed by 16 teams, each playing twice against all the others, once home and once away. In the first season of the newly created A Group, the 2003–04 season, for the first time in history, Lokomotiv Plovdiv became champions, finishing with 75 points. In 2004–05, CSKA Sofia won A Group for the 30th time.\nFor the next two seasons, Levski Sofia were champions under manager Stanimir Stoilov. From 2005–06 the league's name has been A Football Group. In 2007–08, CSKA became champions of A Group for a record-breaking 31st time without a loss out of 30 matches. But in the summer, UEFA didn't give a licence for the club to play in the UEFA Champions League qualifying rounds and Levski Sofia entered to play in the tournament instead of CSKA. In the following season Levski Sofia won their last A Group title, finishing one point ahead of CSKA. Later on, two years in a row Litex Lovech won another two titles like in 1997–98 and 1998–99. In 2011–12, after winning promotion from B Group, Ludogorets Razgrad became the second team after Litex to win the A Group in their first season.\n\nThe Bulgarian Football Union made some changes in the format of A Group prior to season 2013–14 with the reduction of the number of the teams participating in the top league from 16 to 14 and the reintroduction of the two phase league with a regular season and a playoff/play out phase. For the 2014–15 season, the league was once more decreased, this time to 12 teams, keeping the two phase format. This season was memorable since two of the most popular and successful clubs, CSKA Sofia and Lokomotiv Sofia, were both excluded from the league, despite finishing in the top 5 places. Both teams had accumulated debts and did not have the financial resources to pay them, so the BFU decided to take away their professional licenses. This was the first time in the history of the A Group that CSKA was relegated. For the 2015–16 season, the BFU decided to further decrease the number of teams competing, this time to just 10, with a quadruple round robin format introduced, a format used in the Croatian First Football League and Albanian Kategoria Superiore.\n\nFirst Professional Football League\nOn 7 June 2016 the league's name was changed to First Professional Football League, following approval of new licensing criteria for the clubs. The new league name also came with a new format change, the fourth such in the last four seasons. A total of 14 teams would compete, and the season would consist of two phases, a regular season phase, where each team plays each other team twice, followed by a playoff phase, where the top six teams from the regular season compete for the title as well as European competition spots, while the remaining eight teams would compete for avoiding relegation to the Second League. This format was used from 2016 up until 2021. \n\nIn 2021, the BFU decided to once more change the format of the league. This time, the league would still consist of a regular season stage where teams compete against each other twice, but then the league would split into three phases. The top six clubs would again compete for the title and European spots, while teams ranked 7-10 at the end of the regular season would play in the Europa Conference Group, with the 7th placed team competing against the 4th placed team from the Championship group for a UEFA Europa Conference League spot. The bottom four teams would compete to avoid relegation. This format lasted only one season, however, as the league was expanded to 16 teams for the 2022–23 season. The three phases were kept identical though, with the exception being that six teams would compete in the relegation group instead of four.\n\nCompetition format\nStarting from the 2022–23 season, a new league format was approved by the Bulgarian Football Union, in an attempt to improve each participating club's competitiveness, match attendance and performance in the league. It involves 16 teams playing in two phases, a regular season and playoffs. The first phase includes each club competing against every other team twice in a double round-robin system, on a home-away basis at a total of 30 games per team and played in 30 fixtures. Eight matches are played in every fixture at a total of 240 games played during the first phase. In the second phase, the top six teams form a European qualifying table, while between the 7th and 10th places will battle European Conference League play-off and bottom six teams participate in a relegation group. The winner of the top group is declared as Champions of Bulgaria and is awarded with the title.\n\nInternational qualification\nThe six top teams compete against each other on a home-away basis. Three matches are played in every fixture of the top six, with the results and points after the regular season also included. At the end of the stage, every team will have played a total of 36 games. The winner of the group is declared as Champions of Bulgaria and automatically secures participation in the UEFA Champions League second qualifying round. The team that ranks second is awarded with a place in the UEFA Europa League qualifying rounds. The third team in the final standings would participate in a play-off match against a representative team from the bottom eight. Depending on the winner of the Bulgarian Cup final, a possible fourth team from the first six may compete in a play-off match for an UEFA Europa League spot instead of the third ranked team.\n\nNote: If the Bulgarian Cup winner has secured its qualification for the European tournaments for the next season through results from Parva Liga, then the place in the UEFA Europa League play-off is awarded to the fourth ranked team in the final standings.\n\nRelegation\nThe teams in the bottom eight are split in two sub-groups of four teams, Group A and Group B, depending on their final position after the regular season standings. The teams that enter Group A are the 7th, 10th, 11th and the 14th, and the teams that participate in Group B are the 8th, 9th, 12th and the 13th. Every participant plays twice against the other three teams in their group on a home-away basis. The teams from the bottom eight also compete with the results from the regular season. After the group stages, every team will have played a total number of 32 games. Depending on their final position in Group A and Group B, two sections will be formed, one for a play-off spot in next season's European competitions and one to avoid relegation. The first two teams from each group continue in the semi-finals, and the last two teams of each group continue to the semi-finals for a relegation match. After this phase, one team is directly relegated to the Second League and the remaining two teams will compete in two relegation matches against the second and the third ranked clubs from the Second League.\n\nTiebreakers\nIn case of a tie on points between two or more clubs, tiebreakers are applied in the following order:\n\nNumber of wins;\nGoal difference;\nGoals for;\nGoals against;\nFewest red cards;\nFewest yellow cards;\nDraw\n\nCurrent clubs\nThe following clubs are competing in the First League during the 2023–24 season.\n\nList of champions\n\nPerformance by club\n\nBold indicates clubs which play in the 2022–23 First League.\n\nNotes: \n CSKA Sofia titles include those won as Septemvri pri CDNV, CDNA, and CFKA Sredets.\n Levski Sofia titles include those won as Levski-Spartak and Vitosha, as well as the re-awarded 1984–85 title.\n Botev Plovdiv total does not include 1984–85 title originally awarded to Trakia.\n\nAll-time ranking (since 1948)\nThe all-time Parva Liga table is an overall record of all match results, points and goals for each team that has participated in the league since its inception in 1948. It also shows every team's number of top three finishes, their best classification, debut season and current spell in Parva Liga, or the season they were last part of the championship.\n\nKey\n\na. Never relegated.\nb. Never relegated, withdrawn with political decision during the 1950 season, due to league reogranisation.\nc. Club dissolved in 2006, successor clubs PSFC Chernomorets Burgas and FC Chernomorets 1919 Burgas were founded in 2005 and 2015.\nd. Won the championship each season they've been in Parva Liga.\ne. Club dissolved in 2003, successor clubs FC Etar 1924 Veliko Tarnovo and later SFC Etar Veliko Tarnovo were founded in 2002 and 2013.\nf. Club dissolved in 2014 and refounded in 2018. successor club FC Shumen 1929 was founded 2013 and dissolved in 2016.\ng. Club only supports a youth academy.\nh. Club dissolved in 2012, successor clubs FC Lokomotiv 1929 Mezdra and OFC Lokomotiv Mezdra were founded in 2011 and 2012.\n\nBulgarian derbies\n\nThe Eternal Derby\n\nThe Eternal Derby of Bulgarian football is contested between the two most successful and most popular football clubs in Bulgaria, CSKA Sofia and Levski Sofia.\n\nPlovdiv derby\n\nThe Plovdiv derby is contested between Botev and Lokomotiv.\n\nMedia coverage\n\nFor the start of the new 2012–13 season, the football clubs rejected requests from four TV stations due to the low payments being offered – Bulgarian National Television, Nova Television, TV7 and TV+. Finally after the first set of fixtures, the satellite broadcaster Bulsatcom with its channel TV+ bought the rights, along with BNT. Before the start of the spring half-season the rights were bought by TV7 and News7, who had rights for the first, third and fourth pick, and BNT 1 along with the international channel BNT World broadcasting the second pick of a match.\n\nThe next seasons will also be broadcast on the Nova Broadcasting Group channels Diema, Diema Sport and Diema Sport 2, part of the Diema Extra paid pack, as their contract with the league was additionally extended.\n\nSponsorship\nUntil 2011 the official sponsor of the championship was TBI Credit and the league was officially known as TBI A Football Group.\n\nIn 2011–12, A Group had a new sponsor, the Victoria FATA Insurance, and therefore the league name in that season was rebranded to Victoria A Football Championship.\n\nIn early 2013, for a short period of time the naming rights of A Group were bought from the news television network News7, eventually renaming the competition's name to NEWS7 Football Championship.\n\nOn 11 July 2019, the Bulgarian Football Union announced that the football division's name had been changed to efbet League, following a two-year sponsorship deal with a betting company of the same name.\n\nStatistics\n\nUEFA coefficients\n\nThe following data indicates Bulgarian coefficient rankings between European football leagues.\n\nCountry ranking\nUEFA League Ranking as of the end of 2022-23 season:\n\n 25.  (27) Nemzeti Bajnokság I (20.625)\n 26.  (25) Liga I (20.500)\n 27.  (24) First Professional Football League (20.000)\n 28.  (30) Slovak Super Liga (19.750)\n 29.  (26) Azerbaijan Premier League (16.625)\n\nClub ranking\nUEFA 5-year Club Ranking as of 29 May 2021:\n 78.  (70) Ludogorets Razgrad (21.000)\n 114.  (129) CSKA Sofia (13.000)\n 242.  (287) Lokomotiv Plovdiv (5.500)\n 278.  (292) Levski Sofia (4.500)\n 316.  (292) Slavia Sofia (4.000)\n 316.  (292) Botev Plovdiv (4.000)\n\nManagers\nThe following is a table of all current Parva Liga head coaches and managers, and the time they've spent working with their respective clubs.\n\nRecords\n\nAll-time league appearances\n\nAll-time top scorers\n\nOther records\n\nYoungest player to appear in the league – Radoslav Uzunov (aged 15 years and 1 month)\nOldest player to appear in the league – Georgi Petkov (aged 47 years)\nForeign player with the most appearances in the league – Vančo Trajanov (328)\nForeign player with the most goals in the league – Claudiu Keșerü (113)\nFootballer with the most titles won - Manol Manolov (12, all with CSKA Sofia)\nManager with the most titles won - Krum Milev (11, all with CSKA Sofia)\nManager with the most matches in charge of a team - Dimitar Dimitrov\nMost goals scored in a single match - Ivo Georgiev, Petar Mihaylov, Todor Pramatarov and Tsvetan Genkov (6)\nFastest goal scored in the league – Miroslav Manolov (6 seconds)\nFastest red card in the league – Nenad Filipović (20 seconds)\nTallest player to appear in the league – Alessandro Coppola (2.05 m)\n\nTop scorers by season\n\nBold indicates all-time highest.\n\nSee also\n\nList of foreign football players in A PFG\nSecond Professional Football League (Bulgaria)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Official website\n League at UEFA\n Bulgaria – List of Champions, RSSSF.com\n Table, at xscores.com\n\n \n1\nBul\nFootball\nProfessional sports leagues in Bulgaria", "role": "assistant" } ]
Mirel Rădoi
Mirel Matei Rădoi (born 22 March 1981) is a Romanian professional football manager and former player. He is the current manager of Saudi Arabian club Al Bataeh. A defensive midfielder or a centre-back, Rădoi began his playing career at Extensiv Craiova in 1999, before signing for Steaua București one year later. Following eight-and-a-half seasons in the capital, he spent his later career with Al-Hilal, Al-Ain, Al-Ahli and Al-Arabi. Internationally, Rădoi was capped 68 times by Romania, which he represented at the UEFA Euro 2008. Rădoi's first stint as a head coach was FCSB in 2015, where he stayed for six months. Three years later, he was appointed at the helm of the Romania under-21 national team, which he led to the semi-finals of the 2019 UEFA European Championship. This resulted in his promotion to the senior team in November 2019, but left after two years with less success. Playing career Extensiv Craiova Rădoi started to play football at the age of eight, first as a goalkeeper and then as a defender. He started his youth career at Turnu Severin and there he was spotted by Sorin Cârțu, the coach of Extensiv Craiova, who was so impressed by him that he purchased Rădoi in 1999, financing the transfer with his own money. Rădoi made his professional debut in 1999, in a defeat against Dinamo București on 4 March 2000. he left the club. Steaua București Just one year later, in the summer of 2000, Rădoi joined Steaua București for a fee of €110,000. Describing his first day at Steaua, he said, "It was like a positive shock for me. Suddenly I was in the same place with players like Iulian Miu, Marius Baciu and Miodrag Belodedici, players I saw on TV. It was like a dream." His coach at Steaua was Victor Pițurcă, the former Romania national team coach, who promoted him to the Steaua first team. He then became one of Steaua's most important players. In his first match for the club, a 4-3 victory over FCM Bacău at the Ghencea football stadium, Rădoi scored the equalizer in the ninth minute after Cătălin Cursaru had opened the scoring for Bacău less than a minute before. Steaua would go on to win the championship of the Romanian league that year, as well as the Supercupa României against rivals Dinamo. In 2005, Rădoi won a second championship title; and in 2006, yet another: his third. On 24 February 2005, he won an important match in the UEFA Cup against holder Valencia. In 2006 Rădoi captained the team in the UEFA Cup semi-final against Middlesbrough which FCSB lost 4–3 on aggregate. Rădoi with Steaua București in 2007. In the summer of 2006, a rumour circulated that Rădoi would sign for Premier League club Portsmouth as soon as the transfer window opened in England, with the transfer fee estimated at around £11 million. The transfer did not materialize, however, and many speculated that the £11 million offer was no more than a ploy to jack up the player's potential transfer value before a move elsewhere. In the end, FCSB's owner Gigi Becali stated that he would not be selling Rădoi after all. Due to injury, he only played his first official game in the 2006–07 season on 12 November, a 6–0 victory against Național București. Later career In January 2009, Rădoi signed a three-year contract with Saudi Arabian club Al-Hilal which earned him €1.4 million annually. The transfer fee Steaua București received was in the region of €6 million. Rădoi made his debut for Al-Hilal in the local derby against Al-Nassr, which Al-Hilal won 2–0 with Rădoi scoring the second goal. In his sixth game with the club, he won the Prince's Cup, defeating Al-Shabab in the final. Nicknamed "The Warrior" by his fans in Saudi Arabia, he was voted Saudi Professional League Player of the Year in 2010. They even made a complete book about his career and has been published online with official website MRadoi.com. Rădoi spent three years at the club, becoming a legend, and the team's captain, before he was reunited with ex-Al-Hilal and Steaua manager Cosmin Olăroiu at Al Ain. In June 2011, Rădoi was transferred to Al Ain for a fee of €4.2 million. He signed a two-year deal worth €2.5 million annually. International Rădoi has been capped 67 times for the Romania, scoring two goals. In 2005, Romanian team manager Victor Pițurcă suspended him for leaving training camp without permission before matches against the Netherlands and Armenia. Coach Pițurcă recalled him in February 2006 for a friendly tournament in Cyprus after Rădoi apologised for his behaviour. Although he was included in Romania's squad for UEFA Euro 2008, he suffered an eye injury and broken nose during the second group game against Italy after clashing heads with team-mate Răzvan Raț, who emerged unscathed. Rădoi played no further part in the tournament. After a confrontation with Răzvan Lucescu in 2010, Radoi declared that he would retire from the national team. Coaching career Rădoi became the head coach of the Romania national team after resignation of Cosmin Contra in November 2019. On 22 January 2023, Rădoi was appointed as manager of Saudi Pro League club Al-Tai. He was sacked by the club on 18 May 2023. Career statistics Club Correct as of 8 August 2020 International International goals Managerial Honours Player Steaua București Liga I: 2000–01 Supercupa României: 2001 FCSB Liga I: 2004–05, 2005–06 Supercupa României: 2006 Al-Hilal Saudi Professional League: 2009–10, 2010–11 Crown Prince Cup: 2008–09, 2009–10, 2010–11 Al-Ahli UAE Pro-League: 2011–12, 2012–13 UAE Super Cup: 2012 UAE President's Cup: 2013–14 Individual Gazeta Sporturilor Romanian Footballer of the Year runner-up: 2005 Saudi Professional League Player of the Year: 2010 References External links 1981 births Living people People from Drobeta-Turnu Severin Romanian men's footballers Romania men's international footballers Romanian expatriate men's footballers FC Drobeta-Turnu Severin players FC Steaua București players Men's association football fullbacks UEFA Euro 2008 players Liga I players Liga II players Saudi Pro League players UAE Pro League players Qatar Stars League players Al Hilal SFC players Al Ain FC players Shabab Al Ahli Club players Al-Arabi SC (Qatar) players Expatriate men's footballers in Saudi Arabia Expatriate men's footballers in the United Arab Emirates Expatriate men's footballers in Qatar Romanian football managers Liga I managers Saudi Pro League managers FC Steaua București managers CS Universitatea Craiova managers Al-Tai FC managers Romania national football team managers Romanian expatriate sportspeople in Saudi Arabia Romanian expatriate sportspeople in the United Arab Emirates Romanian expatriate sportspeople in Qatar Expatriate football managers in Saudi Arabia Footballers from Mehedinți County
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Mirel Rădoi", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Mirel Matei Rădoi (born 22 March 1981) is a Romanian professional football manager and former player. He is the current manager of Saudi Arabian club Al Bataeh.\n\nA defensive midfielder or a centre-back, Rădoi began his playing career at Extensiv Craiova in 1999, before signing for Steaua București one year later. Following eight-and-a-half seasons in the capital, he spent his later career with Al-Hilal, Al-Ain, Al-Ahli and Al-Arabi. Internationally, Rădoi was capped 68 times by Romania, which he represented at the UEFA Euro 2008.\n\nRădoi's first stint as a head coach was FCSB in 2015, where he stayed for six months. Three years later, he was appointed at the helm of the Romania under-21 national team, which he led to the semi-finals of the 2019 UEFA European Championship. This resulted in his promotion to the senior team in November 2019, but left after two years with less success.\n\nPlaying career\n\nExtensiv Craiova\nRădoi started to play football at the age of eight, first as a goalkeeper and then as a defender. He started his youth career at Turnu Severin and there he was spotted by Sorin Cârțu, the coach of Extensiv Craiova, who was so impressed by him that he purchased Rădoi in 1999, financing the transfer with his own money. Rădoi made his professional debut in 1999, in a defeat against Dinamo București on 4 March 2000. he left the club.\n\nSteaua București\nJust one year later, in the summer of 2000, Rădoi joined Steaua București for a fee of €110,000. Describing his first day at Steaua, he said, \"It was like a positive shock for me. Suddenly I was in the same place with players like Iulian Miu, Marius Baciu and Miodrag Belodedici, players I saw on TV. It was like a dream.\"\n\nHis coach at Steaua was Victor Pițurcă, the former Romania national team coach, who promoted him to the Steaua first team. He then became one of Steaua's most important players. In his first match for the club, a 4-3 victory over FCM Bacău at the Ghencea football stadium, Rădoi scored the equalizer in the ninth minute after Cătălin Cursaru had opened the scoring for Bacău less than a minute before.\n\nSteaua would go on to win the championship of the Romanian league that year, as well as the Supercupa României against rivals Dinamo.\n\nIn 2005, Rădoi won a second championship title; and in 2006, yet another: his third. On 24 February 2005, he won an important match in the UEFA Cup against holder Valencia. In 2006 Rădoi captained the team in the UEFA Cup semi-final against Middlesbrough which FCSB lost 4–3 on aggregate.\n\nRădoi with Steaua București in 2007.\nIn the summer of 2006, a rumour circulated that Rădoi would sign for Premier League club Portsmouth as soon as the transfer window opened in England, with the transfer fee estimated at around £11 million. The transfer did not materialize, however, and many speculated that the £11 million offer was no more than a ploy to jack up the player's potential transfer value before a move elsewhere. In the end, FCSB's owner Gigi Becali stated that he would not be selling Rădoi after all.\n\nDue to injury, he only played his first official game in the 2006–07 season on 12 November, a 6–0 victory against Național București.\n\nLater career\nIn January 2009, Rădoi signed a three-year contract with Saudi Arabian club Al-Hilal which earned him €1.4 million annually. The transfer fee Steaua București received was in the region of €6 million. Rădoi made his debut for Al-Hilal in the local derby against Al-Nassr, which Al-Hilal won 2–0 with Rădoi scoring the second goal.\n\nIn his sixth game with the club, he won the Prince's Cup, defeating Al-Shabab in the final. Nicknamed \"The Warrior\" by his fans in Saudi Arabia, he was voted Saudi Professional League Player of the Year in 2010. They even made a complete book about his career and has been published online with official website MRadoi.com. Rădoi spent three years at the club, becoming a legend, and the team's captain, before he was reunited with ex-Al-Hilal and Steaua manager Cosmin Olăroiu at Al Ain.\n\nIn June 2011, Rădoi was transferred to Al Ain for a fee of €4.2 million. He signed a two-year deal worth €2.5 million annually.\n\nInternational\n\nRădoi has been capped 67 times for the Romania, scoring two goals. In 2005, Romanian team manager Victor Pițurcă suspended him for leaving training camp without permission before matches against the Netherlands and Armenia. Coach Pițurcă recalled him in February 2006 for a friendly tournament in Cyprus after Rădoi apologised for his behaviour.\n\nAlthough he was included in Romania's squad for UEFA Euro 2008, he suffered an eye injury and broken nose during the second group game against Italy after clashing heads with team-mate Răzvan Raț, who emerged unscathed. Rădoi played no further part in the tournament. After a confrontation with Răzvan Lucescu in 2010, Radoi declared that he would retire from the national team.\n\nCoaching career\nRădoi became the head coach of the Romania national team after resignation of Cosmin Contra in November 2019.\n\nOn 22 January 2023, Rădoi was appointed as manager of Saudi Pro League club Al-Tai. He was sacked by the club on 18 May 2023.\n\nCareer statistics\n\nClub\nCorrect as of 8 August 2020\n\nInternational\n\nInternational goals\n\nManagerial\n\nHonours\n\nPlayer\nSteaua București\nLiga I: 2000–01\nSupercupa României: 2001\n\nFCSB\nLiga I: 2004–05, 2005–06\nSupercupa României: 2006\n\nAl-Hilal\nSaudi Professional League: 2009–10, 2010–11\nCrown Prince Cup: 2008–09, 2009–10, 2010–11\n\nAl-Ahli\nUAE Pro-League: 2011–12, 2012–13\nUAE Super Cup: 2012\nUAE President's Cup: 2013–14\n\nIndividual\nGazeta Sporturilor Romanian Footballer of the Year runner-up: 2005\nSaudi Professional League Player of the Year: 2010\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n1981 births\nLiving people\nPeople from Drobeta-Turnu Severin\nRomanian men's footballers\nRomania men's international footballers\nRomanian expatriate men's footballers\nFC Drobeta-Turnu Severin players\nFC Steaua București players\nMen's association football fullbacks\nUEFA Euro 2008 players\nLiga I players\nLiga II players\nSaudi Pro League players\nUAE Pro League players\nQatar Stars League players\nAl Hilal SFC players\nAl Ain FC players\nShabab Al Ahli Club players\nAl-Arabi SC (Qatar) players\nExpatriate men's footballers in Saudi Arabia\nExpatriate men's footballers in the United Arab Emirates\nExpatriate men's footballers in Qatar\nRomanian football managers\nLiga I managers\nSaudi Pro League managers\nFC Steaua București managers\nCS Universitatea Craiova managers\nAl-Tai FC managers\nRomania national football team managers\nRomanian expatriate sportspeople in Saudi Arabia\nRomanian expatriate sportspeople in the United Arab Emirates\nRomanian expatriate sportspeople in Qatar\nExpatriate football managers in Saudi Arabia\nFootballers from Mehedinți County", "role": "assistant" } ]
Laura Moreno (gymnast)
Laura del Carmen Moreno Garza (born November 16, 1978, in Monterrey, Nuevo León) is a Mexican artistic gymnast. References External links 1978 births Living people Mexican female artistic gymnasts Gymnasts at the 2004 Summer Olympics Olympic gymnasts for Mexico Central American and Caribbean Games medalists in gymnastics
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Laura Moreno (gymnast)", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Laura del Carmen Moreno Garza (born November 16, 1978, in Monterrey, Nuevo León) is a Mexican artistic gymnast.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\n1978 births\nLiving people\nMexican female artistic gymnasts\nGymnasts at the 2004 Summer Olympics\nOlympic gymnasts for Mexico\nCentral American and Caribbean Games medalists in gymnastics", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Justo%2C%20Santa%20Fe
San Justo is a city in the center region of the province of Santa Fe, Argentina, 99 km north from the provincial capital. It had about 22,000 inhabitants at the and it is the head town of the San Justo Department. Founded in 1868 by Mariano Cabal, San Justo attained the status of a comuna (commune) on 13 July 1887 and the following year the Ferrocarril Provincial de Santa Fe arrived on 1 September 1888. It became a city on 17 September 1959. On January 10, 1973, the city was struck by a destructive tornado. References Populated places in Santa Fe Province
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Justo%2C%20Santa%20Fe", "role": "user" }, { "content": "San Justo is a city in the center region of the province of Santa Fe, Argentina, 99 km north from the provincial capital. It had about 22,000 inhabitants at the and it is the head town of the San Justo Department.\n\nFounded in 1868 by Mariano Cabal, San Justo attained the status of a comuna (commune) on 13 July 1887 and the following year the Ferrocarril Provincial de Santa Fe arrived on 1 September 1888. It became a city on 17 September 1959. On January 10, 1973, the city was struck by a destructive tornado.\n\nReferences\n \n \n\nPopulated places in Santa Fe Province", "role": "assistant" } ]
Fabian Schönheim
Fabian Schönheim (born 14 February 1987) is a German professional footballer who plays as a defender. He is a free agent. Early career After spending the first part of his youth career with local side Rehborn, Schönheim signed for Kaiserslautern and played in their youth team for a further four years. He then, in 2005, began in the first team aged 18. He went on to make nearly 50 league appearances for the club and the reserves. He was at the club when they were relegated from the Bundesliga in the 2005–06 season. Club career SV Wehen Wiesbaden He joined newly relegated 3. Liga side Wehen Wiesbaden. He played a big role at the club for two seasons, played in 74 league games and scored 4 times. Mainz 05 The defender then moved to 1. FSV Mainz 05 in 2011 but struggled to break into the first team and only played ten games for the reserve side. Union Berlin The following season Schönheim joined 2. Bundesliga outfit Union Berlin. He has been involved in many unsuccessful promotion pushes since joining and has now played more than 100 games for the club. He has also spent the majority of his professional career at Union and scored 5 goals. International career Schönheim made six appearances at U-19 level for Germany. He also played ten times at U-21 level. External links 1987 births Living people People from Bad Kreuznach (district) German men's footballers Germany men's under-21 international footballers Germany men's youth international footballers Men's association football defenders Bundesliga players 2. Bundesliga players 3. Liga players 1. FC Kaiserslautern players 1. FC Kaiserslautern II players SV Wehen Wiesbaden players SV Wehen Wiesbaden II players 1. FSV Mainz 05 players 1. FSV Mainz 05 II players 1. FC Union Berlin players Footballers from Rhineland-Palatinate
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Fabian Schönheim", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Fabian Schönheim (born 14 February 1987) is a German professional footballer who plays as a defender. He is a free agent.\n\nEarly career\nAfter spending the first part of his youth career with local side Rehborn, Schönheim signed for Kaiserslautern and played in their youth team for a further four years. He then, in 2005, began in the first team aged 18. He went on to make nearly 50 league appearances for the club and the reserves. He was at the club when they were relegated from the Bundesliga in the 2005–06 season.\n\nClub career\n\nSV Wehen Wiesbaden\nHe joined newly relegated 3. Liga side Wehen Wiesbaden. He played a big role at the club for two seasons, played in 74 league games and scored 4 times.\n\nMainz 05\nThe defender then moved to 1. FSV Mainz 05 in 2011 but struggled to break into the first team and only played ten games for the reserve side.\n\nUnion Berlin\nThe following season Schönheim joined 2. Bundesliga outfit Union Berlin. He has been involved in many unsuccessful promotion pushes since joining and has now played more than 100 games for the club. He has also spent the majority of his professional career at Union and scored 5 goals.\n\nInternational career\nSchönheim made six appearances at U-19 level for Germany. He also played ten times at U-21 level.\n\nExternal links\n \n \n\n1987 births\nLiving people\nPeople from Bad Kreuznach (district)\nGerman men's footballers\nGermany men's under-21 international footballers\nGermany men's youth international footballers\nMen's association football defenders\nBundesliga players\n2. Bundesliga players\n3. Liga players\n1. FC Kaiserslautern players\n1. FC Kaiserslautern II players\nSV Wehen Wiesbaden players\nSV Wehen Wiesbaden II players\n1. FSV Mainz 05 players\n1. FSV Mainz 05 II players\n1. FC Union Berlin players\nFootballers from Rhineland-Palatinate", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20towns%20with%20German%20town%20law
A list of towns in Europe with German town law (). The year of law granting is listed when known. Schleswig law ) Schleswig Lübeck law (Lübisches Recht) Klaipėda (Memel), 1258 Braniewo (Braunsberg), 1254 Elbląg (Elbing), 1237 Gdańsk (Danzig), 1240 Hamburg, ca. 1190 Kołobrzeg (Kolberg), 1255 Koszalin (Köslin), 1266 Lübeck, 1143 Rostock, 1218 Słupsk (Stolp), 1265 Stralsund, 1234 Tallinn (Reval), 1248 Rakvere (Wesenberg), 1302 Narva (Narwa), 1345 Haapsalu (Hapsal), 1585 Riga law (Rigaer Recht) Riga and several other Livonian towns Schwerin-Parchim law (Schweriner und Parchimer Recht) Parchim, 1225 Schwerin, 1160 Stendal law (Stendaler Recht) Stendal, ca. 1160 Brandenburg law (Brandenburger Recht) Berlin, 1225–32 Brandenburg, 1170 Frankfurt an der Oder, 1253 Słupsk (Stolp), 1310 Stargard Szczeciński (Stargard in Pommern), 1253 Szczecin (Stettin), 1243 Wałcz (Deutsch-Krone), 1303 Kulm law (Kulmer Recht) Klaipėda (Memel), 1475 Biały Bór (Baldenburg), 1382 Bytów (Bütow), 1346 Chełmno (Kulm), 1233 Ciechanów (Ciechanow), 1400 Działdowo (Soldau), 1344 Grudziądz (Graudenz), 1291 Iława (Deutsch-Eylau), 1305 Kaliningrad (Königsberg), 1286 Kwidzyń (Marienwerder), 1233 Olsztyn (Allenstein), 1348 Płock (Plozk), 1237 Rawa Różan (Rozan), 1378 Toruń (Thorn), 1233 Warsaw (Warschau), 1334 Magdeburg law (Magdeburger Recht) Bautzen, not later than 1213 (maybe 1157) Brest, Belarus, 1390 Chemnitz, 1414 Cottbus Dresden, 1299 Halle an der Saale, ca. 1150 Kapyl, 1652 Leipzig, 1161-1170 Magdeburg, 1188 Prudnik (Neustadt in Oberschlesien), 1279 Görlitz law (Görlitzer Recht) Görlitz/Zgorzelec, 1303 Lwówek Śląski law (Löwenberger Recht) Cieszyn/Český Těšín (Teschen), 1374 Lwówek Śląski (Löwenberg), before 1217 Oświęcim (Auschwitz) Žilina (Sillein), 1357 Cheb law (Egerer Recht) Cheb (Eger), 1266 Old Prague law (Prag-Altstädter Recht) České Budějovice (Budweis), 1251 Plzeň (Pilsen), 1298 Prague (Prag), ca. 1230 Příbram (Freiberg in Böhmen) Litoměřice law (Leitmeritzer Recht) Kolín (Kolin), 1261 Litoměřice (Leitmeritz), 1230 Jihlava law (Iglauer Recht) Havlíčkův Brod (Deutsch-Brod) Jihlava (Iglau), 1249 Kremnica (Kremnitz), 1328 Kutná Hora (Kuttenberg) Prague, Malá Strana, 1267 Sebeş (Mühlbach) Sibiu (Hermannstadt), 1224 Brno law (Brünner Recht) Brno (Brünn), 1243 Znojmo (Znaim), 1226 Olomouc law (Olmützer Recht) Olomouc (Olmütz), 1261 Ostrava (Ostrau) Uničov (Mährisch-Neustadt), 1223 Nysa law (Neisser Recht) Nysa (Neiße) Głubczyce law (Leobschützer Recht) Głubczyce (Leobschütz), 1200 Środa Śląska law Sroda Slaska law (Latin: ius Novi Fori, ius sredense, German: Neumarkt-Magdeburger Recht) was a legal constitution for a municipal form of government used in some Polish cities during the Middle Ages. It was based on town charter of Halle (Saale), a town located in German state of Saxony-Anhalt. Sroda Slaska law was popular in the 13th century in Lower Silesia, eastern Greater Poland and northern Lesser Poland. Altogether, some 100 towns were granted Sroda Slaska law, together with hundreds of villages. Introduction of this law was supported by Silesian Duke Henry I the Bearded, who frequently sent his envoys to Halle for consultation. Compared with Magdeburg rights, Sroda law as less advanced and more conservative, providing limited autonomy to towns. First town in the Kingdom of Poland which was granted Sroda Slaska law was Kostomloty (probably 1241), followed by Ujow and Sobotka. Kalisz law (Latin: ius Calisiense) was a local variety of Sroda Slaska law, used in eastern Greater Poland and Wieluń Land. In 1283, Duke Przemysl II created high court of German law, located in Kalisz. Bardejov (Bartfeld), 1370 Belz, 1377 Bochnia (Salzberg), 1253 Brest, 1390 Brzeg (Brieg), 1248 Chełm (Cholm), 1392 Dubno, 1507 Głogów (Glogau), 1253 Gniezno (Gnesen), 1243 Halych (Halicz) Hrodna (Grodno), 1391 Hrubieszów (Hrubieszow), 1400 Humenné (Homenau) Jarosław (Jaroslau), 1351 Jasło (Jaslo), 1366 Kalisz (Kalisch), 1282 Kamianets-Podilskyi (Kamenez Podolsk), 1374 Kaunas (Kauen), 1408 Khmilnyk (Chmelnik), 1448 Kielce, 1346 Kiev (Kiew), 1494 Kluczbork (Kreuzburg in Oberschlesien) Kolomyia (Kolomea), 1405 Koprzywnica (Kopreinitz), 1268 Kraków (Krakau), 1257 Krupina (Karpfen), before 1241 Łódź, 1423 Lublin, 1317 Lutsk (Luzk), 1432 Lviv (Lemberg), 1356 Minsk, 1496 Navahrudak Nowy Sącz (Neu Sandez) Nowy Targ (Neumarkt), 1346 Oleśnica (Oels), 1255 Opava (Troppau), 1273 Polatsk (Polozk) Poznań (Posen), 1253 Przemyśl (Przemysl), 1353 Radom, 1360 Radomsko Rzeszów (Rzeszow), 1354 Sambir (Sambor) Sandomierz (Sandomir), 1227 Siedlce, 1549 Sieradz (Schieratz) Słupca (Slupca), 1296 Slutsk (Sluzk), 1441 Środa Śląska (Neumarkt in Schlesien), 1211 Tarnów, 1328 Terebovlia (Trembowla), 1389 Trakai (Troki) Ujazd (Ujest), 1223 Vilnius (Wilna), 1387 Vitsebsk (Witebsk), 1547 Volodymyr-Volynskyi (Wladimir Wolynsk), before 1324 Wrocław (Breslau), 1242 Zgierz, 1224 Zhytomyr (Schitomir), 1444 Żmigród (Trachenberg), 1253 South German law (Süddeutsches Stadtrecht) Alba Iulia (Karlsburg) Amberg Bad Reichenhall Banská Bystrica (Neusohl), 1255 Berehovo, 1342 Bistriţa (Bistritz) Braşov (Kronstadt) Bratislava (Pressburg), 1291 Bruck an der Mur Buda (Ofen), ca. 1350 Celje (Cilli) Campulung (Langenau), ca. 1300 Cluj-Napoca (Klausenburg) Dej (Desch) Eger (Erlau) Esztergom (Gran) Gorizia (Görz), 1307 Graz, 1281 Győr (Raab), 1271 Kežmarok (Käsmark), 1269 Khust (Hust) Kočevje (Gottschee) Komárom/Komárno (Komorn), 1265 Košice (Kaschau), 1347 Levoča (Leutschau), 1271 Linz, 1241 Maribor (Marburg an der Drau), 1254 Munich (München), 1294 Nitra (Neutra), 1248 Nuremberg, 1200 Oradea (Großwardein) Passau, 1255 Pécs (Fünfkirchen) Pest, 1244 Piatra Neamț Prešov (Preschau), 1374 Regensburg, 1207/1230 Rimavská Sobota (Großsteffelsdorf) Salzburg, 1368 Sankt Pölten, 1159 Sárospatak Satu Mare (Sathmar), 1213 Sighetu Marmaţiei (Marmarosch Sziget) Sighişoara (Schäßburg) Sopron (Ödenburg) Steyr, 1287 Suceava (Sutschawa) Szeged (Szegedin) Székesfehérvár (Stuhlweißenburg), 1237 Szentgotthárd (Sankt Gotthard) Szombathely (Steinamanger) Târgu Jiu Trnava (Tyrnau) 1238 Varaždin (Warasdin) Vasvár (Eisenburg) Vienna (Wien), 1221/1237/1296 Villach, 1239 Vukovar Wiener Neustadt, 1277 Zagreb (Agram), 1242 References Krallert, Wilfried. Atlas zur Geschichte der deutschen Ostsiedlung. Velhagen & Klasing. Bielefeld. 1958. Magocsi, Paul Robert. Historical Atlas of Central Europe: Revised and Expanded Edition. University of Washington Press. Seattle. 2002. Town law Law of Germany
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20towns%20with%20German%20town%20law", "role": "user" }, { "content": "A list of towns in Europe with German town law (). The year of law granting is listed when known.\n\nSchleswig law \n)\nSchleswig\n\nLübeck law\n(Lübisches Recht)\nKlaipėda (Memel), 1258\nBraniewo (Braunsberg), 1254\nElbląg (Elbing), 1237\nGdańsk (Danzig), 1240\nHamburg, ca. 1190\nKołobrzeg (Kolberg), 1255\nKoszalin (Köslin), 1266\nLübeck, 1143\nRostock, 1218\nSłupsk (Stolp), 1265\nStralsund, 1234\nTallinn (Reval), 1248\nRakvere (Wesenberg), 1302\nNarva (Narwa), 1345\nHaapsalu (Hapsal), 1585\n\nRiga law\n(Rigaer Recht)\nRiga and several other Livonian towns\n\nSchwerin-Parchim law\n(Schweriner und Parchimer Recht)\nParchim, 1225\nSchwerin, 1160\n\nStendal law\n(Stendaler Recht)\nStendal, ca. 1160\n\nBrandenburg law\n(Brandenburger Recht)\nBerlin, 1225–32\nBrandenburg, 1170\nFrankfurt an der Oder, 1253\nSłupsk (Stolp), 1310\nStargard Szczeciński (Stargard in Pommern), 1253\nSzczecin (Stettin), 1243\nWałcz (Deutsch-Krone), 1303\n\nKulm law\n(Kulmer Recht)\nKlaipėda (Memel), 1475\nBiały Bór (Baldenburg), 1382\nBytów (Bütow), 1346\nChełmno (Kulm), 1233\nCiechanów (Ciechanow), 1400\nDziałdowo (Soldau), 1344\nGrudziądz (Graudenz), 1291\nIława (Deutsch-Eylau), 1305\nKaliningrad (Königsberg), 1286\nKwidzyń (Marienwerder), 1233\nOlsztyn (Allenstein), 1348\nPłock (Plozk), 1237\nRawa\nRóżan (Rozan), 1378\nToruń (Thorn), 1233\nWarsaw (Warschau), 1334\n\nMagdeburg law\n(Magdeburger Recht)\nBautzen, not later than 1213 (maybe 1157)\nBrest, Belarus, 1390\nChemnitz, 1414\nCottbus\nDresden, 1299\nHalle an der Saale, ca. 1150\nKapyl, 1652\nLeipzig, 1161-1170\nMagdeburg, 1188\nPrudnik (Neustadt in Oberschlesien), 1279\n\nGörlitz law\n(Görlitzer Recht)\nGörlitz/Zgorzelec, 1303\n\nLwówek Śląski law\n(Löwenberger Recht)\nCieszyn/Český Těšín (Teschen), 1374\nLwówek Śląski (Löwenberg), before 1217\nOświęcim (Auschwitz)\nŽilina (Sillein), 1357\n\nCheb law\n(Egerer Recht)\nCheb (Eger), 1266\n\nOld Prague law\n(Prag-Altstädter Recht)\nČeské Budějovice (Budweis), 1251\nPlzeň (Pilsen), 1298\nPrague (Prag), ca. 1230\nPříbram (Freiberg in Böhmen)\n\nLitoměřice law\n(Leitmeritzer Recht)\nKolín (Kolin), 1261\nLitoměřice (Leitmeritz), 1230\n\nJihlava law\n(Iglauer Recht)\nHavlíčkův Brod (Deutsch-Brod)\nJihlava (Iglau), 1249\nKremnica (Kremnitz), 1328\nKutná Hora (Kuttenberg)\nPrague, Malá Strana, 1267\nSebeş (Mühlbach)\nSibiu (Hermannstadt), 1224\n\nBrno law\n(Brünner Recht)\nBrno (Brünn), 1243\nZnojmo (Znaim), 1226\n\nOlomouc law\n(Olmützer Recht)\nOlomouc (Olmütz), 1261\nOstrava (Ostrau)\nUničov (Mährisch-Neustadt), 1223\n\nNysa law\n(Neisser Recht)\nNysa (Neiße)\n\nGłubczyce law\n(Leobschützer Recht)\nGłubczyce (Leobschütz), 1200\n\nŚroda Śląska law\nSroda Slaska law (Latin: ius Novi Fori, ius sredense, German: Neumarkt-Magdeburger Recht) was a legal constitution for a municipal form of government used in some Polish cities during the Middle Ages. It was based on town charter of Halle (Saale), a town located in German state of Saxony-Anhalt. Sroda Slaska law was popular in the 13th century in Lower Silesia, eastern Greater Poland and northern Lesser Poland. Altogether, some 100 towns were granted Sroda Slaska law, together with hundreds of villages. Introduction of this law was supported by Silesian Duke Henry I the Bearded, who frequently sent his envoys to Halle for consultation. Compared with Magdeburg rights, Sroda law as less advanced and more conservative, providing limited autonomy to towns. First town in the Kingdom of Poland which was granted Sroda Slaska law was Kostomloty (probably 1241), followed by Ujow and Sobotka.\n\nKalisz law (Latin: ius Calisiense) was a local variety of Sroda Slaska law, used in eastern Greater Poland and Wieluń Land. In 1283, Duke Przemysl II created high court of German law, located in Kalisz.\n\nBardejov (Bartfeld), 1370\nBelz, 1377\nBochnia (Salzberg), 1253\nBrest, 1390\nBrzeg (Brieg), 1248\nChełm (Cholm), 1392\nDubno, 1507\nGłogów (Glogau), 1253\nGniezno (Gnesen), 1243\nHalych (Halicz)\nHrodna (Grodno), 1391\nHrubieszów (Hrubieszow), 1400\nHumenné (Homenau)\nJarosław (Jaroslau), 1351\nJasło (Jaslo), 1366\nKalisz (Kalisch), 1282\nKamianets-Podilskyi (Kamenez Podolsk), 1374\nKaunas (Kauen), 1408\nKhmilnyk (Chmelnik), 1448\nKielce, 1346\nKiev (Kiew), 1494\nKluczbork (Kreuzburg in Oberschlesien)\nKolomyia (Kolomea), 1405\nKoprzywnica (Kopreinitz), 1268\nKraków (Krakau), 1257\nKrupina (Karpfen), before 1241\nŁódź, 1423\nLublin, 1317\nLutsk (Luzk), 1432\nLviv (Lemberg), 1356\nMinsk, 1496\nNavahrudak\nNowy Sącz (Neu Sandez)\nNowy Targ (Neumarkt), 1346\nOleśnica (Oels), 1255\nOpava (Troppau), 1273\nPolatsk (Polozk)\nPoznań (Posen), 1253\nPrzemyśl (Przemysl), 1353\nRadom, 1360\nRadomsko\nRzeszów (Rzeszow), 1354\nSambir (Sambor)\nSandomierz (Sandomir), 1227\nSiedlce, 1549\nSieradz (Schieratz)\nSłupca (Slupca), 1296\nSlutsk (Sluzk), 1441\nŚroda Śląska (Neumarkt in Schlesien), 1211\nTarnów, 1328\nTerebovlia (Trembowla), 1389\nTrakai (Troki)\nUjazd (Ujest), 1223\nVilnius (Wilna), 1387\nVitsebsk (Witebsk), 1547\nVolodymyr-Volynskyi (Wladimir Wolynsk), before 1324\nWrocław (Breslau), 1242\nZgierz, 1224\nZhytomyr (Schitomir), 1444\nŻmigród (Trachenberg), 1253\n\nSouth German law\n(Süddeutsches Stadtrecht)\nAlba Iulia (Karlsburg)\nAmberg\nBad Reichenhall\nBanská Bystrica (Neusohl), 1255\nBerehovo, 1342\nBistriţa (Bistritz)\nBraşov (Kronstadt)\nBratislava (Pressburg), 1291\nBruck an der Mur\nBuda (Ofen), ca. 1350\nCelje (Cilli)\nCampulung (Langenau), ca. 1300\nCluj-Napoca (Klausenburg)\nDej (Desch)\nEger (Erlau)\nEsztergom (Gran)\nGorizia (Görz), 1307\nGraz, 1281\nGyőr (Raab), 1271\nKežmarok (Käsmark), 1269\nKhust (Hust)\nKočevje (Gottschee)\nKomárom/Komárno (Komorn), 1265\nKošice (Kaschau), 1347\nLevoča (Leutschau), 1271\nLinz, 1241\nMaribor (Marburg an der Drau), 1254\nMunich (München), 1294\nNitra (Neutra), 1248\nNuremberg, 1200\nOradea (Großwardein)\nPassau, 1255\nPécs (Fünfkirchen)\nPest, 1244\nPiatra Neamț\nPrešov (Preschau), 1374\nRegensburg, 1207/1230\nRimavská Sobota (Großsteffelsdorf)\nSalzburg, 1368\nSankt Pölten, 1159\nSárospatak\nSatu Mare (Sathmar), 1213\nSighetu Marmaţiei (Marmarosch Sziget)\nSighişoara (Schäßburg)\nSopron (Ödenburg)\nSteyr, 1287\nSuceava (Sutschawa)\nSzeged (Szegedin)\nSzékesfehérvár (Stuhlweißenburg), 1237\nSzentgotthárd (Sankt Gotthard)\nSzombathely (Steinamanger)\nTârgu Jiu\nTrnava (Tyrnau) 1238\nVaraždin (Warasdin)\nVasvár (Eisenburg)\nVienna (Wien), 1221/1237/1296\nVillach, 1239\nVukovar\nWiener Neustadt, 1277\nZagreb (Agram), 1242\n\nReferences\nKrallert, Wilfried. Atlas zur Geschichte der deutschen Ostsiedlung. Velhagen & Klasing. Bielefeld. 1958.\nMagocsi, Paul Robert. Historical Atlas of Central Europe: Revised and Expanded Edition. University of Washington Press. Seattle. 2002. \n\nTown law\nLaw of Germany", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pia%20Johansson
Pia Ann-Kristin Johansson (born 16 November 1960 in Umeå) is a Swedish actor, lecturer and examinator. Johansson studied at the Skara scene school, which was followed by a degree from Swedish National Academy of Mime and Acting in 1989. After studying she was employed at Stockholm City Theatre's permanent ensemble. She has been a guest on a number of productions, such as På minuten, Så ska det låta´ and the radio show Sommar. She has also taken part in the TV program Parlamentet. Johansson participated in Let's Dance 2016 which was broadcast on TV4. References External links 1960 births Living people People from Umeå Swedish stage actresses
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pia%20Johansson", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Pia Ann-Kristin Johansson (born 16 November 1960 in Umeå) is a Swedish actor, lecturer and examinator.\n\nJohansson studied at the Skara scene school, which was followed by a degree from Swedish National Academy of Mime and Acting in 1989. After studying she was employed at Stockholm City Theatre's permanent ensemble. She has been a guest on a number of productions, such as På minuten, Så ska det låta´ and the radio show Sommar.\nShe has also taken part in the TV program Parlamentet. Johansson participated in Let's Dance 2016 which was broadcast on TV4.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n1960 births\nLiving people\nPeople from Umeå\nSwedish stage actresses", "role": "assistant" } ]
Hydropsychoidea
Hydropsychoidea is a superfamily of caddisflies. References Trichoptera Insect superfamilies
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Hydropsychoidea", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Hydropsychoidea is a superfamily of caddisflies.\n\nReferences \n\nTrichoptera\nInsect superfamilies", "role": "assistant" } ]
Collineation
In projective geometry, a collineation is a one-to-one and onto map (a bijection) from one projective space to another, or from a projective space to itself, such that the images of collinear points are themselves collinear. A collineation is thus an isomorphism between projective spaces, or an automorphism from a projective space to itself. Some authors restrict the definition of collineation to the case where it is an automorphism. The set of all collineations of a space to itself form a group, called the collineation group. Definition Simply, a collineation is a one-to-one map from one projective space to another, or from a projective space to itself, such that the images of collinear points are themselves collinear. One may formalize this using various ways of presenting a projective space. Also, the case of the projective line is special, and hence generally treated differently. Linear algebra For a projective space defined in terms of linear algebra (as the projectivization of a vector space), a collineation is a map between the projective spaces that is order-preserving with respect to inclusion of subspaces. Formally, let V be a vector space over a field K and W a vector space over a field L. Consider the projective spaces PG(V) and PG(W), consisting of the vector lines of V and W. Call D(V) and D(W) the set of subspaces of V and W respectively. A collineation from PG(V) to PG(W) is a map α : D(V) → D(W), such that: α is a bijection. A ⊆ B ⇔ α(A) ⊆ α(B) for all A, B in D(V). Axiomatically Given a projective space defined axiomatically in terms of an incidence structure (a set of points P, lines L, and an incidence relation I specifying which points lie on which lines, satisfying certain axioms), a collineation between projective spaces thus defined then being a bijective function f between the sets of points and a bijective function g between the set of lines, preserving the incidence relation. Every projective space of dimension greater than or equal to three is isomorphic to the projectivization of a linear space over a division ring, so in these dimensions this definition is no more general than the linear-algebraic one above, but in dimension two there are other projective planes, namely the non-Desarguesian planes, and this definition allows one to define collineations in such projective planes. For dimension one, the set of points lying on a single projective line defines a projective space, and the resulting notion of collineation is just any bijection of the set. Collineations of the projective line For a projective space of dimension one (a projective line; the projectivization of a vector space of dimension two), all points are collinear, so the collineation group is exactly the symmetric group of the points of the projective line. This is different from the behavior in higher dimensions, and thus one gives a more restrictive definition, specified so that the fundamental theorem of projective geometry holds. In this definition, when V has dimension two, a collineation from PG(V) to PG(W) is a map , such that: The zero subspace of V is mapped to the zero subspace of W. V is mapped to W. There is a nonsingular semilinear map β from V to W such that, for all v in V, This last requirement ensures that collineations are all semilinear maps. Types The main examples of collineations are projective linear transformations (also known as homographies) and automorphic collineations. For projective spaces coming from a linear space, the fundamental theorem of projective geometry states that all collineations are a combination of these, as described below. Projective linear transformations Projective linear transformations (homographies) are collineations (planes in a vector space correspond to lines in the associated projective space, and linear transformations map planes to planes, so projective linear transformations map lines to lines), but in general not all collineations are projective linear transformations. The group of projective linear transformations (PGL) is in general a proper subgroup of the collineation group. Automorphic collineations An is a map that, in coordinates, is a field automorphism applied to the coordinates. Fundamental theorem of projective geometry If the geometric dimension of a pappian projective space is at least 2, then every collineation is the product of a homography (a projective linear transformation) and an automorphic collineation. More precisely, the collineation group is the projective semilinear group, which is the semidirect product of homographies by automorphic collineations. In particular, the collineations of are exactly the homographies, as R has no non-trivial automorphisms (that is, Gal(R/Q) is trivial). Suppose φ is a nonsingular semilinear map from V to W, with the dimension of V at least three. Define by saying that for all Z in D(V). As φ is semilinear, one easily checks that this map is properly defined, and furthermore, as φ is not singular, it is bijective. It is obvious now that α is a collineation. We say that α is induced by φ. The fundamental theorem of projective geometry states the converse: Suppose V is a vector space over a field K with dimension at least three, W is a vector space over a field L, and α is a collineation from PG(V) to PG(W). This implies K and L are isomorphic fields, V and W have the same dimension, and there is a semilinear map φ such that φ induces α. For , the collineation group is the projective semilinear group, PΓL – this is PGL, twisted by field automorphisms; formally, the semidirect product , where k is the prime field for K. Linear structure Thus for K a prime field ( or ), we have , but for K not a prime field (such as or for ), the projective linear group is in general a proper subgroup of the collineation group, which can be thought of as "transformations preserving a projective semi-linear structure". Correspondingly, the quotient group corresponds to "choices of linear structure", with the identity (base point) being the existing linear structure. Given a projective space without an identification as the projectivization of a linear space, there is no natural isomorphism between the collineation group and PΓL, and the choice of a linear structure (realization as projectivization of a linear space) corresponds to a choice of subgroup , these choices forming a torsor over Gal(K/k). History The idea of a line was abstracted to a ternary relation determined by collinearity (points lying on a single line). According to Wilhelm Blaschke it was August Möbius that first abstracted this essence of geometrical transformation: What do our geometric transformations mean now? Möbius threw out and fielded this question already in his Barycentric Calculus (1827). There he spoke not of transformations but of permutations [Verwandtschaften], when he said two elements drawn from a domain were permuted when they were interchanged by an arbitrary equation. In our particular case, linear equations between homogeneous point coordinates, Möbius called a permutation [Verwandtschaft] of both point spaces in particular a collineation. This signification would be changed later by Chasles to homography. Möbius’ expression is immediately comprehended when we follow Möbius in calling points collinear when they lie on the same line. Möbius' designation can be expressed by saying, collinear points are mapped by a permutation to collinear points, or in plain speech, straight lines stay straight. Contemporary mathematicians view geometry as an incidence structure with an automorphism group consisting of mappings of the underlying space that preserve incidence. Such a mapping permutes the lines of the incidence structure, and the notion of collineation persists. As mentioned by Blaschke and Klein, Michel Chasles preferred the term homography to collineation. A distinction between the terms arose when the distinction was clarified between the real projective plane and the complex projective line. Since there are no non-trivial field automorphisms of the real number field, all the collineations are homographies in the real projective plane, however due to the field automorphism of complex conjugation, not all collineations of the complex projective line are homographies. In applications such as computer vision where the underlying field is the real number field, homography and collineation can be used interchangeably. Anti-homography The operation of taking the complex conjugate in the complex plane amounts to a reflection in the real line. With the notation z∗ for the conjugate of z, an anti-homography is given by Thus an anti-homography is the composition of conjugation with a homography, and so is an example of a collineation which is not an homography. For example, geometrically, the mapping amounts to circle inversion. The transformations of inversive geometry of the plane are frequently described as the collection of all homographies and anti-homographies of the complex plane. Notes References External links Projective geometry
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Collineation", "role": "user" }, { "content": "In projective geometry, a collineation is a one-to-one and onto map (a bijection) from one projective space to another, or from a projective space to itself, such that the images of collinear points are themselves collinear. A collineation is thus an isomorphism between projective spaces, or an automorphism from a projective space to itself. Some authors restrict the definition of collineation to the case where it is an automorphism. The set of all collineations of a space to itself form a group, called the collineation group.\n\nDefinition\nSimply, a collineation is a one-to-one map from one projective space to another, or from a projective space to itself, such that the images of collinear points are themselves collinear. One may formalize this using various ways of presenting a projective space. Also, the case of the projective line is special, and hence generally treated differently.\n\nLinear algebra\nFor a projective space defined in terms of linear algebra (as the projectivization of a vector space), a collineation is a map between the projective spaces that is order-preserving with respect to inclusion of subspaces.\n\nFormally, let V be a vector space over a field K and W a vector space over a field L. Consider the projective spaces PG(V) and PG(W), consisting of the vector lines of V and W. \nCall D(V) and D(W) the set of subspaces of V and W respectively. A collineation from PG(V) to PG(W) is a map α : D(V) → D(W), such that:\n α is a bijection.\n A ⊆ B ⇔ α(A) ⊆ α(B) for all A, B in D(V).\n\nAxiomatically\nGiven a projective space defined axiomatically in terms of an incidence structure (a set of points P, lines L, and an incidence relation I specifying which points lie on which lines, satisfying certain axioms), a collineation between projective spaces thus defined then being a bijective function f between the sets of points and a bijective function g between the set of lines, preserving the incidence relation.\n\nEvery projective space of dimension greater than or equal to three is isomorphic to the projectivization of a linear space over a division ring, so in these dimensions this definition is no more general than the linear-algebraic one above, but in dimension two there are other projective planes, namely the non-Desarguesian planes, and this definition allows one to define collineations in such projective planes.\n\nFor dimension one, the set of points lying on a single projective line defines a projective space, and the resulting notion of collineation is just any bijection of the set.\n\nCollineations of the projective line\nFor a projective space of dimension one (a projective line; the projectivization of a vector space of dimension two), all points are collinear, so the collineation group is exactly the symmetric group of the points of the projective line. This is different from the behavior in higher dimensions, and thus one gives a more restrictive definition, specified so that the fundamental theorem of projective geometry holds.\n\nIn this definition, when V has dimension two, a collineation from PG(V) to PG(W) is a map , such that:\n The zero subspace of V is mapped to the zero subspace of W.\n V is mapped to W.\n There is a nonsingular semilinear map β from V to W such that, for all v in V, \nThis last requirement ensures that collineations are all semilinear maps.\n\nTypes\nThe main examples of collineations are projective linear transformations (also known as homographies) and automorphic collineations. For projective spaces coming from a linear space, the fundamental theorem of projective geometry states that all collineations are a combination of these, as described below.\n\nProjective linear transformations\n\nProjective linear transformations (homographies) are collineations (planes in a vector space correspond to lines in the associated projective space, and linear transformations map planes to planes, so projective linear transformations map lines to lines), but in general not all collineations are projective linear transformations. The group of projective linear transformations (PGL) is in general a proper subgroup of the collineation group.\n\nAutomorphic collineations\nAn is a map that, in coordinates, is a field automorphism applied to the coordinates.\n\nFundamental theorem of projective geometry\n\nIf the geometric dimension of a pappian projective space is at least 2, then every collineation is the product of a homography (a projective linear transformation) and an automorphic collineation. More precisely, the collineation group is the projective semilinear group, which is the semidirect product of homographies by automorphic collineations.\n\nIn particular, the collineations of are exactly the homographies, as R has no non-trivial automorphisms (that is, Gal(R/Q) is trivial).\n\nSuppose φ is a nonsingular semilinear map from V to W, with the dimension of V at least three. Define by saying that for all Z in D(V). As φ is semilinear, one easily checks that this map is properly defined, and furthermore, as φ is not singular, it is bijective. It is obvious now that α is a collineation. We say that α is induced by φ.\n\nThe fundamental theorem of projective geometry states the converse:\n\nSuppose V is a vector space over a field K with dimension at least three, W is a vector space over a field L, and α is a collineation from PG(V) to PG(W). This implies K and L are isomorphic fields, V and W have the same dimension, and there is a semilinear map φ such that φ induces α.\n\nFor , the collineation group is the projective semilinear group, PΓL – this is PGL, twisted by field automorphisms; formally, the semidirect product , where k is the prime field for K.\n\nLinear structure\nThus for K a prime field ( or ), we have , but for K not a prime field (such as or for ), the projective linear group is in general a proper subgroup of the collineation group, which can be thought of as \"transformations preserving a projective semi-linear structure\". Correspondingly, the quotient group corresponds to \"choices of linear structure\", with the identity (base point) being the existing linear structure. Given a projective space without an identification as the projectivization of a linear space, there is no natural isomorphism between the collineation group and PΓL, and the choice of a linear structure (realization as projectivization of a linear space) corresponds to a choice of subgroup , these choices forming a torsor over Gal(K/k).\n\nHistory\nThe idea of a line was abstracted to a ternary relation determined by collinearity (points lying on a single line). According to Wilhelm Blaschke it was August Möbius that first abstracted this essence of geometrical transformation:\nWhat do our geometric transformations mean now? Möbius threw out and fielded this question already in his Barycentric Calculus (1827). There he spoke not of transformations but of permutations [Verwandtschaften], when he said two elements drawn from a domain were permuted when they were interchanged by an arbitrary equation. In our particular case, linear equations between homogeneous point coordinates, Möbius called a permutation [Verwandtschaft] of both point spaces in particular a collineation. This signification would be changed later by Chasles to homography. Möbius’ expression is immediately comprehended when we follow Möbius in calling points collinear when they lie on the same line. Möbius' designation can be expressed by saying, collinear points are mapped by a permutation to collinear points, or in plain speech, straight lines stay straight.\nContemporary mathematicians view geometry as an incidence structure with an automorphism group consisting of mappings of the underlying space that preserve incidence. Such a mapping permutes the lines of the incidence structure, and the notion of collineation persists.\n\nAs mentioned by Blaschke and Klein, Michel Chasles preferred the term homography to collineation. A distinction between the terms arose when the distinction was clarified between the real projective plane and the complex projective line. Since there are no non-trivial field automorphisms of the real number field, all the collineations are homographies in the real projective plane, however due to the field automorphism of complex conjugation, not all collineations of the complex projective line are homographies. In applications such as computer vision where the underlying field is the real number field, homography and collineation can be used interchangeably.\n\nAnti-homography\nThe operation of taking the complex conjugate in the complex plane amounts to a reflection in the real line. With the notation z∗ for the conjugate of z, an anti-homography is given by\n\nThus an anti-homography is the composition of conjugation with a homography, and so is an example of a collineation which is not an homography. For example, geometrically, the mapping amounts to circle inversion. The transformations of inversive geometry of the plane are frequently described as the collection of all homographies and anti-homographies of the complex plane.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\nProjective geometry", "role": "assistant" } ]
Abby Kelley
Abby Kelley Foster (January 15, 1811 – January 14, 1887) was an American abolitionist and radical social reformer active from the 1830s to 1870s. She became a fundraiser, lecturer and committee organizer for the influential American Anti-Slavery Society, where she worked closely with William Lloyd Garrison and other radicals. She married fellow abolitionist and lecturer Stephen Symonds Foster, and they both worked for equal rights for women and for Africans enslaved in the Americas. Her former home of Liberty Farm in Worcester, Massachusetts has been designated a National Historic Landmark. Early life On January 15, 1811, Abigail (Abby) Kelley was born the seventh daughter of Wing and Lydia Kelley, farmers in Pelham, Massachusetts. Kelley grew up helping with the family farms in Worcester where she received a loving, yet strict Quaker upbringing. Kelley and her family were members of the Quaker Meeting in nearby Uxbridge, Massachusetts. She began her education in a single-room schoolhouse in the Tatnuck section of Worcester. Foster's daughter later wrote that Abby "attended the best private school for girls in Worcester." In 1826, as Worcester had no high school for girls and her parents could not afford a private seminary, Kelley continued her education at the New England Friends Boarding School in Providence, Rhode Island. After her first year of school, Kelley taught for two years to make enough money to further her education. In 1829, she attended her final year of schooling, having received the highest form of education any New England woman of her relatively moderate economic standing could hope to obtain. Abby returned to her parents' home to teach in local schools and, in 1835, helped her parents move to their new home in Millbury. Then in 1836, she moved to Lynn, Massachusetts, where she taught at a local school. There she met fellow Quakers who preached the ideas of dietary restriction, temperance, pacifism, and antislavery. She became interested in the health theories of Sylvester Graham and gained a general interest in the abolition of slavery after hearing a lecture by William Lloyd Garrison, editor of the abolitionist publication The Liberator. Kelley joined the Female Anti-Slavery Society of Lynn and was soon elected to a committee charged with collecting signatures for petitions to the Federal government to end slavery in the District of Columbia. Kelley passionately carried out her assignment, and in 1837 collected the signatures of nearly half the women of Lynn. Radicalization Kelley's views became progressively more radical as she worked with abolitionists such as Angelina Grimké. She became an "ultra", advocating not only the abolition of slavery but also full civil equality for blacks. In addition, Garrison's influence led her to adopt the position of "non-resistance", which went beyond opposing war to opposing all forms of government coercion. Radical abolitionists led by Garrison refused to serve on juries, join the military or vote. The Garrisonian call for the end of slavery and the extension of civil rights to African Americans caused controversy. Kelley's advocacy of the radical abolitionist movement prompted some opponents to call her a "Jezebel", as what she proposed threatened their sense of social structure. On the other hand, many fellow abolitionists praised her public speaking skills and her dedication to the cause. Kelley's influence was shown by activist women being called "Abby Kelleyites". Radical abolitionism became known as "Abby Kelleyism." Anti-slavery activity Following the financial Panic of 1837, Kelley took charge of fundraising for the Lynn Female Society. She donated a generous portion of her own money to the American Anti-Slavery Society. With the encouragement of Angelina Grimke, Abby served as the Lynn Female Society's first delegate to the national convention of the Anti-Slavery Society in New York. There she spoke out about fundraising and participated in drafting the Society's declaration for abolition. After the convention, Kelley became even more engaged in the Anti-Slavery Society, for which she distributed petitions, raised funds, and participated in conferences to raise public awareness. In 1838, Kelley gave her first public speech to a "promiscuous" (mixed-gender) audience at the first Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women, in Philadelphia. At this time women generally did not address such audiences in public forums. Despite vociferous protesters, Kelley eloquently proclaimed the doctrine of abolitionism. In the following months, she further established herself as a public figure by speaking to more mixed-gender crowds, such as that at the New England Anti-Slavery Convention. She also worked on a committee composed of both genders. Later in 1838, she moved to Connecticut to spread the anti-slavery message. By 1839, Kelley was fully involved in the Anti-Slavery Society, while still acknowledging Quaker tradition by refusing payment for her efforts. In 1841, however, she resigned from the Quakers over disputes about not allowing anti-slavery speakers in meeting houses (including the Uxbridge monthly meeting where she had attended with her family), and the group disowned her. In 1843, Kelley addressed the attendees at the Liberty Party convention in Buffalo, New York, becoming the first woman in America to speak at a national political convention. In the following years, Kelley contributed to the Anti-Slavery Society as a lecturer and fundraiser. Although she encountered constant objections to her public activism as a woman working closely with and presenting public lectures to men, Kelley continued her work. She often shared her platform with formerly enslaved Africans despite disapproval by some in the audience. "I rejoice to be identified with the despised people of color. If they are to be despised, so ought their advocates to be". In October 1849, Kelley wrote to her friend, Milo Townsend, and told of the work she was doing for the anti-slavery society: "We know our cause is steadily onward". Some male members of the Society objected to the ideas propounded by Garrison, Kelley, and other radicals. As a result, when Kelley was elected to the national business committee of the Anti-Slavery Society, conservative members left in protest. The two groups of abolitionists officially severed. Pacifist radical abolitionists controlled the Society, who promoted complete egalitarianism, to be obtained without the aid of any government, as all such institutions were constructed on the violence of war. In 1854 Kelley became the Anti-Slavery Society's chief fundraiser and general financial agent, and in 1857 she took the position of general agent in charge of lecture and convention schedules. Kelley and her husband Stephen Symonds Foster—along with Sojourner Truth, Jonathan Walker, Marius Robinson, and Sallie Holley—reorganized the Michigan Anti-Slavery Society in 1853 in Adrian, Michigan. The state society was founded in 1836 in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Women's rights Fighting for women's rights soon became a new priority for many ultra abolitionists and Kelley was among them. She spoke on women's rights in Seneca Falls, New York five years before the Seneca Falls convention would be held there. Kelley influenced future suffragists such as Susan B. Anthony and Lucy Stone by encouraging them to take on a role in political activism. She helped organize and was a key speaker at the first National Women's Rights Convention in Worcester, Massachusetts in 1850. (The Seneca Falls Convention, the first women's rights convention, held in 1848, was not national). After the American Civil War, Kelley supported passage of the 15th Amendment to the Constitution. Some female activists resisted any amendment that did not include women's suffrage. Kelley split with Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton due to their strong opposition to the amendment. After the amendment passed and Garrison dissolved the Anti-Slavery Society, Kelley continued to work for equal rights for both African Americans and women. In 1872, Kelley and her husband Stephen Symonds Foster refused to pay taxes on their jointly owned property; they argued that as Kelley could not vote, she was a victim of taxation without representation. Although their farm was consequently seized and sold and repurchased for them by friends, Kelley continued her activism in the face of financial difficulties and poor health. She wrote letters to fellow radicals and other political figures until her death in 1887. Marriage and family After a four-year courtship, Kelley married fellow abolitionist Stephen Symonds Foster in 1845. In 1847, she and her husband purchased a farm in the Tatnuck region of Worcester, Massachusetts and named it "Liberty Farm". She gave birth to their only daughter in 1847. The farm served both as a stop on the Underground railroad and as a refuge for fellow reformers. Kelley continued her efforts as a lecturer and fundraiser throughout the North until 1850, when declining health forced her to reduce traveling. She carried on an active correspondence and local meetings to work for the cause. Abby Kelley Foster died January 14, 1887, one day before her 76th birthday. Legacy and honors Liberty Farm in Worcester, Massachusetts, the home of Abby Kelley and Stephen Symonds Foster, was designated a National Historic Landmark because of its association with their lives of working for abolitionism. It is privately owned and not open for visits. Abby's House, a shelter for women that opened in Worcester in 1976, is named in her honor. In 2011, she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. Abby Kelley Foster Charter Public School, a K-12 school in Worcester, Massachusetts that opened in 1998, is named in her honor. See also List of civil rights activists List of suffragists and suffragettes List of women's rights activists Come-outer Citations References Pease, Jane, William Pease. "Foster, Abby Kelley." American National Biography. Feb. 2000 <http://www.anb.org/articles/15/15-00236.html>. External links Worcester Women's History Project: Abby Kelley Foster Timeline Stephen Symonds Foster "Angels and Infidels" Liberty Farm , National Historic Landmark, former home of Abby Kelley Foster, National Park Service Portrait of Abby Kelley Foster by Charlotte Wharton What Did Abby Say? - Assumption College Abby Kelley Foster papers from Haverford College Quaker & Special Collections 1811 births 1887 deaths American Quakers American suffragists American tax resisters American women's rights activists People from Millbury, Massachusetts People from Pelham, Massachusetts People from Uxbridge, Massachusetts People from Worcester, Massachusetts American social reformers Underground Railroad people Burials at Hope Cemetery (Worcester, Massachusetts) Activists from Massachusetts Quaker abolitionists Quaker feminists Women civil rights activists
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Abby Kelley", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Abby Kelley Foster (January 15, 1811 – January 14, 1887) was an American abolitionist and radical social reformer active from the 1830s to 1870s. She became a fundraiser, lecturer and committee organizer for the influential American Anti-Slavery Society, where she worked closely with William Lloyd Garrison and other radicals. She married fellow abolitionist and lecturer Stephen Symonds Foster, and they both worked for equal rights for women and for Africans enslaved in the Americas.\n\nHer former home of Liberty Farm in Worcester, Massachusetts has been designated a National Historic Landmark.\n\nEarly life\nOn January 15, 1811, Abigail (Abby) Kelley was born the seventh daughter of Wing and Lydia Kelley, farmers in Pelham, Massachusetts. Kelley grew up helping with the family farms in Worcester where she received a loving, yet strict Quaker upbringing. Kelley and her family were members of the Quaker Meeting in nearby Uxbridge, Massachusetts. She began her education in a single-room schoolhouse in the Tatnuck section of Worcester. Foster's daughter later wrote that Abby \"attended the best private school for girls in Worcester.\" In 1826, as Worcester had no high school for girls and her parents could not afford a private seminary, Kelley continued her education at the New England Friends Boarding School in Providence, Rhode Island. After her first year of school, Kelley taught for two years to make enough money to further her education. In 1829, she attended her final year of schooling, having received the highest form of education any New England woman of her relatively moderate economic standing could hope to obtain.\n\nAbby returned to her parents' home to teach in local schools and, in 1835, helped her parents move to their new home in Millbury. Then in 1836, she moved to Lynn, Massachusetts, where she taught at a local school. There she met fellow Quakers who preached the ideas of dietary restriction, temperance, pacifism, and antislavery. She became interested in the health theories of Sylvester Graham and gained a general interest in the abolition of slavery after hearing a lecture by William Lloyd Garrison, editor of the abolitionist publication The Liberator. Kelley joined the Female Anti-Slavery Society of Lynn and was soon elected to a committee charged with collecting signatures for petitions to the Federal government to end slavery in the District of Columbia. Kelley passionately carried out her assignment, and in 1837 collected the signatures of nearly half the women of Lynn.\n\nRadicalization\nKelley's views became progressively more radical as she worked with abolitionists such as Angelina Grimké. She became an \"ultra\", advocating not only the abolition of slavery but also full civil equality for blacks. In addition, Garrison's influence led her to adopt the position of \"non-resistance\", which went beyond opposing war to opposing all forms of government coercion. Radical abolitionists led by Garrison refused to serve on juries, join the military or vote. The Garrisonian call for the end of slavery and the extension of civil rights to African Americans caused controversy. Kelley's advocacy of the radical abolitionist movement prompted some opponents to call her a \"Jezebel\", as what she proposed threatened their sense of social structure. On the other hand, many fellow abolitionists praised her public speaking skills and her dedication to the cause. Kelley's influence was shown by activist women being called \"Abby Kelleyites\". Radical abolitionism became known as \"Abby Kelleyism.\"\n\nAnti-slavery activity\n\nFollowing the financial Panic of 1837, Kelley took charge of fundraising for the Lynn Female Society. She donated a generous portion of her own money to the American Anti-Slavery Society. With the encouragement of Angelina Grimke, Abby served as the Lynn Female Society's first delegate to the national convention of the Anti-Slavery Society in New York. There she spoke out about fundraising and participated in drafting the Society's declaration for abolition. After the convention, Kelley became even more engaged in the Anti-Slavery Society, for which she distributed petitions, raised funds, and participated in conferences to raise public awareness.\n\nIn 1838, Kelley gave her first public speech to a \"promiscuous\" (mixed-gender) audience at the first Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women, in Philadelphia. At this time women generally did not address such audiences in public forums. Despite vociferous protesters, Kelley eloquently proclaimed the doctrine of abolitionism. In the following months, she further established herself as a public figure by speaking to more mixed-gender crowds, such as that at the New England Anti-Slavery Convention. She also worked on a committee composed of both genders.\n\nLater in 1838, she moved to Connecticut to spread the anti-slavery message. By 1839, Kelley was fully involved in the Anti-Slavery Society, while still acknowledging Quaker tradition by refusing payment for her efforts. In 1841, however, she resigned from the Quakers over disputes about not allowing anti-slavery speakers in meeting houses (including the Uxbridge monthly meeting where she had attended with her family), and the group disowned her.\n\nIn 1843, Kelley addressed the attendees at the Liberty Party convention in Buffalo, New York, becoming the first woman in America to speak at a national political convention.\n\nIn the following years, Kelley contributed to the Anti-Slavery Society as a lecturer and fundraiser. Although she encountered constant objections to her public activism as a woman working closely with and presenting public lectures to men, Kelley continued her work. She often shared her platform with formerly enslaved Africans despite disapproval by some in the audience. \"I rejoice to be identified with the despised people of color. If they are to be despised, so ought their advocates to be\". In October 1849, Kelley wrote to her friend, Milo Townsend, and told of the work she was doing for the anti-slavery society: \"We know our cause is steadily onward\".\n\nSome male members of the Society objected to the ideas propounded by Garrison, Kelley, and other radicals. As a result, when Kelley was elected to the national business committee of the Anti-Slavery Society, conservative members left in protest. The two groups of abolitionists officially severed. Pacifist radical abolitionists controlled the Society, who promoted complete egalitarianism, to be obtained without the aid of any government, as all such institutions were constructed on the violence of war. In 1854 Kelley became the Anti-Slavery Society's chief fundraiser and general financial agent, and in 1857 she took the position of general agent in charge of lecture and convention schedules.\n\nKelley and her husband Stephen Symonds Foster—along with Sojourner Truth, Jonathan Walker, Marius Robinson, and Sallie Holley—reorganized the Michigan Anti-Slavery Society in 1853 in Adrian, Michigan. The state society was founded in 1836 in Ann Arbor, Michigan.\n\nWomen's rights\nFighting for women's rights soon became a new priority for many ultra abolitionists and Kelley was among them. She spoke on women's rights in Seneca Falls, New York five years before the Seneca Falls convention would be held there. Kelley influenced future suffragists such as Susan B. Anthony and Lucy Stone by encouraging them to take on a role in political activism. She helped organize and was a key speaker at the first National Women's Rights Convention in Worcester, Massachusetts in 1850. (The Seneca Falls Convention, the first women's rights convention, held in 1848, was not national).\n\nAfter the American Civil War, Kelley supported passage of the 15th Amendment to the Constitution. Some female activists resisted any amendment that did not include women's suffrage. Kelley split with Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton due to their strong opposition to the amendment. After the amendment passed and Garrison dissolved the Anti-Slavery Society, Kelley continued to work for equal rights for both African Americans and women.\n\nIn 1872, Kelley and her husband Stephen Symonds Foster refused to pay taxes on their jointly owned property; they argued that as Kelley could not vote, she was a victim of taxation without representation. Although their farm was consequently seized and sold and repurchased for them by friends, Kelley continued her activism in the face of financial difficulties and poor health. She wrote letters to fellow radicals and other political figures until her death in 1887.\n\nMarriage and family\nAfter a four-year courtship, Kelley married fellow abolitionist Stephen Symonds Foster in 1845. In 1847, she and her husband purchased a farm in the Tatnuck region of Worcester, Massachusetts and named it \"Liberty Farm\". She gave birth to their only daughter in 1847. The farm served both as a stop on the Underground railroad and as a refuge for fellow reformers. Kelley continued her efforts as a lecturer and fundraiser throughout the North until 1850, when declining health forced her to reduce traveling. She carried on an active correspondence and local meetings to work for the cause.\n\nAbby Kelley Foster died January 14, 1887, one day before her 76th birthday.\n\nLegacy and honors\n\nLiberty Farm in Worcester, Massachusetts, the home of Abby Kelley and Stephen Symonds Foster, was designated a National Historic Landmark because of its association with their lives of working for abolitionism. It is privately owned and not open for visits.\n\nAbby's House, a shelter for women that opened in Worcester in 1976, is named in her honor.\n\nIn 2011, she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.\n\nAbby Kelley Foster Charter Public School, a K-12 school in Worcester, Massachusetts that opened in 1998, is named in her honor.\n\nSee also\n List of civil rights activists\n List of suffragists and suffragettes\n List of women's rights activists\n Come-outer\n\nCitations\n\nReferences\n \n \n Pease, Jane, William Pease. \"Foster, Abby Kelley.\" American National Biography. Feb. 2000 <http://www.anb.org/articles/15/15-00236.html>.\n\nExternal links\n\n Worcester Women's History Project:\n Abby Kelley Foster Timeline\n Stephen Symonds Foster\n \"Angels and Infidels\"\n Liberty Farm , National Historic Landmark, former home of Abby Kelley Foster, National Park Service\n Portrait of Abby Kelley Foster by Charlotte Wharton\n What Did Abby Say? - Assumption College\n Abby Kelley Foster papers from Haverford College Quaker & Special Collections\n\n1811 births\n1887 deaths\nAmerican Quakers\nAmerican suffragists\nAmerican tax resisters\nAmerican women's rights activists\nPeople from Millbury, Massachusetts\nPeople from Pelham, Massachusetts\nPeople from Uxbridge, Massachusetts\nPeople from Worcester, Massachusetts\nAmerican social reformers\nUnderground Railroad people\nBurials at Hope Cemetery (Worcester, Massachusetts)\nActivists from Massachusetts\nQuaker abolitionists\nQuaker feminists\nWomen civil rights activists", "role": "assistant" } ]
Siege (disambiguation)
A siege is a military blockade and assault of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering. For a list of sieges, see list of sieges. Siege, The Siege, Besiege or Besieged may also refer to: Books and comics Fiction The Siege (Dunmore novel), by Helen Dunmore, 2001 The Siege (Kadare novel), by Ismail Kadare, 1970 The Siege (Forgotten Realms novel), the second novel of the Return of the Archwizards trilogy by Troy Denning Guardians of Ga'Hoole Book 4: The Siege, the fourth novel in the Guardians of Ga'hoole series Siege (comics), a 2010 Marvel Comics storyline Siege (character), a Marvel Comics character The Siege: Selected Stories, a book by James Lasdun, including the title story, basis for the Bertolucci film Siege, a 1924 novel by Samuel Hopkins Adams Siege (Spanish: El Asedio), a 2010 novel by Arturo Pérez-Reverte Nonfiction Siege (Mason book), an essay collection, and a newsletter, by the American neo-Nazi James Mason Siege: Trump Under Fire, a 2019 book by Michael Wolff The Siege: The Attack on the Taj, a 2013 book by Cathy Scott-Clark and Adrian Levy about the 2008 Mumbai attacks The Siege: The First Eight Years of an Autistic Child, a 1967 book by Clara Claiborne Park Film Siege (1925 film), an American film Siege (1940 film), a documentary short by Julien Bryan on the 1939 Siege of Warsaw The Siege (1956 film), a Yugoslav war film directed by Branko Marjanović Siege (1983 film) or Self Defense, a Canadian action thriller film The Siege (1998 film), a film directed by Edward Zwick and starring Denzel Washington Besieged (film), a 1998 film by Bernardo Bertolucci Games Siege (board game), a 1984 expansion of Cry Havoc by Standard Games Siege (video game), a 1992 PC game developed by Mindcraft Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege, a 2015 game developed by Ubisoft Besiege (video game), a 2020 physics building game Television episodes "Chapter 12: The Siege", 2020 episode of The Mandalorian "The Siege" (Dead Zone) "The Siege" (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine) "The Siege" (Stargate Atlantis) Other uses The Siege (play), a 2002 Palestinian play by The Freedom Theatre Siege (software), a Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP/HTTPS) testing utility Siege (band), a 1980s American punk band Besieged (band), an American Christian band See also Siege Perilous (disambiguation) Under Siege (disambiguation)
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Siege (disambiguation)", "role": "user" }, { "content": "A siege is a military blockade and assault of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering. For a list of sieges, see list of sieges.\n\nSiege, The Siege, Besiege or Besieged may also refer to:\n\nBooks and comics\n\nFiction\nThe Siege (Dunmore novel), by Helen Dunmore, 2001\nThe Siege (Kadare novel), by Ismail Kadare, 1970\nThe Siege (Forgotten Realms novel), the second novel of the Return of the Archwizards trilogy by Troy Denning\nGuardians of Ga'Hoole Book 4: The Siege, the fourth novel in the Guardians of Ga'hoole series\nSiege (comics), a 2010 Marvel Comics storyline\nSiege (character), a Marvel Comics character\nThe Siege: Selected Stories, a book by James Lasdun, including the title story, basis for the Bertolucci film\nSiege, a 1924 novel by Samuel Hopkins Adams\nSiege (Spanish: El Asedio), a 2010 novel by Arturo Pérez-Reverte\n\nNonfiction\nSiege (Mason book), an essay collection, and a newsletter, by the American neo-Nazi James Mason\nSiege: Trump Under Fire, a 2019 book by Michael Wolff\nThe Siege: The Attack on the Taj, a 2013 book by Cathy Scott-Clark and Adrian Levy about the 2008 Mumbai attacks\nThe Siege: The First Eight Years of an Autistic Child, a 1967 book by Clara Claiborne Park\n\nFilm\nSiege (1925 film), an American film\nSiege (1940 film), a documentary short by Julien Bryan on the 1939 Siege of Warsaw\nThe Siege (1956 film), a Yugoslav war film directed by Branko Marjanović\nSiege (1983 film) or Self Defense, a Canadian action thriller film\nThe Siege (1998 film), a film directed by Edward Zwick and starring Denzel Washington\nBesieged (film), a 1998 film by Bernardo Bertolucci\n\nGames\nSiege (board game), a 1984 expansion of Cry Havoc by Standard Games\nSiege (video game), a 1992 PC game developed by Mindcraft\nTom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege, a 2015 game developed by Ubisoft\nBesiege (video game), a 2020 physics building game\n\nTelevision episodes\n\"Chapter 12: The Siege\", 2020 episode of The Mandalorian\n\"The Siege\" (Dead Zone)\n\"The Siege\" (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine)\n\"The Siege\" (Stargate Atlantis)\n\nOther uses\nThe Siege (play), a 2002 Palestinian play by The Freedom Theatre\nSiege (software), a Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP/HTTPS) testing utility\nSiege (band), a 1980s American punk band\nBesieged (band), an American Christian band\n\nSee also\nSiege Perilous (disambiguation)\nUnder Siege (disambiguation)", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No.%2019%20Squadron%20RAF
Number 19 Squadron (sometimes written as No. XIX Squadron) is a squadron of the Royal Air Force. It was the first squadron to operate the Supermarine Spitfire. It currently operates the UK's Control and Reporting Centre from RAF Boulmer. No. 19 Squadron delivers persistent surveillance of UK airspace, and Tactical Control of RAF and NATO aircraft, including the UK's contribution to NATO's Quick Reaction Alert mission. Formed on 1 September 1915 as a Royal Flying Corps squadron, the unit served during the First World War. No. 19 Squadron was the first squadron to operate the Supermarine Spitfire, which it flew for the majority of the Second World War. The squadron operated several different types during the Cold War from the Gloster Meteor F.4 to the McDonnell Douglas Phantom FGR.2 as No. 19 (Fighter) Squadron. In 1992, and on receipt of the BAe Hawk and establishing at RAF Valley, the squadron was designated as No. 19 (Reserve) Squadron. The squadron was disbanded on 24 November 2011, before being allocated to the UK Air Surveillance and Control System Control and Reporting Centre at RAF Boulmer on 1 April 2021, charged with providing Battle Management and Tactical Command and Control (Tac C2) of NATO aircraft, for both defence of the UK and NATO airspace, as well as operational training for the RAF's fast jet squadrons. History First World War No. 19 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps was formed on 1 September 1915, from members of No. 5 Squadron, at Castle Bromwich training on a variety of aircraft before being deployed to France in July 1916 flying Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.12 and re-equipping with the more suitable French-built SPAD S.VIIs. From November 1917, the squadron started to receive Sopwith Dolphins to replace its Spads, it being fully equipped with the Dolphin during January 1918, flying its first operational patrol with the new fighter on 3 February. By the end of the war, No. 19 Squadron had had 22 flying aces among its ranks, including Albert Desbrisay Carter, John Leacroft, Arthur Bradfield Fairclough, Oliver Bryson, Gordon Budd Irving, Frederick Sowrey, future Air Commodore Patrick Huskinson, Cecil Gardner, Roger Amedee Del'Haye, future Air Chief Marshal James Hardman, Finlay McQuistan, Alexander Pentland, John Candy, Cecil Thompson and John Aldridge. Commanding officers during this time included H.D. Harvey-Kelly who was the first RFC pilot to land in France in the First World War. At least one of the No. 19 Squadron airmen, a Canadian, George Robert Long, was captured on 6 October 1917 in the Lille area and spent the rest of the war in a number of prisoner of war camps, including Holzminden prisoner-of-war camp. It was his very first flight, in a Spad VII, B3508. The squadron was flying out of Bailleul (Asylum Ground) at the time. He was shot down by Gefreiter J. Funk, flying with Ja30. He had first been a member of the C.E.F. in the infantry and was wounded a number of times. He wasn't repatriated until 14 December 1918, to return home to Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Interwar period No. 19 Squadron was disbanded after the First World War on 31 December 1919. On 1 April 1923, the squadron was reformed at RAF Duxford with the Sopwith Snipe, initially operating as part of No. 2 Flying Training School (No. 2 FTS). After becoming independent No. 2 FTS, No. 19 Squadron remained at Duxford flying number of different fighters such as the Gloster Grebe, Armstrong Whitworth Siskin Mk.IIIa and the Bristol Bulldog Mk.IIa. In May 1935, the unit became the first squadron to be equipped with the Gloster Gauntlet which they flew until March 1939. In 1938, No. 19 Squadron became the first squadron in the RAF to operate the Supermarine Spitfire Mk.I, when K9789 was delivered on 4 August. The squadron lost its first Spitfire when K9792 crashed on landing at RAF Duxford on 20 September 1938, having only been delivered on 16 August. Second World War No. 19 Squadron was stationed at RAF Duxford after the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, and was part of No. 12 Group, RAF Fighter Command. Douglas Bader was posted to the squadron in February 1940. In May and June 1940, the squadron helped provide air cover over the Dunkirk beaches. In June 1940, No. 19 Squadron began the receive Spitfire Mk.Ibs, which were armed with the Hispano cannon, however due to reliability issues the unit soon reverted to the Spitfire Mk.Ia. No. 19 Squadron formed part of the Duxford Wing, No. 12 Group's 'Big Wing' formation during the Battle of Britain. Later versions of Spitfires were flown until the arrival of North American Mustang Mk.IIIs for close-support duties in early 1944. After D-Day, No. 19 Squadron briefly went across the English Channel before starting long-range escort duties from RAF Peterhead, Scotland, for Coastal Command off the coast of Norway. The Squadron converted to the Mustang Mk.IV in April 1945 while based at RAF Peterhead. Cold War Relocating south to RAF Acklington on 13 May 1945, No. XIX (Fighter) Squadron exchanged their Mustangs for Spitfire Mk.XVIs. While at RAF Wittering in October 1946, No. 19 (F) Squadron converted to the de Havilland Hornet Mk.I which were operated until January 1951 when the Squadron received their first jet aircraft – the Gloster Meteor F.4. These were soon exchanged for the Meteor F.8 in April 1951 which were flown until October 1956 when No. 19 (F) Squadron received the Hawker Hunter F.6. The Squadron moved to RAF Leconfield, Yorkshire in 1959 where they converted to the English Electric Lightning F.2 in November 1962. The Squadron and her sister unit, No. 92 (F) Squadron, were deployed forwards in September 1965 to RAF Gütersloh, close to the inner German border, as part of Second Allied Tactical Air Force (2ATAF). Subsequently, the squadron re-equipped with the longer-range Lightning F.2A version. On 31 December 1976, No. 19 (F) Squadron disbanded with the Lightning, followed by No. 92 (F) Squadron in March 1977, and reformed the next day at RAF Wildenrath, further back west of the Rhine, with the McDonnell Douglas Phantom FGR.2 still in the air defence role. Because of restricted airspace in then West Germany, both No. 19 Squadron and its sister No. 92 Squadron deployed regularly out of theatre over these years for annual Missile Practice Camps at RAF Valley, using the Aberporth Range in Wales, to RAF St Mawgan in Cornwall and RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus for Armament Practice Camps (gunnery), to Italian Air Force Decimommanu in Sardinia to use the NATO Air Combat Manoeuvring Instrumented Range, and latterly to Eglin and Nellis Air Force Bases in Florida and Nevada to participate respectively in multi national Exercises Green and Red Flags. On 17 August 1990, No. XIX (F) Squadron, along with No. 92 (F) Squadron, were sent to RAF Akrotiri, Cyprus, in order to provide air defence for the island after Tornado F.3s from No. V (AC) Squadron and No. 29 (F) Squadron deployed from Akrotiri to Dhahran Airfield due to the Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait (ahead of Operation Granby). No. 19 (F) Squadron operated their Phantoms from here until 28 February 1991 when a ceasefire was called between the coalition forces and Iraq. On 9 January 1992, the squadron disbanded as part of agreed post-Cold War force reductions and their aircraft were scrapped. On 16 January 1992, the last Phantom departed piloted by Wildenrath Station Commander Group Captain Geoff Brindle to be gifted to the Kbely Military Museum in Prague. Hawk (1992–2011) The number plate was then assigned to the former No. 63 Squadron, one of the Hawk squadrons at RAF Chivenor, in September 1992, becoming No. 19 (Reserve) Squadron. The squadron was a 'Shadow' identity of No. 2 Tactical Weapons Unit (2 TWU). Following the closure of Chivenor to jet flying the squadron was moved to RAF Valley in September 1994 to provide advanced fast jet training on the BAE Hawk. As a consequence of the UK's Strategic Defence and Security Review in 2010, the Air Force Board decided in 2011 that 19 Squadron's training role with the Hawk T2 at RAF Valley should be transferred to a resurrected No. 4(R) Squadron. No. 19(R) Squadron, one of the last surviving Battle of Britain squadrons, disbanded on 24 November 2011, 96 years after it was first formed. The disbandment event, held at RAF Valley, was led by Officer Commanding No. 19 Squadron, Wing Commander Kevin Marsh. In attendance were the Chief of Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Stephen Dalton, Air Chief Marshal William Wratten and Flight Lieutenant Ken Wilkinson - a 19 Squadron Spitfire pilot who flew during the Battle of Britain. Control and Reporting Centre (2021 – present) In 2021, the RAF recognised the important role of Battle Management and Air Traffic Control units had played in defence of the UK and NATO over the cold war and in the UK's response since the 9/11 terrorist attacks. The RAF awarded squadron number plates to Battlespace Management Operations Wing, the Air Surveillance and Control System (ASACS) Operational Conversion Unit (OCU), and RAF Swanwick. Battlespace Management Operations Wing, including the remnants of No. 1 Air Control Centre, was re-brigaded as No. 19 Squadron on 1 April 2021, and continues to operate the Control and Reporting Centre from RAF Boulmer in Northumberland. No. 19 Squadron's reformation was celebrated officially at a reformation parade on 15 June 2021, held at Alnwick Castle. The parade was led by RAF Boulmer Station Commander, Group Captain David Keighley, Officer Commanding No. 19 Squadron, Wing Commander Chris Misiak, and Officer Commanding No. 20 Squadron, Wing Commander Andy Foy. In attendance were the Lord Lieutentant of Northumberland and Chief of Staff Capability, Air Vice Marshall Lincoln Taylor. No. 19 Squadron operate the Control and Reporting Centre, considered to be the modern-day translation of Dowding's eponymous Integrated Air Defence System, credited with ultimate success during the Battle of Britain by allowing Fighter Command to position and mass air defence fighters where they were needed most. The CRC weapon system is a system-of-systems designed to give operators situational awareness over a given battlespace, and also giving those same operators the means to direct, communicate, guide and advise military aircraft to achieve their mission. No. 19 Squadron are providers of Tactical-level Command and Control and are considered a Tac C2 agency within NATO. Alongside No. 20 Squadron, No. 19 Squadron continues to defend the UK. No. 20 Squadron provide expert training to the air battle managers of No. 19 Squadron, including initial qualification, Combat Ready training, and the Qualified Weapons Instructor (Command and Control) course. Aircraft operated See also List of Royal Air Force aircraft squadrons References Notes Bibliography Bowyer, Michael J.F. and John D.R. Rawlings. Squadron Codes, 1937-56. Bar Hill, Cambridgeshire, UK: Patrick Stephens., 1979. . Chorlton, Martyn. "The Determined Dolphins". Aeroplane, Autumn 2014, Vol. 42, No. 9. pp. 58–62. ISSN 0143-7240. Delve, Ken. The Source Book of the RAF. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing, 1994. . Flintham, Vic and Andrew Thomas. Combat Codes: A Full Explanation and Listing of British, Commonwealth and Allied Air Force Unit Codes since 1938. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing., 2003. . Halley, James J. The Squadrons of the Royal Air Force & Commonwealth, 1918-1988. Tonbridge, Kent, UK: Air-Britain (Historians)., 1988. . Jefford, C.G. RAF Squadrons, a Comprehensive Record of the Movement and Equipment of all RAF Squadrons and their Antecedents since 1912. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing, 1988 (second edition 2001). . Palmer, Derek. Fighter Squadron (No. 19). Upton-upon-Severn, Worcestershire, UK: Self Publishing Association, 1991. . Palmer, Derek. 19 Fighter Squadron, RAF. Published by Derek Palmer, 2008. . Rawlings, John D.R. Fighter Squadrons of the Royal Air Force and their Aircraft. London: MacDonald and Jane's (Publishers)., 1969 (new edition 1976, reprinted 1978). . pp. 47–54. External links Royal Air Force: 19 Squadron Archived Site Royal Air Force: 19 Squadron 19(F) Squadron All Ranks Association 019 019 Squadron Military units and formations established in 1915 Military units and formations of the Royal Air Force in World War I No. 19 RAF squadrons involved in the Battle of Britain 1915 establishments in the United Kingdom Military units and formations disestablished in 2011
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No.%2019%20Squadron%20RAF", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Number 19 Squadron (sometimes written as No. XIX Squadron) is a squadron of the Royal Air Force. It was the first squadron to operate the Supermarine Spitfire. It currently operates the UK's Control and Reporting Centre from RAF Boulmer. No. 19 Squadron delivers persistent surveillance of UK airspace, and Tactical Control of RAF and NATO aircraft, including the UK's contribution to NATO's Quick Reaction Alert mission.\n\nFormed on 1 September 1915 as a Royal Flying Corps squadron, the unit served during the First World War. No. 19 Squadron was the first squadron to operate the Supermarine Spitfire, which it flew for the majority of the Second World War. The squadron operated several different types during the Cold War from the Gloster Meteor F.4 to the McDonnell Douglas Phantom FGR.2 as No. 19 (Fighter) Squadron. In 1992, and on receipt of the BAe Hawk and establishing at RAF Valley, the squadron was designated as No. 19 (Reserve) Squadron.\n\nThe squadron was disbanded on 24 November 2011, before being allocated to the UK Air Surveillance and Control System Control and Reporting Centre at RAF Boulmer on 1 April 2021, charged with providing Battle Management and Tactical Command and Control (Tac C2) of NATO aircraft, for both defence of the UK and NATO airspace, as well as operational training for the RAF's fast jet squadrons.\n\nHistory\n\nFirst World War\nNo. 19 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps was formed on 1 September 1915, from members of No. 5 Squadron, at Castle Bromwich training on a variety of aircraft before being deployed to France in July 1916 flying Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.12 and re-equipping with the more suitable French-built SPAD S.VIIs.\n\nFrom November 1917, the squadron started to receive Sopwith Dolphins to replace its Spads, it being fully equipped with the Dolphin during January 1918, flying its first operational patrol with the new fighter on 3 February. By the end of the war, No. 19 Squadron had had 22 flying aces among its ranks, including Albert Desbrisay Carter, John Leacroft, Arthur Bradfield Fairclough, Oliver Bryson, Gordon Budd Irving, Frederick Sowrey, future Air Commodore Patrick Huskinson, Cecil Gardner, Roger Amedee Del'Haye, future Air Chief Marshal James Hardman, Finlay McQuistan, Alexander Pentland, John Candy, Cecil Thompson and John Aldridge.\n\nCommanding officers during this time included H.D. Harvey-Kelly who was the first RFC pilot to land in France in the First World War. At least one of the No. 19 Squadron airmen, a Canadian, George Robert Long, was captured on 6 October 1917 in the Lille area and spent the rest of the war in a number of prisoner of war camps, including Holzminden prisoner-of-war camp. It was his very first flight, in a Spad VII, B3508. The squadron was flying out of Bailleul (Asylum Ground) at the time. He was shot down by Gefreiter J. Funk, flying with Ja30. He had first been a member of the C.E.F. in the infantry and was wounded a number of times. He wasn't repatriated until 14 December 1918, to return home to Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.\n\nInterwar period\n\nNo. 19 Squadron was disbanded after the First World War on 31 December 1919. On 1 April 1923, the squadron was reformed at RAF Duxford with the Sopwith Snipe, initially operating as part of No. 2 Flying Training School (No. 2 FTS). After becoming independent No. 2 FTS, No. 19 Squadron remained at Duxford flying number of different fighters such as the Gloster Grebe, Armstrong Whitworth Siskin Mk.IIIa and the Bristol Bulldog Mk.IIa. In May 1935, the unit became the first squadron to be equipped with the Gloster Gauntlet which they flew until March 1939. In 1938, No. 19 Squadron became the first squadron in the RAF to operate the Supermarine Spitfire Mk.I, when K9789 was delivered on 4 August. The squadron lost its first Spitfire when K9792 crashed on landing at RAF Duxford on 20 September 1938, having only been delivered on 16 August.\n\nSecond World War\nNo. 19 Squadron was stationed at RAF Duxford after the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, and was part of No. 12 Group, RAF Fighter Command. Douglas Bader was posted to the squadron in February 1940. In May and June 1940, the squadron helped provide air cover over the Dunkirk beaches. In June 1940, No. 19 Squadron began the receive Spitfire Mk.Ibs, which were armed with the Hispano cannon, however due to reliability issues the unit soon reverted to the Spitfire Mk.Ia. No. 19 Squadron formed part of the Duxford Wing, No. 12 Group's 'Big Wing' formation during the Battle of Britain.\n\nLater versions of Spitfires were flown until the arrival of North American Mustang Mk.IIIs for close-support duties in early 1944. After D-Day, No. 19 Squadron briefly went across the English Channel before starting long-range escort duties from RAF Peterhead, Scotland, for Coastal Command off the coast of Norway. The Squadron converted to the Mustang Mk.IV in April 1945 while based at RAF Peterhead.\n\nCold War\n\nRelocating south to RAF Acklington on 13 May 1945, No. XIX (Fighter) Squadron exchanged their Mustangs for Spitfire Mk.XVIs. While at RAF Wittering in October 1946, No. 19 (F) Squadron converted to the de Havilland Hornet Mk.I which were operated until January 1951 when the Squadron received their first jet aircraft – the Gloster Meteor F.4. These were soon exchanged for the Meteor F.8 in April 1951 which were flown until October 1956 when No. 19 (F) Squadron received the Hawker Hunter F.6. The Squadron moved to RAF Leconfield, Yorkshire in 1959 where they converted to the English Electric Lightning F.2 in November 1962.\n\nThe Squadron and her sister unit, No. 92 (F) Squadron, were deployed forwards in September 1965 to RAF Gütersloh, close to the inner German border, as part of Second Allied Tactical Air Force (2ATAF). Subsequently, the squadron re-equipped with the longer-range Lightning F.2A version.\n\nOn 31 December 1976, No. 19 (F) Squadron disbanded with the Lightning, followed by No. 92 (F) Squadron in March 1977, and reformed the next day at RAF Wildenrath, further back west of the Rhine, with the McDonnell Douglas Phantom FGR.2 still in the air defence role.\n\nBecause of restricted airspace in then West Germany, both No. 19 Squadron and its sister No. 92 Squadron deployed regularly out of theatre over these years for annual Missile Practice Camps at RAF Valley, using the Aberporth Range in Wales, to RAF St Mawgan in Cornwall and RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus for Armament Practice Camps (gunnery), to Italian Air Force Decimommanu in Sardinia to use the NATO Air Combat Manoeuvring Instrumented Range, and latterly to Eglin and Nellis Air Force Bases in Florida and Nevada to participate respectively in multi national Exercises Green and Red Flags.\n\nOn 17 August 1990, No. XIX (F) Squadron, along with No. 92 (F) Squadron, were sent to RAF Akrotiri, Cyprus, in order to provide air defence for the island after Tornado F.3s from No. V (AC) Squadron and No. 29 (F) Squadron deployed from Akrotiri to Dhahran Airfield due to the Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait (ahead of Operation Granby). No. 19 (F) Squadron operated their Phantoms from here until 28 February 1991 when a ceasefire was called between the coalition forces and Iraq.\n\nOn 9 January 1992, the squadron disbanded as part of agreed post-Cold War force reductions and their aircraft were scrapped.\n\nOn 16 January 1992, the last Phantom departed piloted by Wildenrath Station Commander Group Captain Geoff Brindle to be gifted to the Kbely Military Museum in Prague.\n\nHawk (1992–2011)\n\nThe number plate was then assigned to the former No. 63 Squadron, one of the Hawk squadrons at RAF Chivenor, in September 1992, becoming No. 19 (Reserve) Squadron. The squadron was a 'Shadow' identity of No. 2 Tactical Weapons Unit (2 TWU). Following the closure of Chivenor to jet flying the squadron was moved to RAF Valley in September 1994 to provide advanced fast jet training on the BAE Hawk.\n\nAs a consequence of the UK's Strategic Defence and Security Review in 2010, the Air Force Board decided in 2011 that 19 Squadron's training role with the Hawk T2 at RAF Valley should be transferred to a resurrected No. 4(R) Squadron. No. 19(R) Squadron, one of the last surviving Battle of Britain squadrons, disbanded on 24 November 2011, 96 years after it was first formed.\n\nThe disbandment event, held at RAF Valley, was led by Officer Commanding No. 19 Squadron, Wing Commander Kevin Marsh. In attendance were the Chief of Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Stephen Dalton, Air Chief Marshal William Wratten and Flight Lieutenant Ken Wilkinson - a 19 Squadron Spitfire pilot who flew during the Battle of Britain.\n\nControl and Reporting Centre (2021 – present) \nIn 2021, the RAF recognised the important role of Battle Management and Air Traffic Control units had played in defence of the UK and NATO over the cold war and in the UK's response since the 9/11 terrorist attacks. The RAF awarded squadron number plates to Battlespace Management Operations Wing, the Air Surveillance and Control System (ASACS) Operational Conversion Unit (OCU), and RAF Swanwick. Battlespace Management Operations Wing, including the remnants of No. 1 Air Control Centre, was re-brigaded as No. 19 Squadron on 1 April 2021, and continues to operate the Control and Reporting Centre from RAF Boulmer in Northumberland. \n\nNo. 19 Squadron's reformation was celebrated officially at a reformation parade on 15 June 2021, held at Alnwick Castle. The parade was led by RAF Boulmer Station Commander, Group Captain David Keighley, Officer Commanding No. 19 Squadron, Wing Commander Chris Misiak, and Officer Commanding No. 20 Squadron, Wing Commander Andy Foy. In attendance were the Lord Lieutentant of Northumberland and Chief of Staff Capability, Air Vice Marshall Lincoln Taylor. \n\nNo. 19 Squadron operate the Control and Reporting Centre, considered to be the modern-day translation of Dowding's eponymous Integrated Air Defence System, credited with ultimate success during the Battle of Britain by allowing Fighter Command to position and mass air defence fighters where they were needed most. \n\nThe CRC weapon system is a system-of-systems designed to give operators situational awareness over a given battlespace, and also giving those same operators the means to direct, communicate, guide and advise military aircraft to achieve their mission. No. 19 Squadron are providers of Tactical-level Command and Control and are considered a Tac C2 agency within NATO.\n\nAlongside No. 20 Squadron, No. 19 Squadron continues to defend the UK. No. 20 Squadron provide expert training to the air battle managers of No. 19 Squadron, including initial qualification, Combat Ready training, and the Qualified Weapons Instructor (Command and Control) course.\n\nAircraft operated\n\nSee also\nList of Royal Air Force aircraft squadrons\n\nReferences\nNotes\n\nBibliography\n\n Bowyer, Michael J.F. and John D.R. Rawlings. Squadron Codes, 1937-56. Bar Hill, Cambridgeshire, UK: Patrick Stephens., 1979. .\n Chorlton, Martyn. \"The Determined Dolphins\". Aeroplane, Autumn 2014, Vol. 42, No. 9. pp. 58–62. ISSN 0143-7240.\n Delve, Ken. The Source Book of the RAF. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing, 1994. .\n Flintham, Vic and Andrew Thomas. Combat Codes: A Full Explanation and Listing of British, Commonwealth and Allied Air Force Unit Codes since 1938. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing., 2003. .\n Halley, James J. The Squadrons of the Royal Air Force & Commonwealth, 1918-1988. Tonbridge, Kent, UK: Air-Britain (Historians)., 1988. .\n Jefford, C.G. RAF Squadrons, a Comprehensive Record of the Movement and Equipment of all RAF Squadrons and their Antecedents since 1912. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing, 1988 (second edition 2001). .\n\n Palmer, Derek. Fighter Squadron (No. 19). Upton-upon-Severn, Worcestershire, UK: Self Publishing Association, 1991. .\n Palmer, Derek. 19 Fighter Squadron, RAF. Published by Derek Palmer, 2008. .\n Rawlings, John D.R. Fighter Squadrons of the Royal Air Force and their Aircraft. London: MacDonald and Jane's (Publishers)., 1969 (new edition 1976, reprinted 1978). . pp. 47–54.\n\nExternal links\n\n Royal Air Force: 19 Squadron\n Archived Site Royal Air Force: 19 Squadron\n 19(F) Squadron All Ranks Association\n\n019\n019 Squadron\nMilitary units and formations established in 1915\nMilitary units and formations of the Royal Air Force in World War I\nNo. 19\nRAF squadrons involved in the Battle of Britain\n1915 establishments in the United Kingdom\nMilitary units and formations disestablished in 2011", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hingol%20River
Hingol River or Hungol River () is located in the Makran region, in the Gwadar District of southeastern Balochistan Province, in southwestern Pakistan. The river and valley are protected within Hingol National Park. Geography The Hingol River is long, the longest in Balochistan. It winds through the Makran Coastal Range and Hungol Valley between high cliffs. The river flows all year long, unlike most other streams in Balochistan which only flow during rare rains. See also List of rivers of Pakistan Makran Geography of Balochistan, Pakistan References Rivers of Balochistan (Pakistan) Protected areas of Pakistan Wetlands of Pakistan Gwadar District Natural history of Balochistan, Pakistan Rivers of Pakistan
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hingol%20River", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Hingol River or Hungol River () is located in the Makran region, in the Gwadar District of southeastern Balochistan Province, in southwestern Pakistan. The river and valley are protected within Hingol National Park.\n\nGeography\nThe Hingol River is long, the longest in Balochistan. It winds through the Makran Coastal Range and Hungol Valley between high cliffs.\n\nThe river flows all year long, unlike most other streams in Balochistan which only flow during rare rains.\n\nSee also \nList of rivers of Pakistan\nMakran \nGeography of Balochistan, Pakistan\n\nReferences \n\nRivers of Balochistan (Pakistan)\nProtected areas of Pakistan\nWetlands of Pakistan\nGwadar District\nNatural history of Balochistan, Pakistan\nRivers of Pakistan", "role": "assistant" } ]
Robert Mangold
Robert Mangold (born October 12, 1937) is an American minimalist artist. He is also father of film director and screenwriter James Mangold. Early life and education Mangold was born in North Tonawanda, New York. His mother, Blanche, was a department store buyer, and his father, Aloysius Mangold, worked at an organ factory. He first trained at the Cleveland Institute of Art from 1956 to 1959, and then at Yale University, New Haven, (BFA, 1961; MFA, 1963). In 1961 he married Sylvia Plimack, and they moved to New York. In the summer of 1962 Mangold was hired as guard at the Museum of Modern Art. Work “Robert Mangold’s paintings,” wrote Michael Kimmelman in The New York Times in 1997, “are more complicated to describe than they seem, which is partly what’s good about them: the way they invite intense scrutiny, which, in the nature of good art, is its own reward.” His works are comprised often of simple elements which are put together through complex means. Mangold's work challenges the typical connotations of what a painting is or could be, and his works often appear as objects rather than images. Elements refer often to architectural elements or have the feeling of an architect's hands. He almost always works in extensive series, often carried through both paintings and works on paper. Mangold's early work consisted largely of monochromatic free-standing constructions displayed against the wall, such as Grey Window Wall (1964). In 1968 he began employing acrylic instead of oil paint, rolling rather than spraying it on Masonite or plywood grounds. Within the year, he moved from these more industrially oriented supports to canvas. In 1970 he began working with shaped canvases and within the year began brushing rather than spraying paint onto canvas. By the mid-1970s, Mangold moved on to overlapping shapes whose contours are formed by combinations of canvas edges and both drawn and implied lines. A Rectangle and a Circle within a Square from 1975, in the collection of the Honolulu Museum of Art is an example of these subtle geometric relationships. A 1994 series consisted of monochrome panels, deployed in two-panel trapezoidal works whose colors, sometimes matching, sometimes contrasting, run to deep oranges, olive greens, browns and grays. In a 2006/7 series, entitled Column Structure I through Column Structure XII, the 12 canvases each have a central vertical trunk measuring 10 feet high and 2 feet wide that is subdivided by straight, horizontal lines and appended with squares or triangles that jut from the sides, usually near the top. In a 1994 review in Art in America, Robert Kushner wrote that “underneath the composure of their execution, there is an almost romantic vividness of experience. The contrast of this veiled undercurrent and the Apollonian restraint of the presentation make these new paintings both powerful and poignant.” Mangold made his first prints in 1972 at Crown Point Press and has made prints throughout his career, working with Pace Editions and Brooke Alexander Editions. He designed the monumental colored glass panels contained in the Buffalo Federal Courthouse pavilion lobby. Mangold lives in Washingtonville, New York with his wife, Sylvia, who is also an artist. They are the parents of film director/screenwriter James Mangold and musician Andrew Mangold. Exhibitions In 1965, the Jewish Museum in New York held the first major exhibition of what was called Minimal art and included Robert Mangold. In 1967, he won a National Endowment for the Arts grant and in 1969, a Guggenheim Fellowship. In 1971, he had his first solo museum exhibition at the Guggenheim Museum. Major museum exhibitions of his work have since been held the Museum of Contemporary Art, San Diego (1974), the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam (1982), Hallen für Neue Kunst in Schaffhausen (1993), and Musée d’Orsay in Paris (2006). He has been featured in the Whitney Biennial four times, in 1979, 1983, 1985, and 2004. Collections The Art Institute of Chicago, the Bonnefantenmuseum (Maastricht, Netherlands), Fundacío La Caixa (Barcelona), the Hallen für Neue Kunst (Schaffhausen, Switzerland), the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden (Washington, DC), the Honolulu Museum of Art, the J. Paul Getty Trust (Los Angeles), the Kunstmuseum Basel (Switzerland), the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía (Madrid), the Museum of Modern Art (New York City, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum (New York City), the Tate Collection (London), the Tokyo Metropolitan Art Museum, and the Whitney Museum of American Art (New York City) are among the public collections holding work by Robert Mangold. See also Correlation: Two White Line Diagonals and Two Arcs with a Sixteen-Foot Radius (1978–1978), Columbus, Ohio Literature Christel Sauer, Urs Raussmüller (Hg.): Robert Mangold, Schaffhausen 1993, DE/EN/FR, Christel Sauer: Three Works by Robert Mangold, Basel 2011, DE/EN, References External links Robert Mangold paperback book and biography at Amazon.com The Pace Gallery interview with the artist 1937 births Living people People from North Tonawanda, New York People from Washingtonville, New York Cleveland Institute of Art alumni Yale School of Art alumni 20th-century American painters American male painters 21st-century American painters American abstract artists Minimalist artists 20th-century American printmakers 20th-century American male artists Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Robert Mangold", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Robert Mangold (born October 12, 1937) is an American minimalist artist. He is also father of film director and screenwriter James Mangold.\n\nEarly life and education\nMangold was born in North Tonawanda, New York. His mother, Blanche, was a department store buyer, and his father, Aloysius Mangold, worked at an organ factory. He first trained at the Cleveland Institute of Art from 1956 to 1959, and then at Yale University, New Haven, (BFA, 1961; MFA, 1963).\n\nIn 1961 he married Sylvia Plimack, and they moved to New York. In the summer of 1962 Mangold was hired as guard at the Museum of Modern Art.\n\nWork \n“Robert Mangold’s paintings,” wrote Michael Kimmelman in The New York Times in 1997, “are more complicated to describe than they seem, which is partly what’s good about them: the way they invite intense scrutiny, which, in the nature of good art, is its own reward.” His works are comprised often of simple elements which are put together through complex means. Mangold's work challenges the typical connotations of what a painting is or could be, and his works often appear as objects rather than images. Elements refer often to architectural elements or have the feeling of an architect's hands. He almost always works in extensive series, often carried through both paintings and works on paper.\n\nMangold's early work consisted largely of monochromatic free-standing constructions displayed against the wall, such as Grey Window Wall (1964). In 1968 he began employing acrylic instead of oil paint, rolling rather than spraying it on Masonite or plywood grounds. Within the year, he moved from these more industrially oriented supports to canvas. In 1970 he began working with shaped canvases and within the year began brushing rather than spraying paint onto canvas. By the mid-1970s, Mangold moved on to overlapping shapes whose contours are formed by combinations of canvas edges and both drawn and implied lines. A Rectangle and a Circle within a Square from 1975, in the collection of the Honolulu Museum of Art is an example of these subtle geometric relationships.\n\nA 1994 series consisted of monochrome panels, deployed in two-panel trapezoidal works whose colors, sometimes matching, sometimes contrasting, run to deep oranges, olive greens, browns and grays. In a 2006/7 series, entitled Column Structure I through Column Structure XII, the 12 canvases each have a central vertical trunk measuring 10 feet high and 2 feet wide that is subdivided by straight, horizontal lines and appended with squares or triangles that jut from the sides, usually near the top.\n\nIn a 1994 review in Art in America, Robert Kushner wrote that “underneath the composure of their execution, there is an almost romantic vividness of experience. The contrast of this veiled undercurrent and the Apollonian restraint of the presentation make these new paintings both powerful and poignant.”\n\nMangold made his first prints in 1972 at Crown Point Press and has made prints throughout his career, working with Pace Editions and Brooke Alexander Editions. He designed the monumental colored glass panels contained in the Buffalo Federal Courthouse pavilion lobby.\n\nMangold lives in Washingtonville, New York with his wife, Sylvia, who is also an artist. They are the parents of film director/screenwriter James Mangold and musician Andrew Mangold.\n\nExhibitions\n\nIn 1965, the Jewish Museum in New York held the first major exhibition of what was called Minimal art and included Robert Mangold. In 1967, he won a National Endowment for the Arts grant and in 1969, a Guggenheim Fellowship. In 1971, he had his first solo museum exhibition at the Guggenheim Museum.\n\nMajor museum exhibitions of his work have since been held the Museum of Contemporary Art, San Diego (1974), the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam (1982), Hallen für Neue Kunst in Schaffhausen (1993), and Musée d’Orsay in Paris (2006). He has been featured in the Whitney Biennial four times, in 1979, 1983, 1985, and 2004.\n\nCollections\n\nThe Art Institute of Chicago, the Bonnefantenmuseum (Maastricht, Netherlands), Fundacío La Caixa (Barcelona), the Hallen für Neue Kunst (Schaffhausen, Switzerland), the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden (Washington, DC), the Honolulu Museum of Art, the J. Paul Getty Trust (Los Angeles), the Kunstmuseum Basel (Switzerland), the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía (Madrid), the Museum of Modern Art (New York City, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum (New York City), the Tate Collection (London), the Tokyo Metropolitan Art Museum, and the Whitney Museum of American Art (New York City) are among the public collections holding work by Robert Mangold.\n\nSee also\n Correlation: Two White Line Diagonals and Two Arcs with a Sixteen-Foot Radius (1978–1978), Columbus, Ohio\n\nLiterature\n Christel Sauer, Urs Raussmüller (Hg.): Robert Mangold, Schaffhausen 1993, DE/EN/FR, \n Christel Sauer: Three Works by Robert Mangold, Basel 2011, DE/EN,\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nRobert Mangold paperback book and biography at Amazon.com\nThe Pace Gallery\ninterview with the artist\n\n1937 births\nLiving people\nPeople from North Tonawanda, New York\nPeople from Washingtonville, New York\nCleveland Institute of Art alumni\nYale School of Art alumni\n20th-century American painters\nAmerican male painters\n21st-century American painters\nAmerican abstract artists\nMinimalist artists\n20th-century American printmakers\n20th-century American male artists\nMembers of the American Academy of Arts and Letters", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Greif
Mark Greif (born 1975) is an author, educator and cultural critic. His most recent book is Against Everything. One of the co-founders of n+1, he is a frequent contributor to the magazine and writes for numerous other publications. Greif currently teaches English at Stanford University. Background and education Greif received a BA in History and Literature from Harvard in 1997, after which he received a Marshall Scholarship, which he used to study British Literature and 19th and 20th century American Literature at Oxford through 1999. He holds a PhD in American studies from Yale. Stanford Greif is associate professor of English at Stanford University. Winner of the Morris D. Forkosch Prize for the best first book in intellectual history (2015). n+1 In the fall of 2004, along with fellow writers and editors Keith Gessen, Chad Harbach, Benjamin Kunkel, and Marco Roth, Greif launched the literary journal n + 1. Greif has served as both an editor and writer for the journal, contributing essays on a wide variety of topics: politics, sociology, Radiohead. In 2010, he described the journal's mission: “We are creating a long print archive in an era of the short sound bite.” Criticism Greif's criticism is marked by a willingness to address pop culture, conservative books, and leftist academic critical theory, and to link these to literature and larger questions of culture. References Works by Greif Books The Age of the Crisis of Man, 2015 Against Everything: Essays, 2016 Articles in n+1 "Against Exercise," Fall 2004. "Mogadishu, Baghdad, Troy," Fall 2004. "The Concept of Experiences," Spring 2005. "Radiohead, or the Philosophy of Pop," Fall 2005. "Afternoon of the Sex Children," Winter 2006, reprinted as 'Children of the Revolution', Harpers Magazine November 2006 "Notes From An Occupation" (the Occupy Wall Street demonstrators), with Astra Taylor, Fall, 2011 Reviews "On Giorgio Agamben: Apocalypse Deferred," Spring 2005. "On Reality TV," Fall 2005. "The Hipster in the Mirror", New York Times, November 12, 2010. Web "The Tattoo" External links New School - Bio as assistant professor, Literary Studies, Eugene Lang College n+1 magazine - The magazine that Greif edits and frequently contributes to Articles by Mark Greif from the London Review of Books. Articles by Mark Greif from The American Prospect. Mark Greif on Mark McGurl, The Program Era Mark Greif on Hannah Arendt from Dissent, Spring 2004. Mark Greif on Michel Houellebecq from Dissent, Fall 2003. "Digging for Goldwater" Very short review by Greif, The Village Voice, (April 19, 2001). "Schnitzler on Tap" Very short review by Greif in The Village Voice, (January 30 - February 5, 2002). "The Great American Novel" - An audio discussion between Greif, James Wood, and Lydon, in response to The New York Times Book Review solicited top twenty-five best books of the last quarter-century, (May 23, 2006). American male journalists Living people Harvard College alumni 1975 births Alumni of the University of Oxford Yale University alumni Marshall Scholars
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Greif", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Mark Greif (born 1975) is an author, educator and cultural critic. His most recent book is Against Everything. One of the co-founders of n+1, he is a frequent contributor to the magazine and writes for numerous other publications. Greif currently teaches English at Stanford University.\n\nBackground and education\nGreif received a BA in History and Literature from Harvard in 1997, after which he received a Marshall Scholarship, which he used to study British Literature and 19th and 20th century American Literature at Oxford through 1999. He holds a PhD in American studies from Yale.\n\nStanford\nGreif is associate professor of English at Stanford University.\n\nWinner of the Morris D. Forkosch Prize for the best first book in intellectual history (2015).\n\nn+1\nIn the fall of 2004, along with fellow writers and editors Keith Gessen, Chad Harbach, Benjamin Kunkel, and Marco Roth, Greif launched the literary journal n + 1. Greif has served as both an editor and writer for the journal, contributing essays on a wide variety of topics: politics, sociology, Radiohead. In 2010, he described the journal's mission: “We are creating a long print archive in an era of the short sound bite.”\n\nCriticism\nGreif's criticism is marked by a willingness to address pop culture, conservative books, and leftist academic critical theory, and to link these to literature and larger questions of culture.\n\nReferences\n\nWorks by Greif\nBooks\n The Age of the Crisis of Man, 2015\nAgainst Everything: Essays, 2016\nArticles in n+1\n\"Against Exercise,\" Fall 2004.\n\"Mogadishu, Baghdad, Troy,\" Fall 2004.\n\"The Concept of Experiences,\" Spring 2005.\n\"Radiohead, or the Philosophy of Pop,\" Fall 2005.\n\"Afternoon of the Sex Children,\" Winter 2006, reprinted as 'Children of the Revolution', Harpers Magazine November 2006\n\"Notes From An Occupation\" (the Occupy Wall Street demonstrators), with Astra Taylor, Fall, 2011\n\nReviews\n\"On Giorgio Agamben: Apocalypse Deferred,\" Spring 2005.\n\"On Reality TV,\" Fall 2005.\n\"The Hipster in the Mirror\", New York Times, November 12, 2010.\nWeb\n\"The Tattoo\"\n\nExternal links\nNew School - Bio as assistant professor, Literary Studies, Eugene Lang College\nn+1 magazine - The magazine that Greif edits and frequently contributes to\nArticles by Mark Greif from the London Review of Books.\nArticles by Mark Greif from The American Prospect.\nMark Greif on Mark McGurl, The Program Era\nMark Greif on Hannah Arendt from Dissent, Spring 2004.\nMark Greif on Michel Houellebecq from Dissent, Fall 2003.\n\"Digging for Goldwater\" Very short review by Greif, The Village Voice, (April 19, 2001).\n\"Schnitzler on Tap\" Very short review by Greif in The Village Voice, (January 30 - February 5, 2002).\n\"The Great American Novel\" - An audio discussion between Greif, James Wood, and Lydon, in response to The New York Times Book Review solicited top twenty-five best books of the last quarter-century, (May 23, 2006).\n\nAmerican male journalists\nLiving people\nHarvard College alumni\n1975 births\nAlumni of the University of Oxford\nYale University alumni\nMarshall Scholars", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%20Gowrie
Lord Gowrie may refer to: Grey Ruthven, 2nd Earl of Gowrie (1939-2021), British politician Alexander Hore-Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie (1872–1955), British soldier, longest-serving Governor-General of Australia John Ruthven, 3rd Earl of Gowrie (c. 1570–1600), Scottish nobleman James Ruthven, 2nd Earl of Gowrie (1575–1588), Scottish nobleman, Earl of Gowrie William Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie (c. 1540–1584), Scottish nobleman See also Earl of Gowrie
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%20Gowrie", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Lord Gowrie may refer to:\n\n Grey Ruthven, 2nd Earl of Gowrie (1939-2021), British politician\n Alexander Hore-Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie (1872–1955), British soldier, longest-serving Governor-General of Australia\n John Ruthven, 3rd Earl of Gowrie (c. 1570–1600), Scottish nobleman\n James Ruthven, 2nd Earl of Gowrie (1575–1588), Scottish nobleman, Earl of Gowrie\n William Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie (c. 1540–1584), Scottish nobleman\n\nSee also\n Earl of Gowrie", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Teron
William (Bill) Teron, (November 15, 1932 – March 12, 2018) was a Canadian real estate executive who was known as the "Father of Kanata". Born in Gardenton, Manitoba, he moved to Ottawa when he was eighteen. He started his own company, Golden Ridge Developments Ltd. He is responsible for two suburban developments in the Ottawa area - the development of the former hamlet of Bells Corners, Ontario into a garden suburb (through the development of housing estates called Lynwood Park and Arbeatha Park in the early 1960s) - and the development of Beaverbrook, the beginning of the city of Kanata (later amalgamated into greater Ottawa) from a greenfield site in the Township of March, west of the Ottawa Greenbelt. From 1973 to 1979, he was the chairman and President of Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC). In 1976, Teron served as Deputy Minister of the Ministry of State for Urban Affairs. He is the founder of Teron International Building Technologies. In 1982, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada. In 1978, he was made an honorary Fellow of the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada. He is also the recipient of the Silver, Gold and Diamond Queen's Jubilees medals and received the Jane Jacobs Lifetime Achievement Award in 2013. Teron died on March 12, 2018, at the age of 85. References 1932 births 2018 deaths 20th-century Canadian civil servants Officers of the Order of Canada Canadian people of Ukrainian descent Businesspeople from Ottawa People from Eastman Region, Manitoba
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Teron", "role": "user" }, { "content": "William (Bill) Teron, (November 15, 1932 – March 12, 2018) was a Canadian real estate executive who was known as the \"Father of Kanata\".\n\nBorn in Gardenton, Manitoba, he moved to Ottawa when he was eighteen. He started his own company, Golden Ridge Developments Ltd. He is responsible for two suburban developments in the Ottawa area - the development of the former hamlet of Bells Corners, Ontario into a garden suburb (through the development of housing estates called Lynwood Park and Arbeatha Park in the early 1960s) - and the development of Beaverbrook, the beginning of the city of Kanata (later amalgamated into greater Ottawa) from a greenfield site in the Township of March, west of the Ottawa Greenbelt.\n\nFrom 1973 to 1979, he was the chairman and President of Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC). In 1976, Teron served as Deputy Minister of the Ministry of State for Urban Affairs. He is the founder of Teron International Building Technologies.\n\nIn 1982, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada. In 1978, he was made an honorary Fellow of the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada. He is also the recipient of the Silver, Gold and Diamond Queen's Jubilees medals and received the Jane Jacobs Lifetime Achievement Award in 2013.\n\nTeron died on March 12, 2018, at the age of 85.\n\nReferences\n\n1932 births\n2018 deaths\n20th-century Canadian civil servants\nOfficers of the Order of Canada\nCanadian people of Ukrainian descent\nBusinesspeople from Ottawa\nPeople from Eastman Region, Manitoba", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone%20Health
Cone Health is a private, not-for-profit healthcare delivery system based in Greensboro, North Carolina. It includes Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital, Wesley Long Hospital, and Cone Health Behavioral Health Hospital, all located in Greensboro. The Cone Health network also includes Alamance Regional Medical Center (Burlington, North Carolina), Annie Penn Hospital (Reidsville, North Carolina), MedCenter High Point, MedCenter Kernersville, MedCenter Mebane, MedCenter Greensboro and a wide range of primary care and specialty practices staffed by Cone Health Medical Group physicians. The Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital, the flagship of the system, opened in 1953 on near downtown Greensboro. Bertha Cone established it in honor of her husband, Moses H. Cone. Moses Cone was a textile magnate and founder of Cone Mills. Cone Health is active in primary care, cardiology, neuroscience, oncology, orthopedics, rehabilitation, obstetrics and many other specialties. U.S. News & World Report. listed Cone Health hospitals as a 2022-2023 High Performing Hospital in 17 of 20 common adult procedures and conditions. In August 2020, Cone Health announced its intent to merge with Sentara Healthcare, though the planned consolidation was later canceled in 2021. References External links Hospital networks in the United States Healthcare in Greensboro, North Carolina Cone family
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone%20Health", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Cone Health is a private, not-for-profit healthcare delivery system based in Greensboro, North Carolina. It includes Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital, Wesley Long Hospital, and Cone Health Behavioral Health Hospital, all located in Greensboro. The Cone Health network also includes Alamance Regional Medical Center (Burlington, North Carolina), Annie Penn Hospital (Reidsville, North Carolina), MedCenter High Point, MedCenter Kernersville, MedCenter Mebane, MedCenter Greensboro and a wide range of primary care and specialty practices staffed by Cone Health Medical Group physicians.\n\nThe Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital, the flagship of the system, opened in 1953 on near downtown Greensboro. Bertha Cone established it in honor of her husband, Moses H. Cone. Moses Cone was a textile magnate and founder of Cone Mills.\n\nCone Health is active in primary care, cardiology, neuroscience, oncology, orthopedics, rehabilitation, obstetrics and many other specialties. \n\nU.S. News & World Report. listed Cone Health hospitals as a 2022-2023 High Performing Hospital in 17 of 20 common adult procedures and conditions. \n\nIn August 2020, Cone Health announced its intent to merge with Sentara Healthcare, though the planned consolidation was later canceled in 2021.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\n \nHospital networks in the United States\nHealthcare in Greensboro, North Carolina\nCone family", "role": "assistant" } ]
Takah
Takah may refer to: Taqah, Oman Takah, West Azerbaijan, Iran
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Takah", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Takah may refer to:\n Taqah, Oman\n Takah, West Azerbaijan, Iran", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas%20Beck%20%28footballer%29
Andreas Beck (; born 13 March 1987) is a former professional footballer who played as a right-back. Born in the Soviet Union, he represented Germany at youth and senior levels. Early life Beck was born in Kemerovo, USSR (now Russia). When he was three, his family emigrated to Germany. "I will never forget that we lived in a caravan at first."Beck also has a brother named Arthur. Beck's grandmother resides in St. Petersburg, Russia. Club career VfB Stuttgart Beck started his football career at DJK-SG Wasseralfingen and SVH Köningsbronn before the age of 14. He then transferred to VfB Stuttgart and in 2005, Beck signed a professional contract with the club. The following year, Beck made his Bundesliga debut for Stuttgart on 11 February 2006 against Arminia Bielefeld. Five days later he experienced his European debut with a substitute appearance in the intermediate round of the UEFA cup against the Middlesbrough. The following week saw Beck signing a contract extension, keeping him until 2010. Following Andreas Hinkel's departure to Sevilla, Beck was promoted to the first team and was expected to replace Hinkel as a right-back. However, Beck failed to do so, with Ricardo Osorio establishing himself in the team, playing as a right-back throughout the 2006–07 season. At the end of the 2006–07 season, Beck had made four appearances for the club, as they won the Bundesliga for the first time since 1992. In the 2007–08 season, Beck started the season being on the bench until he made his first appearance on matchday 10 coming on as a substitute for Yıldıray Baştürk in the 86th minute, in a 4–1 loss against Hamburg on 20 October 2007. Beck scored his first goal for Stuttgart in the next appearance on 27 October 2007 against Bayer Leverkusen which resulted in a 1–0 win for Stuttgart. Beck then played a vital role when he provided assists in two of the Champions League matches against Lyon and Rangers. But during a match against Rangers, Beck suffered a knee ligament injury and was sidelined for months. Shortly after, Beck was linked with a move away from the club after considering his future away from the club. However, Beck announced his intention to stay at the club Two months later on 3 February 2008, Beck made his first team return in a 4–0 loss against Schalke 04. In his second season at Stuttgart, Beck made eighteen appearances for the club. 1899 Hoffenheim After failing to secure a place in the starting eleven for Stuttgart, Beck decided to leave the club to look for a new challenge. 1899 Hoffenheim made a bid for Beck, which was rejected. Ralf Rangnick was keen to sign Beck and eventually he moved to Hoffenheim for a transfer fee about €3 million on a four-year-deal in July 2008. Beck made his debut for Hoffenheim in a DFB-Pokal match as they won 1–0 against Chemnitz on 10 August 2008. Beck made his league debut for Hoffenheim, playing as a right-back, in a 3–0 win against Energie Cottbus on 16 August 2008. After joining, Beck later established himself as a key member of the side and got more playing time than at Stuttgart. After missing three matches due to a gastrointestinal virus, Beck made his return to the first team in the last game of the season, in a 3–2 win over Schalke 04. In his first season, Beck made 30 league appearances and had two assists. Only Tobias Weis and Demba Ba were on more missions over the course of the season. In the 2009–10 season, Beck continued to remain as right-back in the first team. Beck suffered a hamstring injury that kept him out for six weeks. Beck made his first team return, playing as a right-back, in a 2–0 loss against Bayern Munich on 15 January 2010. Once again, Beck suffered a knee injury, which kept him out for aboutfive weeks. Beck made his first team return, coming on as a substitute for Christian Eichner in 72nd minute, in a 0–0 draw against Nürnberg on 20 March 2010. In his second season at the club, Beck made twenty-five appearances for the club. In the 2010–11 season, Beck was announced as new captain for the club, succeeding former captain Per Nilsson, who left for Nürnberg. Upon learning this, Beck quoted: "I'm happy about having been given this responsibility. But my priority remains to work for the success of the club and nothing else."|Beck on being a captain."'' Beck also stated being captain is big responsibility on and off the pitch. He played his first match as captain on 14 August 2010 as the club won 4–0 in the DFB-Pokal first round encounter against Hansa Rostock. Beck also captained his first league match seven days later, in a 4–1 win over Werder Bremen in the opening game of the season. Beck was almost ever present in the 2010–11 season, making thirty-three appearances, having missed only one game due to suspension after being booked five times during the season. In May 2011, Hoffenheim 1899 claimed Juventus made an approach for Beck as the Italian side held a long-term interest in Beck. But Juventus' interests in Beck were put back on hold after Luigi Del Neri was sacked at Juventus. Hoffenheim accepted a bid for Beck from Juventus but however the move was put off by Hoffenheim's evaluation of the 24-year-old. Afterwards, Juventus were not interested in signing Beck and he was expected to play next season. In the 2011–12 season, Beck continued to be in first team and retained his captaincy. On 14 October 2011, Beck extended his deal with Hoffenheim by a further two years to 2014. In November 2011, Beck made only one appearance due to a yellow card suspension and suffering a calf injury. Beck scored his first goal for the club in a 3–2 loss against Nürnberg on 28 April 2012. Beck made 31 appearances and scored once in the 2011–12 season. Ahead of the 2012–13 season, Beck announced his intention to voluntarily resign as captain and the newly signed Tim Wiese succeeded him as captain. After not being included in a squad against Frankfurt on 1 September 2012, Beck made his first team return on 23 September 2012, in a 3–1 win over Hannover 96. However, following Wiese's injury, Beck was captain for the match against Nürnberg on 28 November 2012, which they lost 4–2. In the wake of Markus Babbel's sacking, Beck criticised Babbel after disagreements. After Wiese was stripped of the captaincy, Beck was permanently given the captaincy. Beck scored his first goal of the season in a 2–2 draw against Wolfsburg on 13 April 2013. Beck made 31 appearances and scored once in the 2012–13 season in which he helped the club survive relegation. In the 2013–14 season, Beck continued to make an impressive display in the pre-season friendly matches, so Beck remained captain for another season under the new management of Markus Gisdol. Beck then scored his first goal of the season, in a 3–0 win over Hamburg on 1 February 2014. During a match against Mainz 05 on 15 March 2014, which Hoffenheim lost 4–2, Beck unintentionally knocked the cameraman, causing him to become unconscious and resulting him to go on hospital. With his contract expiring in the summer, Beck was linked a move away from Hoffenheim, prompting the club's management to issue an ultimatum to sign a new contract until April. Eventually, Beck signed a contract with the club, keeping him until 2017. Beck was almost ever present in the 2013–14 season, making thirty-three appearances. In the 2014–15 season, Beck continued to remain the club's captain. Beck was almost ever present in the 2014–15 season, making thirty-three appearances, having missed one game, due to suspension after being booked five times during the season. Beşiktaş On 4 July 2015, Beck signed three-and-one-year contract with Turkish club Beşiktaş. Return to VfB Stuttgart On 31 August 2017, Beck returned to VfB Stuttgart. In June 2019, the club announced that Beck will leave Stuttgart after the end of his contract. Eupen On 4 July 2019, Beck joined K.A.S. Eupen. International career Beck was eligible for Germany and Russia. On 21 February 2007, he played his first game for the U21 Squad against Italy, having previously played three games for the U19 and U18 of the DFB. Beck then scored his first Germany U21 goal in a friendly match, in a 2–2 draw against Republic of Ireland U21 on 21 August 2007. Due to his good performance for Hoffenheim, Beck was called up on 5 February 2009 for the Germany national football team and made his debut against Norway in Düsseldorf. His debut against Norway also earned his former club, Stuttgart, 500,000 € extra as a result of an activated clause. His largest international success was the win of the UEFA European Under-21 Championships 2009 in Sweden under manager Horst Hrubesch. He scored the only goal against Italy U21 to send Germany to the final. He played the full 90 minutes against England U21 in the final and helped the team to keep a clean sheet in the 4–0 win. Beck was included on the 30-man preliminary roster for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, but did not make it to the final 23 man squad by Joachim Löw as he favoured Dennis Aogo and Holger Badstuber. He scored two goals against an Eppan U20 XI team in a warm-up game as a part of the preparations for the upcoming tournament. However these goals were not scored in a full international game so they are not counted as international caps or goals. After being left out of the squad, Beck believed his exclusion from the squad would help accelerate his development as a person and a footballer. Career statistics Honours VfB Stuttgart Bundesliga: 2006–07 Beşiktaş Süper Lig: 2015–16, 2016–17 Germany U21 UEFA European Under-21 Championship: 2009 References External links 1987 births Living people Sportspeople from Kemerovo Footballers from Kemerovo Oblast German men's footballers Germany men's under-21 international footballers Germany men's youth international footballers Germany men's international footballers Men's association football fullbacks Russian men's footballers Russian people of German descent German people of Russian descent Bundesliga players Regionalliga players VfB Stuttgart players VfB Stuttgart II players TSG 1899 Hoffenheim players Soviet emigrants to Germany Beşiktaş J.K. footballers K.A.S. Eupen players Süper Lig players Belgian Pro League players German expatriate men's footballers Expatriate men's footballers in Turkey Expatriate men's footballers in Belgium Russian and Soviet-German people German expatriate sportspeople in Belgium German expatriate sportspeople in Turkey People from Aalen Footballers from Stuttgart (region)
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas%20Beck%20%28footballer%29", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Andreas Beck (; born 13 March 1987) is a former professional footballer who played as a right-back. Born in the Soviet Union, he represented Germany at youth and senior levels.\n\nEarly life\nBeck was born in Kemerovo, USSR (now Russia). When he was three, his family emigrated to Germany. \"I will never forget that we lived in a caravan at first.\"Beck also has a brother named Arthur. Beck's grandmother resides in St. Petersburg, Russia.\n\nClub career\nVfB Stuttgart\nBeck started his football career at DJK-SG Wasseralfingen and SVH Köningsbronn before the age of 14. He then transferred to VfB Stuttgart and in 2005, Beck signed a professional contract with the club. The following year, Beck made his Bundesliga debut for Stuttgart on 11 February 2006 against Arminia Bielefeld. Five days later he experienced his European debut with a substitute appearance in the intermediate round of the UEFA cup against the Middlesbrough. The following week saw Beck signing a contract extension, keeping him until 2010.\n\nFollowing Andreas Hinkel's departure to Sevilla, Beck was promoted to the first team and was expected to replace Hinkel as a right-back. However, Beck failed to do so, with Ricardo Osorio establishing himself in the team, playing as a right-back throughout the 2006–07 season. At the end of the 2006–07 season, Beck had made four appearances for the club, as they won the Bundesliga for the first time since 1992.\n\nIn the 2007–08 season, Beck started the season being on the bench until he made his first appearance on matchday 10 coming on as a substitute for Yıldıray Baştürk in the 86th minute, in a 4–1 loss against Hamburg on 20 October 2007. Beck scored his first goal for Stuttgart in the next appearance on 27 October 2007 against Bayer Leverkusen which resulted in a 1–0 win for Stuttgart. Beck then played a vital role when he provided assists in two of the Champions League matches against Lyon and Rangers. But during a match against Rangers, Beck suffered a knee ligament injury and was sidelined for months. Shortly after, Beck was linked with a move away from the club after considering his future away from the club. However, Beck announced his intention to stay at the club Two months later on 3 February 2008, Beck made his first team return in a 4–0 loss against Schalke 04. In his second season at Stuttgart, Beck made eighteen appearances for the club.\n\n1899 Hoffenheim\nAfter failing to secure a place in the starting eleven for Stuttgart, Beck decided to leave the club to look for a new challenge. 1899 Hoffenheim made a bid for Beck, which was rejected. Ralf Rangnick was keen to sign Beck and eventually he moved to Hoffenheim for a transfer fee about €3 million on a four-year-deal in July 2008.\n\nBeck made his debut for Hoffenheim in a DFB-Pokal match as they won 1–0 against Chemnitz on 10 August 2008. Beck made his league debut for Hoffenheim, playing as a right-back, in a 3–0 win against Energie Cottbus on 16 August 2008. After joining, Beck later established himself as a key member of the side and got more playing time than at Stuttgart. After missing three matches due to a gastrointestinal virus, Beck made his return to the first team in the last game of the season, in a 3–2 win over Schalke 04. In his first season, Beck made 30 league appearances and had two assists. Only Tobias Weis and Demba Ba were on more missions over the course of the season.\n\nIn the 2009–10 season, Beck continued to remain as right-back in the first team. Beck suffered a hamstring injury that kept him out for six weeks. Beck made his first team return, playing as a right-back, in a 2–0 loss against Bayern Munich on 15 January 2010. Once again, Beck suffered a knee injury, which kept him out for aboutfive weeks. Beck made his first team return, coming on as a substitute for Christian Eichner in 72nd minute, in a 0–0 draw against Nürnberg on 20 March 2010. In his second season at the club, Beck made twenty-five appearances for the club.\n\nIn the 2010–11 season, Beck was announced as new captain for the club, succeeding former captain Per Nilsson, who left for Nürnberg. Upon learning this, Beck quoted: \"I'm happy about having been given this responsibility. But my priority remains to work for the success of the club and nothing else.\"|Beck on being a captain.\"'' Beck also stated being captain is big responsibility on and off the pitch. He played his first match as captain on 14 August 2010 as the club won 4–0 in the DFB-Pokal first round encounter against Hansa Rostock. Beck also captained his first league match seven days later, in a 4–1 win over Werder Bremen in the opening game of the season. Beck was almost ever present in the 2010–11 season, making thirty-three appearances, having missed only one game due to suspension after being booked five times during the season. In May 2011, Hoffenheim 1899 claimed Juventus made an approach for Beck as the Italian side held a long-term interest in Beck. But Juventus' interests in Beck were put back on hold after Luigi Del Neri was sacked at Juventus. Hoffenheim accepted a bid for Beck from Juventus but however the move was put off by Hoffenheim's evaluation of the 24-year-old. Afterwards, Juventus were not interested in signing Beck and he was expected to play next season.\n\nIn the 2011–12 season, Beck continued to be in first team and retained his captaincy. On 14 October 2011, Beck extended his deal with Hoffenheim by a further two years to 2014. In November 2011, Beck made only one appearance due to a yellow card suspension and suffering a calf injury. Beck scored his first goal for the club in a 3–2 loss against Nürnberg on 28 April 2012. Beck made 31 appearances and scored once in the 2011–12 season.\n\nAhead of the 2012–13 season, Beck announced his intention to voluntarily resign as captain and the newly signed Tim Wiese succeeded him as captain. After not being included in a squad against Frankfurt on 1 September 2012, Beck made his first team return on 23 September 2012, in a 3–1 win over Hannover 96. However, following Wiese's injury, Beck was captain for the match against Nürnberg on 28 November 2012, which they lost 4–2. In the wake of Markus Babbel's sacking, Beck criticised Babbel after disagreements. After Wiese was stripped of the captaincy, Beck was permanently given the captaincy. Beck scored his first goal of the season in a 2–2 draw against Wolfsburg on 13 April 2013. Beck made 31 appearances and scored once in the 2012–13 season in which he helped the club survive relegation.\n\nIn the 2013–14 season, Beck continued to make an impressive display in the pre-season friendly matches, so Beck remained captain for another season under the new management of Markus Gisdol. Beck then scored his first goal of the season, in a 3–0 win over Hamburg on 1 February 2014. During a match against Mainz 05 on 15 March 2014, which Hoffenheim lost 4–2, Beck unintentionally knocked the cameraman, causing him to become unconscious and resulting him to go on hospital. With his contract expiring in the summer, Beck was linked a move away from Hoffenheim, prompting the club's management to issue an ultimatum to sign a new contract until April. Eventually, Beck signed a contract with the club, keeping him until 2017. Beck was almost ever present in the 2013–14 season, making thirty-three appearances.\n\nIn the 2014–15 season, Beck continued to remain the club's captain. Beck was almost ever present in the 2014–15 season, making thirty-three appearances, having missed one game, due to suspension after being booked five times during the season.\n\nBeşiktaş\n\nOn 4 July 2015, Beck signed three-and-one-year contract with Turkish club Beşiktaş.\n\nReturn to VfB Stuttgart\nOn 31 August 2017, Beck returned to VfB Stuttgart. In June 2019, the club announced that Beck will leave Stuttgart after the end of his contract.\n\nEupen\nOn 4 July 2019, Beck joined K.A.S. Eupen.\n\nInternational career\nBeck was eligible for Germany and Russia.\n \nOn 21 February 2007, he played his first game for the U21 Squad against Italy, having previously played three games for the U19 and U18 of the DFB. Beck then scored his first Germany U21 goal in a friendly match, in a 2–2 draw against Republic of Ireland U21 on 21 August 2007.\n\nDue to his good performance for Hoffenheim, Beck was called up on 5 February 2009 for the Germany national football team and made his debut against Norway in Düsseldorf. His debut against Norway also earned his former club, Stuttgart, 500,000 € extra as a result of an activated clause.\n\nHis largest international success was the win of the UEFA European Under-21 Championships 2009 in Sweden under manager Horst Hrubesch. He scored the only goal against Italy U21 to send Germany to the final. He played the full 90 minutes against England U21 in the final and helped the team to keep a clean sheet in the 4–0 win.\n\nBeck was included on the 30-man preliminary roster for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, but did not make it to the final 23 man squad by Joachim Löw as he favoured Dennis Aogo and Holger Badstuber. He scored two goals against an Eppan U20 XI team in a warm-up game as a part of the preparations for the upcoming tournament. However these goals were not scored in a full international game so they are not counted as international caps or goals.\n\nAfter being left out of the squad, Beck believed his exclusion from the squad would help accelerate his development as a person and a footballer.\n\nCareer statistics\n\nHonours\nVfB Stuttgart\n Bundesliga: 2006–07\n\nBeşiktaş\nSüper Lig: 2015–16, 2016–17\n\nGermany U21\n UEFA European Under-21 Championship: 2009\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n \n \n\n1987 births\nLiving people\nSportspeople from Kemerovo\nFootballers from Kemerovo Oblast\nGerman men's footballers\nGermany men's under-21 international footballers\nGermany men's youth international footballers\nGermany men's international footballers\nMen's association football fullbacks\nRussian men's footballers\nRussian people of German descent\nGerman people of Russian descent\nBundesliga players\nRegionalliga players\nVfB Stuttgart players\nVfB Stuttgart II players\nTSG 1899 Hoffenheim players\nSoviet emigrants to Germany\nBeşiktaş J.K. footballers\nK.A.S. Eupen players\nSüper Lig players\nBelgian Pro League players\nGerman expatriate men's footballers\nExpatriate men's footballers in Turkey\nExpatriate men's footballers in Belgium\nRussian and Soviet-German people\nGerman expatriate sportspeople in Belgium\nGerman expatriate sportspeople in Turkey\nPeople from Aalen\nFootballers from Stuttgart (region)", "role": "assistant" } ]
Alexander Anderson (mathematician)
Alexander Anderson ( in Aberdeen – in Paris) was a Scottish mathematician. Life He was born in Aberdeen, possibly in 1582, according to a print which suggests he was aged 35 in 1617. It is unknown where he was educated, but it is likely that he initially studied writing and philosophy (the "belles lettres") in his home city of Aberdeen. He then went to the continent, and was a professor of mathematics in Paris by the start of the seventeenth century. There he published or edited, between the years 1612 and 1619, various geometric and algebraic tracts. He described himself as having "more wisdom than riches" in the dedication of Vindiciae Archimedis (1616). He was first cousin of David Anderson of Finshaugh, a celebrated mathematician, and David Anderson's daughter was the mother of mathematician James Gregory. Work He was selected by the executors of François Viète to revise and edit Viète's manuscript works. Viète died in 1603, and it is unclear if Anderson knew him, but his eminence was sufficient to attract the attention of the dead man's executors. Anderson corrected and expanded upon Viète's manuscripts, which extended known geometry to the new algebra, which used general symbols to represent quantities. Publications The known works of Anderson amount to six thin quarto volumes, and as the last of them was published in 1619, it is probable that the author died soon after that year, but the precise date is unknown. He wrote other works that have since been lost. From his last work it appears he wrote another piece, "A Treatise on the Mensuration of Solids," and copies of two other works, Ex. Math. and Stereometria Triangulorum Sphæricorum, were in the possession of Sir Alexander Hume until the after the middle of the seventeenth century. 1612: Supplementum Apollonii Redivivi 1615: Ad Angularum Sectionem Analytica Theoremata F. Vieta 1615: Pro Zetetico Apolloniani 1615: Francisci Vietae Fontenaeensis 1616: Vindiciae Archimedis 1619: Alexandri Andersoni Exercitationum Mathematicarum Decas Prima See also Marin Getaldić Denis Henrion Frans van Schooten References Attribution: Further reading 1580s births 1620 deaths People from Aberdeen Algebraists British geometers Scottish mathematicians 17th-century Scottish people Scottish scholars and academics Academic staff of the University of Paris 17th-century Scottish scientists 17th-century Scottish mathematicians
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Alexander Anderson (mathematician)", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Alexander Anderson ( in Aberdeen – in Paris) was a Scottish mathematician.\n\nLife\nHe was born in Aberdeen, possibly in 1582, according to a print which suggests he was aged 35 in 1617. It is unknown where he was educated, but it is likely that he initially studied writing and philosophy (the \"belles lettres\") in his home city of Aberdeen.\n\nHe then went to the continent, and was a professor of mathematics in Paris by the start of the seventeenth century. There he published or edited, between the years 1612 and 1619, various geometric and algebraic tracts. He described himself as having \"more wisdom than riches\" in the dedication of Vindiciae Archimedis (1616).\n\nHe was first cousin of David Anderson of Finshaugh, a celebrated mathematician, and David Anderson's daughter was the mother of mathematician James Gregory.\n\nWork\nHe was selected by the executors of François Viète to revise and edit Viète's manuscript works. Viète died in 1603, and it is unclear if Anderson knew him, but his eminence was sufficient to attract the attention of the dead man's executors. Anderson corrected and expanded upon Viète's manuscripts, which extended known geometry to the new algebra, which used general symbols to represent quantities.\n\nPublications\nThe known works of Anderson amount to six thin quarto volumes, and as the last of them was published in 1619, it is probable that the author died soon after that year, but the precise date is unknown. He wrote other works that have since been lost. From his last work it appears he wrote another piece, \"A Treatise on the Mensuration of Solids,\" and copies of two other works, Ex. Math. and Stereometria Triangulorum Sphæricorum, were in the possession of Sir Alexander Hume until the after the middle of the seventeenth century.\n\n1612: Supplementum Apollonii Redivivi\n1615: Ad Angularum Sectionem Analytica Theoremata F. Vieta\n1615: Pro Zetetico Apolloniani\n1615: Francisci Vietae Fontenaeensis\n1616: Vindiciae Archimedis\n1619: Alexandri Andersoni Exercitationum Mathematicarum Decas Prima\n\nSee also\n Marin Getaldić\n Denis Henrion\n Frans van Schooten\n\nReferences\n\nAttribution:\n\nFurther reading\n \n\n1580s births\n1620 deaths\nPeople from Aberdeen\nAlgebraists\nBritish geometers\nScottish mathematicians\n17th-century Scottish people\nScottish scholars and academics\nAcademic staff of the University of Paris\n17th-century Scottish scientists\n17th-century Scottish mathematicians", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert%20Hughes
Hubert Benjamin Hughes (15 October 1933 – 7 May 2021) was an Anguillan politician. He was the island territory's Chief Minister from 16 March 1994 to 6 March 2000, and again between February 2010 and April 2015. He had stated his intention to lead the island to separation from the United Kingdom. This is despite the fact that European Union assistance funds, and visa-free entry to the US, Canada, EU and islands in the French and Dutch Caribbean such as Saint Martin would stop. References External links Anguilla Express: Economy first major task – Chief Minister-elect Hubert Hughes 1933 births 2021 deaths Chief Ministers of Anguilla Anguilla Progressive Movement politicians Anguillan independence activists
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert%20Hughes", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Hubert Benjamin Hughes (15 October 1933 – 7 May 2021) was an Anguillan politician. He was the island territory's Chief Minister from 16 March 1994 to 6 March 2000, and again between February 2010 and April 2015.\n\nHe had stated his intention to lead the island to separation from the United Kingdom. This is despite the fact that European Union assistance funds, and visa-free entry to the US, Canada, EU and islands in the French and Dutch Caribbean such as Saint Martin would stop.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nAnguilla Express: Economy first major task – Chief Minister-elect Hubert Hughes\n\n1933 births\n2021 deaths\nChief Ministers of Anguilla\nAnguilla Progressive Movement politicians\nAnguillan independence activists", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%C3%A0n%20g%C3%A1o
The đàn gáo (chữ Nôm: 彈𣂋) ("coconut shell fiddle") is a bowed string instrument, a part of the traditional Vietnamese orchestra. It is similar to the đàn hồ. The instrument originated from South Viet Nam, and is used in entertainment contexts. It can be played alone, as part of an orchestra, or to accompany cải lương (Vietnamese folk opera). The instrument’s name can be broken down as “đàn” meaning string instrument, and “gáo” literally translated as an aged coconut shell used as a scooper. The đàn gáo is most closely related to the fiddle in Anglo-American culture, and the yehu and banhu in Chinese culture. Construction and design The resonator of the đàn gáo is the coconut shell covered by leather. The neck extends from the coconut shell without frets. The head of the neck bends back and offers string adjusters. There are only two strings for this instrument, and the material is silk, which today can also be substituted with metal. The bow can be made of wood or bamboo, and the strings are also made of silk. By gliding the bow along the strings of the đàn gáo, high and full pitched sounds are produced. The sounds can be played with varying ranges of loudness as well as pitch range as long as the interval between the strings is a perfect fifth. The đàn gáo, if not specifically described this way, can also be mixed up for other Vietnamese orchestral instruments- the đàn nhị and đàn ho. These primarily differ in the shape and material of the resonator, and the sound produced. See also Banhu Cải lương Đàn nhị Yehu - Chinese instrument in the huqin family, similarly made with coconut Music of Vietnam References Vietnamese musical instruments Bowed instruments Necked bowl lutes Huqin family instruments
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%C3%A0n%20g%C3%A1o", "role": "user" }, { "content": "The đàn gáo (chữ Nôm: 彈𣂋) (\"coconut shell fiddle\") is a bowed string instrument, a part of the traditional Vietnamese orchestra. It is similar to the đàn hồ. The instrument originated from South Viet Nam, and is used in entertainment contexts. It can be played alone, as part of an orchestra, or to accompany cải lương (Vietnamese folk opera). The instrument’s name can be broken down as “đàn” meaning string instrument, and “gáo” literally translated as an aged coconut shell used as a scooper. The đàn gáo is most closely related to the fiddle in Anglo-American culture, and the yehu and banhu in Chinese culture.\n\nConstruction and design\n\nThe resonator of the đàn gáo is the coconut shell covered by leather. The neck extends from the coconut shell without frets. The head of the neck bends back and offers string adjusters. There are only two strings for this instrument, and the material is silk, which today can also be substituted with metal. The bow can be made of wood or bamboo, and the strings are also made of silk. By gliding the bow along the strings of the đàn gáo, high and full pitched sounds are produced. The sounds can be played with varying ranges of loudness as well as pitch range as long as the interval between the strings is a perfect fifth.\n\nThe đàn gáo, if not specifically described this way, can also be mixed up for other Vietnamese orchestral instruments- the đàn nhị and đàn ho. These primarily differ in the shape and material of the resonator, and the sound produced.\n\nSee also\nBanhu\nCải lương\nĐàn nhị\nYehu - Chinese instrument in the huqin family, similarly made with coconut\nMusic of Vietnam\n\nReferences\n\nVietnamese musical instruments\nBowed instruments\nNecked bowl lutes\nHuqin family instruments", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Paltz%20High%20School
New Paltz Central High School is situated in the town of New Paltz in New York, on South Putt Corners Road. It serves students in grades 9-12 from the New Paltz Central School District, which serves most of New Paltz and Gardiner, New York, as well as parts of several other towns adjacent. Academics The original structure was completed during 1968, at which time the average class size was significantly smaller than for later decades. In both years 2004 and 2017 new wings were added. New Paltz High School is known for academic success. The school has a variety of Advanced Placement courses that offer college credits. These classes are taken by students who want to challenge themselves in history, science, math, or literature and writing. Due to the high school's small size, students receive much one-on-one attention, increasing their academic success. Athletics The school mascot is the Huguenot. Historically the Huguenots were a group of French Calvinists who, while escaping religious persecution, played a major part in the European settlement of New Paltz. New Paltz High School has several athletic teams with sports in both junior varsity and varsity class. Teams are raised from the school population and are directed by faculty and staff. The teams include football, baseball, softball, basketball, soccer, track and field, gymnastics, volleyball, cross country, swimming, Nordic skiing, wrestling, tennis, lacrosse, and golf. The New Paltz football team has won 3 section titles. The New Paltz track and field program has also had championship success, winning Section 9 Class B titles during 2010 (tying with Ellenville high school), 2011 and 2012 as well as being the 2011 and 2012 Mid-Hudson Athletic League champions. The cross country program has had title wins in the Mid-Hudson Athletic League and sections frequently over many years. The men's varsity swim team also placed 2nd in the New York state championship meet during 2010 at Buffalo, losing to Shenendehowa High School. The girls varsity swim team were the Section 9 champions in 2017. From the 1970s through the 1990s New Paltz had an elite wrestling program managed by coaches Kemble Matter and Frank Ciliberto. During the span from 1975 to 1993 New Paltz was the regional standard, winning 13 UCAL/MHAL titles and two section 9 titles (when section 9 included Rockland County). Other notable team wins were achieved at the Pascack Hills, NJ and Delaware Valley, PA invitational tournaments as well as the OSWOA tournament for the 1983-1984 season. Also during that season New Paltz scored second in the New York State Cup dual meet tournament, losing a narrow battle 27-25 to the eventual champions from Baldwin, a prolific Long Island wrestling school roughly 3 times as large as New Paltz. Each year the high school's physical education department hosts a dodge ball tournament - with both faculty and student players, and a pickleball tournament which sometimes includes separate competitions for badminton and ping-pong Technology During the 2005-2006 school year, school personnel developed their own television show called NPZ TV. The show was founded by English teacher Bill Zimmer and computer teacher Jen Cone. NPZ TV is used to deliver the school's daily announcements with two anchors and a lunch/weather/wellness person; the broadcast also includes brief shows about school sports, local news and student interests that are created by the advanced graphics and video editing for production class taught by technology teacher Brennan Woods. Participating students arrive at the school early to assist with the show, both as the anchors and to work with the technology in the control room to insert green screen backgrounds and videos directly into the teleprompter. Notable alumni Charles Davis, CBS NFL color analyst, NFL draft expert and voice of the Madden Football game. Ronald Enroth (born 1938), Professor of Sociology at Westmont College. Ebony Obsidian, actress Floyd Patterson, professional boxer Keith Schiller, former director of Oval Office operations. References External links School website Public high schools in New York (state) Schools in Ulster County, New York School buildings completed in 1968 New Paltz, New York
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Paltz%20High%20School", "role": "user" }, { "content": "New Paltz Central High School is situated in the town of New Paltz in New York, on South Putt Corners Road. It serves students in grades 9-12 from the New Paltz Central School District, which serves most of New Paltz and Gardiner, New York, as well as parts of several other towns adjacent.\n\nAcademics\n\nThe original structure was completed during 1968, at which time the average class size was significantly smaller than for later decades. In both years 2004 and 2017 new wings were added.\n\nNew Paltz High School is known for academic success. The school has a variety of Advanced Placement courses that offer college credits. These classes are taken by students who want to challenge themselves in history, science, math, or literature and writing. Due to the high school's small size, students receive much one-on-one attention, increasing their academic success.\n\nAthletics\nThe school mascot is the Huguenot. Historically the Huguenots were a group of French Calvinists who, while escaping religious persecution, played a major part in the European settlement of New Paltz.\n\nNew Paltz High School has several athletic teams with sports in both junior varsity and varsity class. Teams are raised from the school population and are directed by faculty and staff. The teams include football, baseball, softball, basketball, soccer, track and field, gymnastics, volleyball, cross country, swimming, Nordic skiing, wrestling, tennis, lacrosse, and golf. The New Paltz football team has won 3 section titles. The New Paltz track and field program has also had championship success, winning Section 9 Class B titles during 2010 (tying with Ellenville high school), 2011 and 2012 as well as being the 2011 and 2012 Mid-Hudson Athletic League champions. The cross country program has had title wins in the Mid-Hudson Athletic League and sections frequently over many years. The men's varsity swim team also placed 2nd in the New York state championship meet during 2010 at Buffalo, losing to Shenendehowa High School. The girls varsity swim team were the Section 9 champions in 2017.\n\nFrom the 1970s through the 1990s New Paltz had an elite wrestling program managed by coaches Kemble Matter and Frank Ciliberto. During the span from 1975 to 1993 New Paltz was the regional standard, winning 13 UCAL/MHAL titles and two section 9 titles (when section 9 included Rockland County). Other notable team wins were achieved at the Pascack Hills, NJ and Delaware Valley, PA invitational tournaments as well as the OSWOA tournament for the 1983-1984 season. Also during that season New Paltz scored second in the New York State Cup dual meet tournament, losing a narrow battle 27-25 to the eventual champions from Baldwin, a prolific Long Island wrestling school roughly 3 times as large as New Paltz.\n\nEach year the high school's physical education department hosts a dodge ball tournament - with both faculty and student players, and a pickleball tournament which sometimes includes separate competitions for badminton and ping-pong\n\nTechnology\nDuring the 2005-2006 school year, school personnel developed their own television show called NPZ TV. The show was founded by English teacher Bill Zimmer and computer teacher Jen Cone. NPZ TV is used to deliver the school's daily announcements with two anchors and a lunch/weather/wellness person; the broadcast also includes brief shows about school sports, local news and student interests that are created by the advanced graphics and video editing for production class taught by technology teacher Brennan Woods. Participating students arrive at the school early to assist with the show, both as the anchors and to work with the technology in the control room to insert green screen backgrounds and videos directly into the teleprompter.\n\nNotable alumni\n\n Charles Davis, CBS NFL color analyst, NFL draft expert and voice of the Madden Football game.\n Ronald Enroth (born 1938), Professor of Sociology at Westmont College.\n Ebony Obsidian, actress\n Floyd Patterson, professional boxer\n Keith Schiller, former director of Oval Office operations.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n School website\n\nPublic high schools in New York (state)\nSchools in Ulster County, New York\nSchool buildings completed in 1968\nNew Paltz, New York", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard%20Wagner%20%28physician%29
Gerhard Wagner (18 August 1888 – 25 March 1939) was the first Reich Doctors' Leader (Reichsärzteführer) in the time of Nazi Germany. Life Pre-Nazism Born a surgery professor's son, he studied medicine in Munich and served as a doctor at the front in World War I (1914–1918). Among other things, he was awarded the Iron Cross, first class. From 1919, Wagner ran his own medical practice in Munich, while also being a member of two Freikorps between 1921 and 1923, von Epp and Oberland. Just because of his Upper Silesian origins, Wagner stayed on (till 1924) as leader of the Upper Silesia German Community Associations (Deutschtumsverbände Oberschlesiens) and was chef of Munich´s division of the Loyal Upper Silesians („Verbände heimattreuer Oberschlesier"). In May 1929, he switched to the NSDAP. 1930s Wagner was co-founder and as of 1932 leader of the National Socialist German Doctors' League, and also functioned from 1933 as a member of the Palatinate Landtag. A year later, in 1934, Wagner was ordered to the position of Reich Doctors' Leader. Moreover, he was "The Führer's Commissioner for National Health". By 1933, he had already become leader of the Main Office for National Health, and in 1936 came his appointment as that office's Main Service Leader (Hauptdienstleiter). In December 1935, Wagner became leader of the Reichsärztekammer (Physicians' Chamber). At the 1936 Nuremberg Rally, he discussed the racial laws. As was typical of Nazi propaganda at this time, this was more in terms of the pure and growing race than the evil of the Jews. A shift in his political career came in 1937 when he was promoted to SA Obergruppenführer. Meanwhile, he was also commissioner for collegiate issues on Rudolf Hess's staff. Wagner died of cancer in 1939. His successor was Leonardo Conti. References External links 1888 births 1939 deaths People from Chorzów Physicians from the Province of Silesia Members of the Reichstag of Nazi Germany German Army personnel of World War I 20th-century Freikorps personnel Nazi Party officials Physicians in the Nazi Party Sturmabteilung officers Deaths from cancer in Nazi Germany Proponents of scientific racism
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard%20Wagner%20%28physician%29", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Gerhard Wagner (18 August 1888 – 25 March 1939) was the first Reich Doctors' Leader (Reichsärzteführer) in the time of Nazi Germany.\n\nLife\n\nPre-Nazism \nBorn a surgery professor's son, he studied medicine in Munich and served as a doctor at the front in World War I (1914–1918). Among other things, he was awarded the Iron Cross, first class.\n\nFrom 1919, Wagner ran his own medical practice in Munich, while also being a member of two Freikorps between 1921 and 1923, von Epp and Oberland. Just because of his Upper Silesian origins, Wagner stayed on (till 1924) as leader of the Upper Silesia German Community Associations (Deutschtumsverbände Oberschlesiens) and was chef of Munich´s division of the Loyal Upper Silesians („Verbände heimattreuer Oberschlesier\"). In May 1929, he switched to the NSDAP.\n\n1930s \nWagner was co-founder and as of 1932 leader of the National Socialist German Doctors' League, and also functioned from 1933 as a member of the Palatinate Landtag. A year later, in 1934, Wagner was ordered to the position of Reich Doctors' Leader. Moreover, he was \"The Führer's Commissioner for National Health\". By 1933, he had already become leader of the Main Office for National Health, and in 1936 came his appointment as that office's Main Service Leader (Hauptdienstleiter).\n\nIn December 1935, Wagner became leader of the Reichsärztekammer (Physicians' Chamber). At the 1936 Nuremberg Rally, he discussed the racial laws. As was typical of Nazi propaganda at this time, this was more in terms of the pure and growing race than the evil of the Jews. A shift in his political career came in 1937 when he was promoted to SA Obergruppenführer. Meanwhile, he was also commissioner for collegiate issues on Rudolf Hess's staff. Wagner died of cancer in 1939. His successor was Leonardo Conti.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\n1888 births\n1939 deaths\nPeople from Chorzów\nPhysicians from the Province of Silesia\nMembers of the Reichstag of Nazi Germany\nGerman Army personnel of World War I\n20th-century Freikorps personnel\nNazi Party officials\nPhysicians in the Nazi Party\nSturmabteilung officers\nDeaths from cancer in Nazi Germany\nProponents of scientific racism", "role": "assistant" } ]
Families and Friends of Lesbians and Gays
Families and Friends of Lesbians and Gays (FFLAG) is a voluntary organisation and registered charity in the United Kingdom which offers support to parents and their lesbian/gay/bisexual and transgender children. They have a national telephone helpline (0300 688 0368 <changed in 2020>) as well as several parent support groups and are a support group recognised by the UK Government. FFLAG also works outside the UK with other LGBT family support organisations particularly in Europe. Formation Rose Robertson The organisation has its roots in 1965 when Rose Robertson (1916 - 2011), a former World War II SOE agent set up Parents Enquiry, inspired by events she had seen whilst working with the resistance in occupied France. Rose was herself heterosexual, her maiden name being Laimbeer, Rose had married George Robertson in 1954, he died in 1984. Rose launched Britain's first helpline to assist, inform and support parents and their lesbian, gay and bisexual sons and daughters three years before the Sexual Offences Act 1967 decriminalised homosexuality in England and Wales in a period of severe Homophobia, when LGBT+ people regularly experienced prejudice, harassment and oppression. Rose used her own home and money to help young LGBT+ people in need. Parents Enquiry Rose Robertson was receiving over 100 phone calls and letters a week from highly distressed gay teenagers, many of whom had self harmed. Rose often mediated between parents mostly successfully, who had rejected their own sons and daughters due to sexuality. Despite being verbally abused, physically attacked, targeted with extreme homophobia and Right-wing extremists, arson attacks on her home, excrement through the letterbox, abusive phone calls and hate mail she did not give up and persevered until her death in helping young LGBT+ people. Obituaries to Rose appeared in The Telegraph, The Guardian and The Pink Paper news papers and at the Peter Tatchell Foundation. The Manchester Parents Group had produced a video introduced by Sir Ian McKellen in 1990 in which Rose Robertson appeared, one of the last surviving VHS Video copies, although in worn condition was transferred by a volunteer to Mpeg video in 1999 for preservation. National Movement The helpline that Rose created ran for three decades and Rose's work inspired parents in various parts of the country to set up their own groups and helplines. Among the first were those in Manchester, Leicester and Scotland. By 1993 it was felt that there was a need for a national organisation to act as an umbrella group to support and co-ordinate the local groups and to respond to the increasing request for information from the media, social services and other organisations and individuals. FFLAG 'Friends and Families of Lesbians and Gays' (FFLAG) was the successor to Parents Enquiry set up in 1993, and became a registered charity in 2000 with aims were to support parents and their lesbian, gay and bisexual daughters and sons and to campaign for human and civil rights. FFLAG is a totally voluntary organisation; it has no statutory funding and is totally dependent on donations. The equal rights legislation FFLAG has campaigned for include: The repeal of section 28 Equalisation of the age of consent Lifting the ban on gays and lesbians in the armed forces Adoption rights for same sex couples Civil partnership Same sex marriage In 2000 FFLAG joined with parent's organisations in Italy, France, Belgium, Germany and Spain to set up EuroFFLAG, now followed by the European Network of Parents of LGBTQI children. FFLAG's vision FFLAG's vision: is a world free from ignorance and prejudice about sexuality and gender identity in which LGBT+ people are valued and respected Their mission: To support families with LGBT+ members To be the national umbrella organisation for affiliated groups supporting families with LGBT+ members To support and develop a network of local family support groups To provide direct individual support where local family support groups are not involved To educate and advocate for a world in line with their vision To work with other organisations to achieve their vision To ensure that they have the necessary resources to achieve their mission Support Resources FFLAG's website provides information about helpful resources including their downloadable booklets. The booklet 'A Guide For Family & Friends' looks at issues and emotions that parents and families may face when their LGB loved one comes out. Another booklet 'How Do I Tell My Parents?' considers ways of telling parents as well as discussing the issues that often worry lesbian, gay and bisexual people when they want to talk to their family about their sexuality. The booklets, originally written by Rose Robertson, were rewritten by FFLAG Parents in 2012 and updated again in 2017. The booklets contain quotes and experiences from parents and LGB young people. FFLAG has found that many of the enquiries currently received are from parents of trans youngsters. They have decided to extend their remit to include support for family and friends of trans people. On 31 March 2018, coinciding with Trans Visibility Day, FFLAG launched its new booklet 'A Guide For Family & Friends - information for family and friends with a transgender member'. There are plans for a second new booklet 'How Do I Tell My Parents? - I'm transgender' to be available later this year. Trustees President of the organisation is Jenny Broughton, Hugh Fell is Chair of Trustee's alongside fellow Trustee's Sorrel Atkinson, Janet Kent, Hilary Beynon and Sarah Furley. Patrons Long standing Patrons of the organisation are Baron Cashman of Limehouse, Angela Mason CBE, Sir Ian McKellen CH CBE, Baroness Massey of Darwen, Professor Ian Rivers, Deidre Sanders and Peter Tatchell. See also PFLAG References External links 'Parents Talking', free online video resource, produced 1990 LGBT organisations in the United Kingdom LGBT family and peer support groups Social welfare charities based in the United Kingdom 1993 establishments in the United Kingdom Organizations established in 1993
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Families and Friends of Lesbians and Gays", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Families and Friends of Lesbians and Gays (FFLAG) is a voluntary organisation and registered charity in the United Kingdom which offers support to parents and their lesbian/gay/bisexual and transgender children. They have a national telephone helpline (0300 688 0368 <changed in 2020>) as well as several parent support groups and are a support group recognised by the UK Government. FFLAG also works outside the UK with other LGBT family support organisations particularly in Europe.\n\nFormation\n\nRose Robertson\nThe organisation has its roots in 1965 when Rose Robertson (1916 - 2011), a former World War II SOE agent set up Parents Enquiry, inspired by events she had seen whilst working with the resistance in occupied France. Rose was herself heterosexual, her maiden name being Laimbeer, Rose had married George Robertson in 1954, he died in 1984. Rose launched Britain's first helpline to assist, inform and support parents and their lesbian, gay and bisexual sons and daughters three years before the Sexual Offences Act 1967 decriminalised homosexuality in England and Wales in a period of severe Homophobia, when LGBT+ people regularly experienced prejudice, harassment and oppression. Rose used her own home and money to help young LGBT+ people in need.\n\nParents Enquiry\n\nRose Robertson was receiving over 100 phone calls and letters a week from highly distressed gay teenagers, many of whom had self harmed. Rose often mediated between parents mostly successfully, who had rejected their own sons and daughters due to sexuality. Despite being verbally abused, physically attacked, targeted with extreme homophobia and Right-wing extremists, arson attacks on her home, excrement through the letterbox, abusive phone calls and hate mail she did not give up and persevered until her death in helping young LGBT+ people.\n\nObituaries to Rose appeared in The Telegraph, The Guardian and The Pink Paper news papers and at the Peter Tatchell Foundation. The Manchester Parents Group had produced a video introduced by Sir Ian McKellen in 1990 in which Rose Robertson appeared, one of the last surviving VHS Video copies, although in worn condition was transferred by a volunteer to Mpeg video in 1999 for preservation.\n\nNational Movement\n\nThe helpline that Rose created ran for three decades and Rose's work inspired parents in various parts of the country to set up their own groups and helplines. Among the first were those in Manchester, Leicester and Scotland.\nBy 1993 it was felt that there was a need for a national organisation to act as an umbrella group to support and co-ordinate the local groups and to respond to the increasing request for information from the media, social services and other organisations and individuals.\n\nFFLAG\n\n'Friends and Families of Lesbians and Gays' (FFLAG) was the successor to Parents Enquiry set up in 1993, and became a registered charity in 2000 with aims were to support parents and their lesbian, gay and bisexual daughters and sons and to campaign for human and civil rights. FFLAG is a totally voluntary organisation; it has no statutory funding and is totally dependent on donations.\n\nThe equal rights legislation FFLAG has campaigned for include:\n\n The repeal of section 28\n Equalisation of the age of consent\n Lifting the ban on gays and lesbians in the armed forces\n Adoption rights for same sex couples\n Civil partnership\n Same sex marriage\n\nIn 2000 FFLAG joined with parent's organisations in Italy, France, Belgium, Germany and Spain to set up EuroFFLAG, now followed by the European Network of Parents of LGBTQI children.\n\nFFLAG's vision\n\nFFLAG's vision: is a world free from ignorance and prejudice about sexuality and gender identity in which LGBT+ people are valued and respected\n\nTheir mission:\n\nTo support families with LGBT+ members\n\n To be the national umbrella organisation for affiliated groups supporting families with LGBT+ members\n To support and develop a network of local family support groups\n To provide direct individual support where local family support groups are not involved\n To educate and advocate for a world in line with their vision\n To work with other organisations to achieve their vision\n To ensure that they have the necessary resources to achieve their mission\n\nSupport Resources\n\nFFLAG's website provides information about helpful resources including their downloadable booklets. The booklet 'A Guide For Family & Friends' looks at issues and emotions that parents and families may face when their LGB loved one comes out. Another booklet 'How Do I Tell My Parents?' considers ways of telling parents as well as discussing the issues that often worry lesbian, gay and bisexual people when they want to talk to their family about their sexuality. The booklets, originally written by Rose Robertson, were rewritten by FFLAG Parents in 2012 and updated again in 2017. The booklets contain quotes and experiences from parents and LGB young people.\n\nFFLAG has found that many of the enquiries currently received are from parents of trans youngsters. They have decided to extend their remit to include support for family and friends of trans people.\n\nOn 31 March 2018, coinciding with Trans Visibility Day, FFLAG launched its new booklet 'A Guide For Family & Friends - information for family and friends with a transgender member'.\n\nThere are plans for a second new booklet 'How Do I Tell My Parents? - I'm transgender' to be available later this year.\n\nTrustees\n\nPresident of the organisation is Jenny Broughton, Hugh Fell is Chair of Trustee's alongside fellow Trustee's Sorrel Atkinson, Janet Kent, Hilary Beynon and Sarah Furley.\n\nPatrons\n\nLong standing Patrons of the organisation are Baron Cashman of Limehouse, Angela Mason CBE, Sir Ian McKellen CH CBE, Baroness Massey of Darwen, Professor Ian Rivers, Deidre Sanders and Peter Tatchell.\n\nSee also\nPFLAG\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n'Parents Talking', free online video resource, produced 1990\n\nLGBT organisations in the United Kingdom\nLGBT family and peer support groups\nSocial welfare charities based in the United Kingdom\n1993 establishments in the United Kingdom\nOrganizations established in 1993", "role": "assistant" } ]
El Gouna
( , "the Lagoon") is an Egyptian tourist city created in 1990, and is owned and developed by Samih Sawiris' Orascom Development,. It is located on the Red Sea in the Red Sea Governorate of Egypt, north of Hurghada. It is part of the Red Sea Riviera, and a host city of the El Gouna Film Festival. El Gouna has 10 kilometers of coastline and consists of 20 islands surrounded by lagoons. The town is 25 kilometers away from the Hurghada International Airport. El Gouna buildings were designed by European and American architects to resemble traditional rural Egyptian architecture such as that found in the Egyptian Countryside and in Nubian villages. El Gouna specializes in water-sports. There are several beaches: including Zeytuna Beach () located on its own island, Mangroovy Beach, Moods Beach and other hotel beaches. There are three main areas in El Gouna, Downtown, Tamr Henna Square () and the Abu Tig Marina (). It also has El Gouna Mosque and a Coptic Orthodox Church; the Church of St. Mary and the Archangels. In 2017 an annual film festival was established, the El Gouna Film Festival. Founded by telecom billionaire Naguib Sawiris, El Gouna Film Festival was previously attended by globally prominent celebrities including Grey's Anatomy's Patrick Dempsey, Rambo's Sylvester Stallone and Midnight in Paris' Owen Wilson. Climate The weather in El Gouna is sunny all year long. Temperatures range between and . Humidity is 22% on average. Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as hot desert (BWh). See also Hurghada Red Sea Riviera Marsa Alam Sahl Hasheesh List of cities and towns in Egypt References External links Official website Hotels in Egypt Hurghada Seaside resorts in Egypt Tourism in Egypt Architecture in Egypt Red Sea Riviera Underwater diving sites in Egypt Underwater diving resorts
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "El Gouna", "role": "user" }, { "content": "( , \"the Lagoon\") is an Egyptian tourist city created in 1990, and is owned and developed by Samih Sawiris' Orascom Development,. It is located on the Red Sea in the Red Sea Governorate of Egypt, north of Hurghada. It is part of the Red Sea Riviera, and a host city of the El Gouna Film Festival.\n\nEl Gouna has 10 kilometers of coastline and consists of 20 islands surrounded by lagoons. The town is 25 kilometers away from the Hurghada International Airport.\n\nEl Gouna buildings were designed by European and American architects to resemble traditional rural Egyptian architecture such as that found in the Egyptian Countryside and in Nubian villages. El Gouna specializes in water-sports. There are several beaches: including Zeytuna Beach () located on its own island, Mangroovy Beach, Moods Beach and other hotel beaches. \n\nThere are three main areas in El Gouna, Downtown, Tamr Henna Square () and the Abu Tig Marina ().\n\nIt also has El Gouna Mosque and a Coptic Orthodox Church; the Church of St. Mary and the Archangels.\n\nIn 2017 an annual film festival was established, the El Gouna Film Festival. Founded by telecom billionaire Naguib Sawiris, El Gouna Film Festival was previously attended by globally prominent celebrities including Grey's Anatomy's Patrick Dempsey, Rambo's Sylvester Stallone and Midnight in Paris' Owen Wilson.\n\nClimate\nThe weather in El Gouna is sunny all year long. Temperatures range between and . Humidity is 22% on average.\nKöppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as hot desert (BWh).\n\nSee also\n Hurghada\n Red Sea Riviera\n Marsa Alam\n Sahl Hasheesh\n List of cities and towns in Egypt\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Official website\n\nHotels in Egypt\nHurghada\nSeaside resorts in Egypt\nTourism in Egypt\nArchitecture in Egypt\nRed Sea Riviera\nUnderwater diving sites in Egypt\nUnderwater diving resorts", "role": "assistant" } ]
Walter Verco
Sir Walter John George Verco (18 January 1907 – 10 March 2001) was a long-serving officer of arms who served in many capacities at the College of Arms in London. Biography Walter John George Verco was born in London on 18 January 1907. He was educated at Tollington Park Central School. In 1954 he was appointed Rouge Croix Pursuivant of Arms in Ordinary. He was on the Earl Marshal's staff for the funeral of King George VI in 1952, the Queen's coronation in 1953, the funeral of Sir Winston Churchill in 1965 and the Investiture of the Prince of Wales in 1969. He was also appointed Earl Marshal's Secretary in 1961. In 1960, Verco was promoted to Chester Herald of Arms in Ordinary. He was promoted to Norroy and Ulster King of Arms in 1971. He was appointed Surrey Herald Extraordinary in 1980, a post he held until May 1996. Verco was also Honorary Genealogist to the Royal Victorian Order. Honours and appointments Verco was appointed a member of the Royal Victorian Order in 1952. He was advanced to the degree of Commander of the same Order in 1970, and was made a Knight Commander in 1981. Coats of Arms designed by Walter Verco Mr Anthony Cronk, FSA, FRSA City of Ryde, New South Wales, Australia (1963). Arms See also Herald The Heraldry Society Officer of Arms References English officers of arms 1907 births 2001 deaths Knights Commander of the Royal Victorian Order
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Walter Verco", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Sir Walter John George Verco (18 January 1907 – 10 March 2001) was a long-serving officer of arms who served in many capacities at the College of Arms in London.\n\nBiography\nWalter John George Verco was born in London on 18 January 1907. He was educated at Tollington Park Central School.\n\nIn 1954 he was appointed Rouge Croix Pursuivant of Arms in Ordinary. He was on the Earl Marshal's staff for the funeral of King George VI in 1952, the Queen's coronation in 1953, the funeral of Sir Winston Churchill in 1965 and the Investiture of the Prince of Wales in 1969. He was also appointed Earl Marshal's Secretary in 1961. In 1960, Verco was promoted to Chester Herald of Arms in Ordinary. He was promoted to Norroy and Ulster King of Arms in 1971. He was appointed Surrey Herald Extraordinary in 1980, a post he held until May 1996. \n\nVerco was also Honorary Genealogist to the Royal Victorian Order.\n\nHonours and appointments\nVerco was appointed a member of the Royal Victorian Order in 1952. He was advanced to the degree of Commander of the same Order in 1970, and was made a Knight Commander in 1981.\n\nCoats of Arms designed by Walter Verco\n\nMr Anthony Cronk, FSA, FRSA\nCity of Ryde, New South Wales, Australia (1963).\n\nArms\n\nSee also\nHerald\nThe Heraldry Society\nOfficer of Arms\n\nReferences\n\nEnglish officers of arms\n1907 births\n2001 deaths\nKnights Commander of the Royal Victorian Order", "role": "assistant" } ]
Argentine cuisine
Argentine cuisine is described as a blending of cultures, from the Indigenous peoples of Argentina who focused on ingredients such as humita, potatoes, cassava, peppers, tomatoes, beans, and yerba mate, to Mediterranean influences brought by the Spanish during the colonial period. This led to cultural blending of criollos (gauchos and early Spanish settlers), Indigenous, and sub-Saharan African (due to slave trading) in the cuisine. Later, this was complemented by the significant influx of Italian and Spanish immigrants to Argentina during the 19th and 20th centuries, who incorporated plenty of their food customs and dishes such as pizzas, pasta and Spanish tortillas. Beef is a main part of the Argentine diet due to its vast production in the country's plains. In fact, Argentine annual consumption of beef has averaged per capita, approaching per capita during the 19th century; consumption averaged in 2007. Beyond asado (the Argentine barbecue), no other dish more genuinely matches the national identity. Nevertheless, the country's vast area, and its cultural diversity, have led to a local cuisine of various dishes. The great immigratory waves consequently imprinted a large influence in the Argentine cuisine, after all Argentina was the second country in the world with the most immigrants with 6.6 million, only second to the United States with 27 million, and ahead of other immigratory receptor countries such as Canada, Brazil, Australia, etc. Argentine people have a reputation for their love of eating. Social gatherings are commonly centred on sharing a meal. Invitations to have dinner at home are generally viewed as a symbol of friendship, warmth, and integration. Sunday family lunch is considered the most significant meal of the week, whose highlights often include asado or pasta. Another feature of Argentine cuisine is the preparation of homemade food such as French fries, patties, and pasta to celebrate a special occasion, to meet friends, or to honour someone. Homemade food is also seen as a way to show affection. Argentine restaurants include a great variety of cuisines, prices, and flavours. Large cities tend to host everything from high-end international cuisine to bodegones (inexpensive traditional hidden taverns), less stylish restaurants, and bars and canteens offering a range of dishes at affordable prices. History Amerindians lived in Argentina thousands of years before European explorers arrived. They mostly lived off of agriculture, as well as hunting, gathering, and fishing. Generally, the most common crops at this time were maize, potatoes, common beans, quinoa, and squash. The Argentinian native people could be divided in three groups based on their main modality of acquiring food: Hunters and gatherers who inhabited the Patagonia, Pampa, and Chaco regions. Farmers in the northwestern, Cuyo, and Cordoba's mountain regions who mostly grew squash, melons, and sweet potatoes. These groups had great influence from Andean-Incan tradition. Farmers in the Mesopotamia plains who belonged to the guaraní culture. Spanish settlers came to Argentina in 1536 and began building chacras where Amerindians would work to harvest the food. The arrival of Europeans brought Argentina into the Columbian Exchange, with ingredients from the Old World such as wheat, grapevine, figs, and several kinds of fruits being introduced to the country for the first time. It was also during the Spanish colonial period that cattle, goat, and pig farming were first introduced to Argentina, forming the foundation of the large Argentine beef industry. Between 1853 and 1955, 6.6 million immigrants came to live in Argentina from Europe (especially from Italy, Wales, Germany and Switzerland), the Near and Middle East, Russia and Japan. They contributed to the development of Argentine cuisine by encouraging the production of a wider variety of foods. They also bought lands where they built chacras and encouraged the growth of farming. By this point, Argentina was the country with most immigrants only second to the United States. During the XIX century, social standing was not associated with access to food. The price of beef, fish, and bird meats was cheap and accessible. However, grains and wheat was scarce so bread was very expensive. Some of the most common dishes during this time were soups with pork chunks, cooked partridge with legumes, spinach bread, beef slices, and lamb stew. The most prominent spices were garlic, parsley, and pepper. By the turn of the century, Argentine Cuisine was on a constant decline due to shortage of several ingredients. However, eating habits began to shift with further immigration which facilitated a gastronomic revolution. Most immigrants in the 1900s came from Italy and Spain. The Italians introduced pizza, as well as a variety of pasta dishes, including spaghetti and lasagna. British, German, Jewish, and other immigrants also settled in Argentina, all bringing their styles of cooking and favorite foods with them. The British brought tea, starting the tradition of teatime. All of these cultures influenced the dishes of Argentina. At this time, Italian cuisine began to really become a part of the cuisine. The neighborhood of La Boca, Buenos Aires, was the first big Italian hub, and from here plenty of traditionally Italian ingredients and eating habits expanded across the country. Different kinds of pastas such as long noodles or tallarines, gnocchi, ravioli, and cannelloni filled with ricotta cheese became popular along with pizza, fainá (Argentinian version of the traditional Italian Farinata), and milanesas. Different ways of preparing dishes were also adopted from Italian immigrants. These included the preparation of ice cream, fish, and shellfish. Spanish immigrants also left their mark, popularizing eating dry nuts, tomato sauce, pesto, olives, and olive oil. Additionally, deli stores started to incorporate traditional Iberian hams and sausages and great varieties of cheeses yet these were more limited. They were also mainly responsible for the massive diffusion of wine consumption, amongst some other habits. This occurred at the same time that other global products began arriving to Argentina such as saffron, cod, different varieties of beans, chickpeas, additional spices, chocolates, and tea. Typical foods Most regions of Argentina are known for their beef-oriented diet. Grilled meat from the asado (barbecue) is a staple, with steak and beef ribs especially common. The term asado itself refers to long strips of flank-cut beef ribs. Popular items such as chorizo (pork sausage), morcilla (blood sausage), chinchulines (chitterlings), mollejas (sweetbread), and other parts of the animal are also enjoyed. In Patagonia, however, lamb and chivito (goat) are eaten more frequently than beef. Whole lambs and goats are traditionally cooked over an open fire in a technique known as asado a la estaca. The most common condiment for asado is chimichurri, a sauce of herbs, garlic and vinegar. Unlike other preparations, Argentines do not include chilli in their version of chimichurri, but it does include a still-spicy, but milder form of red pepper, ají molido. Breaded and fried meats (milanesas) are used as snacks, in sandwiches, or eaten warm with mashed potatoes, purée. Empanadas, small pastries of meat, cheese, sweet corn, and many other fillings, are a common sight at parties and picnics, or as starters to a meal. They also vary in their looks, since they are folded with a traditional decorative edging called repulgue. The repulgue is not just aesthetic, but also serves as a way to identify the flavor of each empanada since they are traditionally ordered in dozens where people mix and match flavors. Empanadas are one of the most important staples of this country due to the wide array of varieties. The empanadas seen in Argentina today originate from a Spanish dish from the fifteenth century where travelers used easy-to-carry bread and filled it with a variety of ingredients. Eventually it evolved into a popular gastronomic item and spread across the world. Variations of empanadas both inside and outside of Argentina include the empanada gallega (Galician empanada), a large round meat pie made most commonly with tuna and mackerel (caballa in Spanish). Vegetables and salads are also eaten by Argentines; tomatoes, onions, lettuce, eggplants, squashes, and zucchini are common side dishes. Italian staples, such as pizza and pasta, are eaten as commonly as beef. Fideos (noodles), tallarines (fettuccine and tagliatelle), ñoquis (gnocchi) are traditionally served on the 29th day of the month, ravioles, and canelones (cannelloni) can be bought freshly made in many establishments in the larger cities. Italian-style ice cream is served in large parlours and even drive-through businesses. Other Italian staples are polenta, tarta pascualina, and pastafrola. In Chubut, the Welsh community is known for its teahouses, offering scones and torta galesa, which is rather like torta negra. Sandwiches de miga are delicate sandwiches made with crustless buttered English bread, very thinly sliced cured meat, cheese, and lettuce. They are often purchased from entrepreneurial home cooks and may be eaten for a light evening meal. A sweet paste, dulce de leche is another treasured national food, used to fill cakes and pancakes, spread over toasted bread for breakfast, or served with ice cream. In terms of sweets, Alfajores are another key staple. These are shortbread cookies sandwiched together with chocolate and dulce de leche or a fruit paste. The "policeman's" or "truck driver's" sweet is cheese with quince paste or dulce de membrillo. Dulce de batata is made of sweet potato/yam: this with cheese is the Martín Fierros sweet. Additionally, ice cream shops or heladerias are a big boom especially in the city of Buenos Aires. Argentinian ice cream comes in plenty of flavors (from fruits to cheesecake and even duce de leche flavors) and has a special smoothness as it follows a recipe very similar to that of Italian gelato. Apples, pears, peaches, kiwifruits, avocados, and plums are major exports. A traditional drink of Argentina is an infusion called mate (in Spanish, mate, with the accent on the first syllable [MAH-teh]). The name comes from the hollow gourd from which it is traditionally drunk. The mate (gourd) or other small cup is filled about three-quarters full with yerba mate, the dried leaves and twigs of the Ilex paraguariensis. The drink, which is rather bitter, is sipped through a metal or cane straw called a bombilla. Mate can be sweetened with sugar, or flavoured with aromatic herbs or dried orange peel. Hot but not boiling water is poured into the gourd, drunk, then the mate is refilled. The mate is nearly full of leaves, so each refill only makes a small drink, but many refills are possible before the yerba is spent. In small gatherings it is traditional for one mate to be passed from person to person, filled by whoever has the kettle. It is customary not to thank the refiller routinely; a final gracias (thank you) implies that the drinker has had enough. Drinking mate together is an important social ritual. Mate cocido is the same leaf, which rather than brewed is boiled and served, like tea, with milk and sugar to taste. Other typical drinks include wine (sometimes with soda water added); tea and coffee are equally important. Quilmes is the national brand of pale lager, named after the town of Quilmes, Buenos Aires, where it was first produced. Ingredients Argentine cuisine uses locally-grown cereals, grains, oil seeds, fruits and vegetables, as well as meat. Meat products have been dominant in the country since the 16th century. The country is regarded as a major beef, pork and poultry producing and consuming country. Certain areas such as those located in the south are usually engaged in activities involving sheep and lamb breeding, and shellfish, crustaceans, molluscs and salmonides fishing. The vast breeding activity involving any type of cattle has given rise to a highly developed dairy industry that includes products like cow, sheep and camelide, dulce de leche and yogurts. Some of the cheeses from Argentina are reggianito, sardo, provoleta and cremoso. Argentina can also be conceived as a great industry engaged in the production of dried fruits, olives, all types of oils and spices. In the Mesopotamia region, river fish such as silverside, surubi, dorado or boga are common. Regional differences Argentine cuisine is heavily influenced by its European roots and has regional variations. Asado, dulce de leche, empanadas, and yerba mate are found throughout Argentina. In many parts of the country, food is prepared differently and different kinds of foods are made; this includes to a smaller degree food from pre-Columbian times, as in the Northwest. Central region and la Pampa This region is composed of the city of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires Province, Córdoba, La Pampa, Santa Fe, and Entre Ríos. This region, especially within the larger urban areas of Buenos Aires, Rosario, and Córdoba welcomed European immigrants. These were especially of Italian and Spanish descent. Nevertheless, there was also a migratory flow of German, Swiss, and Middle Eastern immigrants arriving in Argentina. As a result, dishes such as pasta, pizza, pucheros (stews), croquetas (fritters), sauces, embutidos (sausages), and chicken and meat courses brought a wider scope of options to daily menus. The bread-making, dessert, pastry, and dairy industries have achieved considerable development in this region. The above-mentioned dishes have developed a distinctively Argentine nuance. That is why, for example, Argentine pasta includes a wide variety of dishes ranging from spaghetti, fusiles (fusilli), ñoquis (gnocchi), ravioli, cintas (pasta ribbons), and lasagne to the Argentine-made sorrentinos, agnolottis (agnolotti), canelones (cannelloni), and fetuchines (fettuccine). Pizza—made with very thin, and sometimes thick, high-rising doughs, with or without cheese, cooked in the oven or a la piedra (on a stone oven), and stuffed with numerous ingredients—is a dish which can be found in nearly every corner of the country. Buenos Aires, Rosario, and Córdoba also serve it with fainá, which is a chick pea-flour dough placed over the piece of pizza. People say that what makes Argentine pizza unique is the blending of Italian and Spanish cultures. At the turn of the 19th century, immigrants from Naples and Genoa opened the first pizza bars, though Spanish residents subsequently owned most of the pizza businesses. Bread products are consumed all around the country. The deeply rooted bread, pastry, and dessert-making tradition derive from blending the above nationalities' products. Bakeries sell not only a wide scope of bread, cookies, and cakes, but also pastries. The latter resembles a sort of roll pastry whose main dough ingredient is either butter or fat and which may be simple or stuffed with dulce de leche, milk, jam, crema pastel, or quince or apple jelly, among other fillings. The most popular type of pastry is said to be that of medialunas (singular: medialuna, literally half-moon, that is to say, crescent), based upon French croissants. Sandwiches de miga are another type of bread products; they are made only with thin layers of white bread (generally referred to as crustless bread) and stuffed with food items ranging from ham and cheese to other more sophisticated combinations such as raw ham, tomatoes, olives, hard-boiled eggs, tuna, lettuce, red pepper, and the like. Desserts and sweets are usually stuffed or covered with dulce de leche. The latter can be eaten alone or on top of cakes, alfajores, panqueques (crepes), and pastries, or as a topping spread over flan de leche. Chantilly cream is widely consumed and used in preparing sweets and desserts. Additionally, cakes, sponge cakes, and puddings are very popular dishes. Italian ice creams in this region also achieved a significant degree of development by adding local flavours that somehow preserved the local spirit involved in their preparation. Although asado is eaten all over the country, its origin may be traced back to the Pampas. It entails many types of meat, which are generally eaten as follows: achuras (offal), morcilla (blood sausage), and sometimes also a provoleta (a piece of provolone cheese cooked on the grill with oregano) are eaten first. Then comes the choripán (a kind of spiced sausage made with pork or lamb and placed between two slices of bread), and finally meat such as asado de tira, vacío (flank steak), lomo (tenderloin), colita de cuadril (rump), matambre (rolled stuffed steak cut into slices and served cold), entraña (hanger steak); the list is never-ending. Cabrito al asador (roast kid or goat) is frequently eaten in the province of Córdoba. Northwest and Cuyo This region includes the provinces of Jujuy, Salta, Catamarca, Tucumán, Santiago del Estero, La Rioja, San Juan, Mendoza, and San Luis. It is also regarded as the one most influenced by Native Americans, and its foods are closely linked to the Andean-Incan tradition. When preparing regional dishes, potatoes and corn or wheat are almost always used, including quinoa (a cereal typically used in Incan cuisine), peppers, squashes, tomatoes and in some provinces beans. The most celebrated dishes are humita and tamal, in which the corn husk is stuffed with the corn filling itself, seasonings or meat. This region is the most suitable to taste empanadas, particularly those stuffed with meat and offering different types of tempting varieties such as the meat empanada, salteña also filled with potatoes, or the empanada tucumana, which is stuffed with matambre and cut with a knife, or empanadas made with cheese. Empanadas are individual-sized and closed savoury pastries which may be fried or baked in the oven and are generally eaten with the hands. Stews such as locro, carbonada, pollo al disco, and cazuelas (casseroles) are also typical dishes characterizing this region, which also include pumpkin or potato pudding stuffed with meat. There are also some local holidays in this region related to food. For example, in Salta they hold a festival dedicated to a locally grown bean similar to Edamame. During this holiday, the traditional foods of corn and beans are celebrated. Meals of all kinds are eaten, always with these two ingredients as a side dish, and even competitions of who can eat a set number of beans in the shortest period of time are held. Mesopotamia The humid and verdant area of north-east Argentina known as Mesopotamia, comprising the provinces of Chaco, Corrientes, Misiones and Formosa is another area heavily influenced by Native Americans, particularly by the Guaraní tribe. Abounding in rivers and shores, it offers a wide diversity of fish species, such as dorado, pacú, surubi, boga and silverside. Widely grown in this area, cassava is typically included in the region's dishes, as are other components of meals, such as the chipá (cassava and cheese bread). However, in this area Cassava is cooked alone too, boiled or fried, often as a side dish for Asado and empanadas. As well, mbeyú, chipá avatí, sopa paraguaya, sopa correntina, chipa solo or chipá con carne, el quibebé, el borí borí, chipá guasú o pastel de choclo, mbaipy, chipá mbocá o chipá caburé and some other similar meals that have as basis:manioc, corn, cheese and, sometimes, some meat.. Chipá from Cassava is often eaten during breakfast with yerba mate, prepared with hot water, or with café con leche. Sopa Paraguaya and pastel/Carta de Choclo are eaten for lunch or dinner. As regards products made with sugar, Papaya (mamón in Argentine Spanish) jam is typical of the north of this region. The principal product of this region is certainly yerba mate. Consumed countrywide, this product features a peculiarity of its own in this area: it is not only prepared with hot water but, driven by the region's high temperatures, it is common to see it prepared with cold water as well, in which case the beverage is known as tereré. Patagonia The large southern region of Patagonia is made up of the provinces Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego. This area also includes the Antarctica and Islas del Atlántico Sur. (or southern atlantic islands). Their most typical food ingredients include fish and seafood from the sea and rivers and the products of the sheep that are widely farmed there. Marine species such as salmon, spider crabs, squid and other shellfish and molluscs may be caught in the Atlantic Ocean. There are trout in the rivers. The many berries grown in the area include cherries, bilberries, strawberries, rosa mosqueta and elders, which are made into jams. The Northern and Central European settlements in this region have built up large-scale production of chocolate and its by-products. Viennese and German cuisine and pastries are also typically associated with this region. Mutton and lamb, together with wild boar and venison tend to make up the region's meat-based dishes. Also typical of the southern region are smoked products, including salmon, stag, wild boar, and pheasant. Patagonia has been profoundly influenced by the tribes living there since long before Europeans arrived, in particular, the Mapuches and the Araucanos. A typical dish prepared by the latter is the curanto (a term meaning "hot stone"). Its preparation involves making a fire in a hole about 150 cm deep in the ground, and heating stones in it. A bed of nalca or maqui leaves is arranged on top of the stones, and ingredients are added in turn on top. Ingredients vary, but may include beef, lamb, pork, chicken, Argentine chorizos (pork sausages), potatoes, sweet potatoes, apples and holed squashes filled with cheese, cream and peas. The food is covered with leaves and damp pieces of cloth to keep the heat in, and covered with plenty of soil. Alcoholic beverages Though wine (vino) has traditionally been the most popular alcoholic beverage in Argentina, beer (cerveza; the Italian birra is frequently used) in recent decades has competed with wine in popularity. Breweries appeared in Argentina at the end of the 1860s, started by Alsatian colonists. The first were nearly all in the downtown of Buenos Aires (el égido de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires), and soon Polish brewers began industrial production of beer: San Carlos in the province of Santa Fe, Río Segundo and Córdoba in the province of Córdoba, Quilmes and Llavallol on the outskirts of La Plata (in Buenos Aires Province), San Miguel de Tucumán in the province of Tucumán and on the outskirts of the cities of Mendoza and Salta. The local consumption of beer has risen dramatically in the last generation: Argentines consumed 233 million litres in 1980 and 1.57 billion in 2007 (40 litres per capita). Outpacing that of wine since 2001, the growing production and consumption of beer have supported the existence of related events, for example, beer festivals called Oktoberfests or "Fiestas de la Cerveza" in locations that have a significant German population (Villa General Belgrano in Córdoba, San Carlos and Esperanza in the province of Santa Fe, etc.). Such celebrations copy, in an Argentine manner, Munich's Oktoberfest, and similarly are tourist attractions. However, the presence of a vigorous population of Celtic lineage, principally of Irish origin, has supported the creation of other celebrations of beer, often for marketing purposes, such as Saint Patrick's Day (Día de San Patricio), patron of Ireland, which is celebrated with abundant libations. The consumption of alcoholic beverages in Argentina is similar to that of the United States and somewhat lower than the Western European average. Argentines enjoy a variety of alcoholic beverages and Argentina can boast a varied array of elaboraciones, whether industrial or artisanal. Besides beer and wine, Argentines frequently drink cider (here again, the heritage comes from Spain and Italy, more precisely from Asturias and Campania). Cider is the most popular beverage of the middle and lowers economic classes at Christmas and New Year (the upper classes proverbially preferring to celebrate with locally produced champagne, although real old-line "creole" aristocrats will still drink cider, which is much more traditional). Other widely consumed spirits are aguardiente (firewater) made from sugar cane, known as caña quemada ("burnt cane") or, simply, 'caña'''' ("cane"). A folkloric note about caña quemada: until 21 June it is traditional to drink caña quemada with ruda macho (a variant of common rue), it is supposed that this mixture prevents the flu and other illnesses. Caña competes, mainly in rural areas, with gin ("ginebra"—as in the Dutch kind of gin.) The bitter spirit Fernet, and particularly the Italian brand Fernet-Branca, is highly popular in Argentina. (A study in 2017 found that Argentines consume more than 75% of all fernet produced globally.) Fernet is most commonly enjoyed as a mixed drink with Coca-Cola. Given Fernet's qualities as a digestive aid, it is a common choice for an after-dinner digestif. There are many artisanally produced liqueurs (distilled, flavoured alcoholic beverages) in Argentina, for example, those flavoured with orange, egg, anise, coffee, cherry and, inevitably, dulce de leche. The Hesperidina is a type of liqueur made from orange peels, invented in Argentina around 1890. One may also encounter chitronchelo or (in Italian) citronella, based on lemon. This beverage arrived with immigrants from the Mezzogiorno and is produced both artisanally and industrially (for example, at Mar del Plata). Non-alcoholic specialties Argentines enjoy a wide variety of non-alcoholic infusions (although now and then both "families" are mixed; the for example, is mate mixed with caña or gin). Among these, mate has long been the most widely enjoyed; in 2006, over 700,000 metric tons were harvested in Argentina, mostly for domestic consumption. Mate is also one of the top exports from Argentina, as it is valued all over the world. The fact that mate is so prevalent in the Southern Cone, however, should not necessarily make visitors think that other infusions are rare in the region; in Argentina especially, given the strong European cultural imprint, the consumption of coffee is very common (141 cups per capita, annually). Chocolate infusions are also popular (the eating of chocolate is a Spanish influence, although the plant originated in Mesoamerica). This consumption grows during autumn and winter, or in the cold regions of the country; there are two dates where consumption of chocolate infusions is traditional in the primary educational centres: 25 May and 9 July, that is, the two national dates of Argentina. English cultural influence (reinforced at the end of the 19th century and the beginnings of the 20th by British contacts with the Far East) has also made the consumption of tea very common. Medicinal herbs are common in the whole country; among the most popular are: chamomile, lanceleaf, boldo, poleo, peperina, carqueja, thyme, canchalagua, rue (macho and hembra, that is, "male" and "female"), mallow, rosemary, passion flower, bira bira, palán palán, muña muña, to mention only the main ones. Many of these herbs are also used in apéritifs and bitters, whether alcoholic or not. Popular short-order dishes Common restoranes or restaurantes and (grill restaurants) nearly anywhere in Argentina today serve (into the small hours) quickly prepared meals that in the course of the 20th century came to be known as minutas, "short-order dishes". Some of the dishes included in the category of minutas are milanesas, churrascos, bifes (beefsteaks), escalopes, tallarines, ravioles (ravioli), ñoquis (gnocchi), although some are very typical of locations that sell food: "bifes" and "milanesas" are served "a caballo" ("on horseback", with fried egg on top), "milanesa completa" (a milanesa with two fried eggs and French fries), "revuelto Gramajo", "colchón de arvejas" (an omelette made with peas), "suprema de pollo" (chicken supreme, usually breaded as a milanesa), matambres, "lengua a la vinagreta" (pickled tongue), and "sandwiches" (sandwiches de miga) are made with sliced white bread, rather than, say, rolls. The most common sandwiches are those made of milanesa, baked ham and cheese, pan de miga, toast, pebetes, panchos (hot dogs), choripanes, morcipanes, etc.; from Montevideo comes a different species of sandwich called the chivito, even though it contains no goat meat.Picadas, which are consumed at home or in bars, cafés, "cafetines" and "bodegones" are also popular; they consist of an ensemble of plates containing cubes of cheese (typically from Mar del Plata or Chubut), pieces of salame, olives in brine, french fries, maníes (peanuts), etc.; picadas are eaten accompanied by an alcoholic beverage ("fernet", beer, wine with soda, to give some common examples). The people of Argentina greatly enjoy helado'' (ice creams of Italian lineage or sorbets Spanish lineage). In Spanish colonial times a type of sorbet was made from hail or snow. Eating habits Breakfast typically is small and consists of coffee (or mate) and pastry. In most parts of Argentina, lunch is the largest meal of the day. Excluding the largest cities, such as Buenos Aires, Rosario or Cordoba, most towns close for lunchtime. This is when most people return home to enjoy a large meal and siesta. Traditional lunches in Argentina are long and well developed. Argentines often have a light evening snack (called a "merienda" – typically a coffee or mate and a pastry) and it is common to not eat dinner until 9 at night, or even later on weekends. See also Argentine pizza Cheese in Argentina Italian cuisine Spanish cuisine Uruguayan cuisine References External links SaltShaker – Blog on Buenos Aires "food, drink, and life". Pick Up the Fork – Guide to Buenos Aires' food, restaurant and bar scene Argentina on two steaks a day South American cuisine Latin American cuisine
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Argentine cuisine", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Argentine cuisine is described as a blending of cultures, from the Indigenous peoples of Argentina who focused on ingredients such as humita, potatoes, cassava, peppers, tomatoes, beans, and yerba mate, to Mediterranean influences brought by the Spanish during the colonial period. This led to cultural blending of criollos (gauchos and early Spanish settlers), Indigenous, and sub-Saharan African (due to slave trading) in the cuisine. Later, this was complemented by the significant influx of Italian and Spanish immigrants to Argentina during the 19th and 20th centuries, who incorporated plenty of their food customs and dishes such as pizzas, pasta and Spanish tortillas.\n\nBeef is a main part of the Argentine diet due to its vast production in the country's plains. In fact, Argentine annual consumption of beef has averaged per capita, approaching per capita during the 19th century; consumption averaged in 2007.\n\nBeyond asado (the Argentine barbecue), no other dish more genuinely matches the national identity. Nevertheless, the country's vast area, and its cultural diversity, have led to a local cuisine of various dishes.\n\nThe great immigratory waves consequently imprinted a large influence in the Argentine cuisine, after all Argentina was the second country in the world with the most immigrants with 6.6 million, only second to the United States with 27 million, and ahead of other immigratory receptor countries such as Canada, Brazil, Australia, etc.\n\nArgentine people have a reputation for their love of eating. Social gatherings are commonly centred on sharing a meal. Invitations to have dinner at home are generally viewed as a symbol of friendship, warmth, and integration. Sunday family lunch is considered the most significant meal of the week, whose highlights often include asado or pasta.\n\nAnother feature of Argentine cuisine is the preparation of homemade food such as French fries, patties, and pasta to celebrate a special occasion, to meet friends, or to honour someone. Homemade food is also seen as a way to show affection.\n\nArgentine restaurants include a great variety of cuisines, prices, and flavours. Large cities tend to host everything from high-end international cuisine to bodegones (inexpensive traditional hidden taverns), less stylish restaurants, and bars and canteens offering a range of dishes at affordable prices.\n\nHistory\n\nAmerindians lived in Argentina thousands of years before European explorers arrived. They mostly lived off of agriculture, as well as hunting, gathering, and fishing. Generally, the most common crops at this time were maize, potatoes, common beans, quinoa, and squash.\n\nThe Argentinian native people could be divided in three groups based on their main modality of acquiring food:\n\n Hunters and gatherers who inhabited the Patagonia, Pampa, and Chaco regions.\n Farmers in the northwestern, Cuyo, and Cordoba's mountain regions who mostly grew squash, melons, and sweet potatoes. These groups had great influence from Andean-Incan tradition.\n Farmers in the Mesopotamia plains who belonged to the guaraní culture.\n\nSpanish settlers came to Argentina in 1536 and began building chacras where Amerindians would work to harvest the food. The arrival of Europeans brought Argentina into the Columbian Exchange, with ingredients from the Old World such as wheat, grapevine, figs, and several kinds of fruits being introduced to the country for the first time. It was also during the Spanish colonial period that cattle, goat, and pig farming were first introduced to Argentina, forming the foundation of the large Argentine beef industry.\n\nBetween 1853 and 1955, 6.6 million immigrants came to live in Argentina from Europe (especially from Italy, Wales, Germany and Switzerland), the Near and Middle East, Russia and Japan. They contributed to the development of Argentine cuisine by encouraging the production of a wider variety of foods. They also bought lands where they built chacras and encouraged the growth of farming. By this point, Argentina was the country with most immigrants only second to the United States.\n\nDuring the XIX century, social standing was not associated with access to food. The price of beef, fish, and bird meats was cheap and accessible. However, grains and wheat was scarce so bread was very expensive. Some of the most common dishes during this time were soups with pork chunks, cooked partridge with legumes, spinach bread, beef slices, and lamb stew. The most prominent spices were garlic, parsley, and pepper.\n\nBy the turn of the century, Argentine Cuisine was on a constant decline due to shortage of several ingredients. However, eating habits began to shift with further immigration which facilitated a gastronomic revolution. Most immigrants in the 1900s came from Italy and Spain. The Italians introduced pizza, as well as a variety of pasta dishes, including spaghetti and lasagna. British, German, Jewish, and other immigrants also settled in Argentina, all bringing their styles of cooking and favorite foods with them. The British brought tea, starting the tradition of teatime. All of these cultures influenced the dishes of Argentina.\n\nAt this time, Italian cuisine began to really become a part of the cuisine. The neighborhood of La Boca, Buenos Aires, was the first big Italian hub, and from here plenty of traditionally Italian ingredients and eating habits expanded across the country. Different kinds of pastas such as long noodles or tallarines, gnocchi, ravioli, and cannelloni filled with ricotta cheese became popular along with pizza, fainá (Argentinian version of the traditional Italian Farinata), and milanesas. Different ways of preparing dishes were also adopted from Italian immigrants. These included the preparation of ice cream, fish, and shellfish. Spanish immigrants also left their mark, popularizing eating dry nuts, tomato sauce, pesto, olives, and olive oil. Additionally, deli stores started to incorporate traditional Iberian hams and sausages and great varieties of cheeses yet these were more limited. They were also mainly responsible for the massive diffusion of wine consumption, amongst some other habits. This occurred at the same time that other global products began arriving to Argentina such as saffron, cod, different varieties of beans, chickpeas, additional spices, chocolates, and tea.\n\nTypical foods\n\nMost regions of Argentina are known for their beef-oriented diet. Grilled meat from the asado (barbecue) is a staple, with steak and beef ribs especially common. The term asado itself refers to long strips of flank-cut beef ribs.\n\nPopular items such as chorizo (pork sausage), morcilla (blood sausage), chinchulines (chitterlings), mollejas (sweetbread), and other parts of the animal are also enjoyed.\n\nIn Patagonia, however, lamb and chivito (goat) are eaten more frequently than beef. Whole lambs and goats are traditionally cooked over an open fire in a technique known as asado a la estaca.\n\nThe most common condiment for asado is chimichurri, a sauce of herbs, garlic and vinegar. Unlike other preparations, Argentines do not include chilli in their version of chimichurri, but it does include a still-spicy, but milder form of red pepper, ají molido.\n\nBreaded and fried meats (milanesas) are used as snacks, in sandwiches, or eaten warm with mashed potatoes, purée.\nEmpanadas, small pastries of meat, cheese, sweet corn, and many other fillings, are a common sight at parties and picnics, or as starters to a meal. They also vary in their looks, since they are folded with a traditional decorative edging called repulgue. The repulgue is not just aesthetic, but also serves as a way to identify the flavor of each empanada since they are traditionally ordered in dozens where people mix and match flavors. Empanadas are one of the most important staples of this country due to the wide array of varieties.\n\nThe empanadas seen in Argentina today originate from a Spanish dish from the fifteenth century where travelers used easy-to-carry bread and filled it with a variety of ingredients. Eventually it evolved into a popular gastronomic item and spread across the world. Variations of empanadas both inside and outside of Argentina include the empanada gallega (Galician empanada), a large round meat pie made most commonly with tuna and mackerel (caballa in Spanish).\n\nVegetables and salads are also eaten by Argentines; tomatoes, onions, lettuce, eggplants, squashes, and zucchini are common side dishes.\n\nItalian staples, such as pizza and pasta, are eaten as commonly as beef. Fideos (noodles), tallarines (fettuccine and tagliatelle), ñoquis (gnocchi) are traditionally served on the 29th day of the month, ravioles, and canelones (cannelloni) can be bought freshly made in many establishments in the larger cities. Italian-style ice cream is served in large parlours and even drive-through businesses. Other Italian staples are polenta, tarta pascualina, and pastafrola.\n\nIn Chubut, the Welsh community is known for its teahouses, offering scones and torta galesa, which is rather like torta negra.\n\nSandwiches de miga are delicate sandwiches made with crustless buttered English bread, very thinly sliced cured meat, cheese, and lettuce. They are often purchased from entrepreneurial home cooks and may be eaten for a light evening meal.\n\nA sweet paste, dulce de leche is another treasured national food, used to fill cakes and pancakes, spread over toasted bread for breakfast, or served with ice cream. In terms of sweets, Alfajores are another key staple. These are shortbread cookies sandwiched together with chocolate and dulce de leche or a fruit paste. The \"policeman's\" or \"truck driver's\" sweet is cheese with quince paste or dulce de membrillo. Dulce de batata is made of sweet potato/yam: this with cheese is the Martín Fierros sweet. Additionally, ice cream shops or heladerias are a big boom especially in the city of Buenos Aires. Argentinian ice cream comes in plenty of flavors (from fruits to cheesecake and even duce de leche flavors) and has a special smoothness as it follows a recipe very similar to that of Italian gelato.\n\nApples, pears, peaches, kiwifruits, avocados, and plums are major exports.\n\nA traditional drink of Argentina is an infusion called mate (in Spanish, mate, with the accent on the first syllable [MAH-teh]). The name comes from the hollow gourd from which it is traditionally drunk.\n\nThe mate (gourd) or other small cup is filled about three-quarters full with yerba mate, the dried leaves and twigs of the Ilex paraguariensis. The drink, which is rather bitter, is sipped through a metal or cane straw called a bombilla. Mate can be sweetened with sugar, or flavoured with aromatic herbs or dried orange peel.\n\nHot but not boiling water is poured into the gourd, drunk, then the mate is refilled. The mate is nearly full of leaves, so each refill only makes a small drink, but many refills are possible before the yerba is spent. In small gatherings it is traditional for one mate to be passed from person to person, filled by whoever has the kettle. It is customary not to thank the refiller routinely; a final gracias (thank you) implies that the drinker has had enough.\n\nDrinking mate together is an important social ritual. Mate cocido is the same leaf, which rather than brewed is boiled and served, like tea, with milk and sugar to taste.\n\nOther typical drinks include wine (sometimes with soda water added); tea and coffee are equally important. Quilmes is the national brand of pale lager, named after the town of Quilmes, Buenos Aires, where it was first produced.\n\nIngredients\nArgentine cuisine uses locally-grown cereals, grains, oil seeds, fruits and vegetables, as well as meat.\n\nMeat products have been dominant in the country since the 16th century. The country is regarded as a major beef, pork and poultry producing and consuming country. Certain areas such as those located in the south are usually engaged in activities involving sheep and lamb breeding, and shellfish, crustaceans, molluscs and salmonides fishing.\n\nThe vast breeding activity involving any type of cattle has given rise to a highly developed dairy industry that includes products like cow, sheep and camelide, dulce de leche and yogurts. Some of the cheeses from Argentina are reggianito, sardo, provoleta and cremoso. Argentina can also be conceived as a great industry engaged in the production of dried fruits, olives, all types of oils and spices.\n\nIn the Mesopotamia region, river fish such as silverside, surubi, dorado or boga are common.\n\n Regional differences \nArgentine cuisine is heavily influenced by its European roots and has regional variations. Asado, dulce de leche, empanadas, and yerba mate are found throughout Argentina. In many parts of the country, food is prepared differently and different kinds of foods are made; this includes to a smaller degree food from pre-Columbian times, as in the Northwest.\n\n Central region and la Pampa \n\nThis region is composed of the city of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires Province, Córdoba, La Pampa, Santa Fe, and Entre Ríos.\n\nThis region, especially within the larger urban areas of Buenos Aires, Rosario, and Córdoba welcomed European immigrants. These were especially of Italian and Spanish descent. Nevertheless, there was also a migratory flow of German, Swiss, and Middle Eastern immigrants arriving in Argentina. As a result, dishes such as pasta, pizza, pucheros (stews), croquetas (fritters), sauces, embutidos (sausages), and chicken and meat courses brought a wider scope of options to daily menus. The bread-making, dessert, pastry, and dairy industries have achieved considerable development in this region.\n\nThe above-mentioned dishes have developed a distinctively Argentine nuance. That is why, for example, Argentine pasta includes a wide variety of dishes ranging from spaghetti, fusiles (fusilli), ñoquis (gnocchi), ravioli, cintas (pasta ribbons), and lasagne to the Argentine-made sorrentinos, agnolottis (agnolotti), canelones (cannelloni), and fetuchines (fettuccine).\n\nPizza—made with very thin, and sometimes thick, high-rising doughs, with or without cheese, cooked in the oven or a la piedra (on a stone oven), and stuffed with numerous ingredients—is a dish which can be found in nearly every corner of the country. Buenos Aires, Rosario, and Córdoba also serve it with fainá, which is a chick pea-flour dough placed over the piece of pizza. People say that what makes Argentine pizza unique is the blending of Italian and Spanish cultures. At the turn of the 19th century, immigrants from Naples and Genoa opened the first pizza bars, though Spanish residents subsequently owned most of the pizza businesses.\n\nBread products are consumed all around the country. The deeply rooted bread, pastry, and dessert-making tradition derive from blending the above nationalities' products. Bakeries sell not only a wide scope of bread, cookies, and cakes, but also pastries. The latter resembles a sort of roll pastry whose main dough ingredient is either butter or fat and which may be simple or stuffed with dulce de leche, milk, jam, crema pastel, or quince or apple jelly, among other fillings. The most popular type of pastry is said to be that of medialunas (singular: medialuna, literally half-moon, that is to say, crescent), based upon French croissants. Sandwiches de miga are another type of bread products; they are made only with thin layers of white bread (generally referred to as crustless bread) and stuffed with food items ranging from ham and cheese to other more sophisticated combinations such as raw ham, tomatoes, olives, hard-boiled eggs, tuna, lettuce, red pepper, and the like.\n\nDesserts and sweets are usually stuffed or covered with dulce de leche. The latter can be eaten alone or on top of cakes, alfajores, panqueques (crepes), and pastries, or as a topping spread over flan de leche. Chantilly cream is widely consumed and used in preparing sweets and desserts. Additionally, cakes, sponge cakes, and puddings are very popular dishes. Italian ice creams in this region also achieved a significant degree of development by adding local flavours that somehow preserved the local spirit involved in their preparation.\n\nAlthough asado is eaten all over the country, its origin may be traced back to the Pampas. It entails many types of meat, which are generally eaten as follows: achuras (offal), morcilla (blood sausage), and sometimes also a provoleta (a piece of provolone cheese cooked on the grill with oregano) are eaten first. Then comes the choripán (a kind of spiced sausage made with pork or lamb and placed between two slices of bread), and finally meat such as asado de tira, vacío (flank steak), lomo (tenderloin), colita de cuadril (rump), matambre (rolled stuffed steak cut into slices and served cold), entraña (hanger steak); the list is never-ending. Cabrito al asador (roast kid or goat) is frequently eaten in the province of Córdoba.\n\n Northwest and Cuyo \n\nThis region includes the provinces of Jujuy, Salta, Catamarca, Tucumán, Santiago del Estero, La Rioja, San Juan, Mendoza, and San Luis. It is also regarded as the one most influenced by Native Americans, and its foods are closely linked to the Andean-Incan tradition. When preparing regional dishes, potatoes and corn or wheat are almost always used, including quinoa (a cereal typically used in Incan cuisine), peppers, squashes, tomatoes and in some provinces beans. The most celebrated dishes are humita and tamal, in which the corn husk is stuffed with the corn filling itself, seasonings or meat.\n \nThis region is the most suitable to taste empanadas, particularly those stuffed with meat and offering different types of tempting varieties such as the meat empanada, salteña also filled with potatoes, or the empanada tucumana, which is stuffed with matambre and cut with a knife, or empanadas made with cheese. Empanadas are individual-sized and closed savoury pastries which may be fried or baked in the oven and are generally eaten with the hands.\n\nStews such as locro, carbonada, pollo al disco, and cazuelas (casseroles) are also typical dishes characterizing this region, which also include pumpkin or potato pudding stuffed with meat.\n\nThere are also some local holidays in this region related to food. For example, in Salta they hold a festival dedicated to a locally grown bean similar to Edamame. During this holiday, the traditional foods of corn and beans are celebrated. Meals of all kinds are eaten, always with these two ingredients as a side dish, and even competitions of who can eat a set number of beans in the shortest period of time are held.\n\n Mesopotamia \n\nThe humid and verdant area of north-east Argentina known as Mesopotamia, comprising the provinces of Chaco, Corrientes, Misiones and Formosa is another area heavily influenced by Native Americans, particularly by the Guaraní tribe. Abounding in rivers and shores, it offers a wide diversity of fish species, such as dorado, pacú, surubi, boga and silverside.\n\nWidely grown in this area, cassava is typically included in the region's dishes, as are other components of meals, such as the chipá (cassava and cheese bread). However, in this area Cassava is cooked alone too, boiled or fried, often as a side dish for Asado and empanadas. As well, mbeyú, chipá avatí, sopa paraguaya, sopa correntina, chipa solo or chipá con carne, el quibebé, el borí borí, chipá guasú o pastel de choclo, mbaipy, chipá mbocá o chipá caburé and some other similar meals that have as basis:manioc, corn, cheese and, sometimes, some meat.. Chipá from Cassava is often eaten during breakfast with yerba mate, prepared with hot water, or with café con leche. Sopa Paraguaya and pastel/Carta de Choclo are eaten for lunch or dinner. As regards products made with sugar, Papaya (mamón in Argentine Spanish) jam is typical of the north of this region.\n\nThe principal product of this region is certainly yerba mate. Consumed countrywide, this product features a peculiarity of its own in this area: it is not only prepared with hot water but, driven by the region's high temperatures, it is common to see it prepared with cold water as well, in which case the beverage is known as tereré.\n\n Patagonia \nThe large southern region of Patagonia is made up of the provinces Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego. This area also includes the Antarctica and Islas del Atlántico Sur. (or southern atlantic islands). Their most typical food ingredients include fish and seafood from the sea and rivers and the products of the sheep that are widely farmed there.\n\nMarine species such as salmon, spider crabs, squid and other shellfish and molluscs may be caught in the Atlantic Ocean. There are trout in the rivers.\n\nThe many berries grown in the area include cherries, bilberries, strawberries, rosa mosqueta and elders, which are made into jams.\n\nThe Northern and Central European settlements in this region have built up large-scale production of chocolate and its by-products. Viennese and German cuisine and pastries are also typically associated with this region.\n\nMutton and lamb, together with wild boar and venison tend to make up the region's meat-based dishes. Also typical of the southern region are smoked products, including salmon, stag, wild boar, and pheasant.\n\nPatagonia has been profoundly influenced by the tribes living there since long before Europeans arrived, in particular, the Mapuches and the Araucanos. A typical dish prepared by the latter is the curanto (a term meaning \"hot stone\"). Its preparation involves making a fire in a hole about 150 cm deep in the ground, and heating stones in it. A bed of nalca or maqui leaves is arranged on top of the stones, and ingredients are added in turn on top. Ingredients vary, but may include beef, lamb, pork, chicken, Argentine chorizos (pork sausages), potatoes, sweet potatoes, apples and holed squashes filled with cheese, cream and peas. The food is covered with leaves and damp pieces of cloth to keep the heat in, and covered with plenty of soil.\n\n Alcoholic beverages \n\nThough wine (vino) has traditionally been the most popular alcoholic beverage in Argentina, beer (cerveza; the Italian birra is frequently used) in recent decades has competed with wine in popularity. Breweries appeared in Argentina at the end of the 1860s, started by Alsatian colonists. The first were nearly all in the downtown of Buenos Aires (el égido de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires), and soon Polish brewers began industrial production of beer: San Carlos in the province of Santa Fe, Río Segundo and Córdoba in the province of Córdoba, Quilmes and Llavallol on the outskirts of La Plata (in Buenos Aires Province), San Miguel de Tucumán in the province of Tucumán and on the outskirts of the cities of Mendoza and Salta.\n\nThe local consumption of beer has risen dramatically in the last generation: Argentines consumed 233 million litres in 1980 and 1.57 billion in 2007 (40 litres per capita). Outpacing that of wine since 2001, the growing production and consumption of beer have supported the existence of related events, for example, beer festivals called Oktoberfests or \"Fiestas de la Cerveza\" in locations that have a significant German population (Villa General Belgrano in Córdoba, San Carlos and Esperanza in the province of Santa Fe, etc.). Such celebrations copy, in an Argentine manner, Munich's Oktoberfest, and similarly are tourist attractions. However, the presence of a vigorous population of Celtic lineage, principally of Irish origin, has supported the creation of other celebrations of beer, often for marketing purposes, such as Saint Patrick's Day (Día de San Patricio), patron of Ireland, which is celebrated with abundant libations.\n\nThe consumption of alcoholic beverages in Argentina is similar to that of the United States and somewhat lower than the Western European average. Argentines enjoy a variety of alcoholic beverages and Argentina can boast a varied array of elaboraciones, whether industrial or artisanal. Besides beer and wine, Argentines frequently drink cider (here again, the heritage comes from Spain and Italy, more precisely from Asturias and Campania). Cider is the most popular beverage of the middle and lowers economic classes at Christmas and New Year (the upper classes proverbially preferring to celebrate with locally produced champagne, although real old-line \"creole\" aristocrats will still drink cider, which is much more traditional).\n\nOther widely consumed spirits are aguardiente (firewater) made from sugar cane, known as caña quemada (\"burnt cane\") or, simply, 'caña'''' (\"cane\"). A folkloric note about caña quemada: until 21 June it is traditional to drink caña quemada with ruda macho (a variant of common rue), it is supposed that this mixture prevents the flu and other illnesses. Caña competes, mainly in rural areas, with gin (\"ginebra\"—as in the Dutch kind of gin.)\n\nThe bitter spirit Fernet, and particularly the Italian brand Fernet-Branca, is highly popular in Argentina. (A study in 2017 found that Argentines consume more than 75% of all fernet produced globally.) Fernet is most commonly enjoyed as a mixed drink with Coca-Cola. Given Fernet's qualities as a digestive aid, it is a common choice for an after-dinner digestif.\n\nThere are many artisanally produced liqueurs (distilled, flavoured alcoholic beverages) in Argentina, for example, those flavoured with orange, egg, anise, coffee, cherry and, inevitably, dulce de leche. The Hesperidina is a type of liqueur made from orange peels, invented in Argentina around 1890. One may also encounter chitronchelo or (in Italian) citronella, based on lemon. This beverage arrived with immigrants from the Mezzogiorno and is produced both artisanally and industrially (for example, at Mar del Plata).\n\n Non-alcoholic specialties \n\nArgentines enjoy a wide variety of non-alcoholic infusions (although now and then both \"families\" are mixed; the for example, is mate mixed with caña or gin). Among these, mate has long been the most widely enjoyed; in 2006, over 700,000 metric tons were harvested in Argentina, mostly for domestic consumption. Mate is also one of the top exports from Argentina, as it is valued all over the world.\n\nThe fact that mate is so prevalent in the Southern Cone, however, should not necessarily make visitors think that other infusions are rare in the region; in Argentina especially, given the strong European cultural imprint, the consumption of coffee is very common (141 cups per capita, annually). Chocolate infusions are also popular (the eating of chocolate is a Spanish influence, although the plant originated in Mesoamerica). This consumption grows during autumn and winter, or in the cold regions of the country; there are two dates where consumption of chocolate infusions is traditional in the primary educational centres: 25 May and 9 July, that is, the two national dates of Argentina.\n\nEnglish cultural influence (reinforced at the end of the 19th century and the beginnings of the 20th by British contacts with the Far East) has also made the consumption of tea very common.\n\nMedicinal herbs are common in the whole country; among the most popular are: chamomile, lanceleaf, boldo, poleo, peperina, carqueja, thyme, canchalagua, rue (macho and hembra, that is, \"male\" and \"female\"), mallow, rosemary, passion flower, bira bira, palán palán, muña muña, to mention only the main ones. Many of these herbs are also used in apéritifs and bitters, whether alcoholic or not.\n\n Popular short-order dishes \n\nCommon restoranes or restaurantes and (grill restaurants) nearly anywhere in Argentina today serve (into the small hours) quickly prepared meals that in the course of the 20th century came to be known as minutas, \"short-order dishes\". Some of the dishes included in the category of minutas are milanesas, churrascos, bifes (beefsteaks), escalopes, tallarines, ravioles (ravioli), ñoquis (gnocchi), although some are very typical of locations that sell food: \"bifes\" and \"milanesas\" are served \"a caballo\" (\"on horseback\", with fried egg on top), \"milanesa completa\" (a milanesa with two fried eggs and French fries), \"revuelto Gramajo\", \"colchón de arvejas\" (an omelette made with peas), \"suprema de pollo\" (chicken supreme, usually breaded as a milanesa), matambres, \"lengua a la vinagreta\" (pickled tongue), and \"sandwiches\" (sandwiches de miga) are made with sliced white bread, rather than, say, rolls.\n\nThe most common sandwiches are those made of milanesa, baked ham and cheese, pan de miga, toast, pebetes, panchos (hot dogs), choripanes, morcipanes, etc.; from Montevideo comes a different species of sandwich called the chivito, even though it contains no goat meat.Picadas, which are consumed at home or in bars, cafés, \"cafetines\" and \"bodegones\" are also popular; they consist of an ensemble of plates containing cubes of cheese (typically from Mar del Plata or Chubut), pieces of salame, olives in brine, french fries, maníes (peanuts), etc.; picadas are eaten accompanied by an alcoholic beverage (\"fernet\", beer, wine with soda, to give some common examples).\n\nThe people of Argentina greatly enjoy helado'' (ice creams of Italian lineage or sorbets Spanish lineage). In Spanish colonial times a type of sorbet was made from hail or snow.\n\nEating habits \nBreakfast typically is small and consists of coffee (or mate) and pastry. In most parts of Argentina, lunch is the largest meal of the day. Excluding the largest cities, such as Buenos Aires, Rosario or Cordoba, most towns close for lunchtime. This is when most people return home to enjoy a large meal and siesta. Traditional lunches in Argentina are long and well developed. Argentines often have a light evening snack (called a \"merienda\" – typically a coffee or mate and a pastry) and it is common to not eat dinner until 9 at night, or even later on weekends.\n\nSee also\n\n Argentine pizza\n Cheese in Argentina\n Italian cuisine\n Spanish cuisine\n Uruguayan cuisine\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n SaltShaker – Blog on Buenos Aires \"food, drink, and life\".\n Pick Up the Fork – Guide to Buenos Aires' food, restaurant and bar scene\n Argentina on two steaks a day\n\n \nSouth American cuisine\nLatin American cuisine", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Meligrove%20Band
The Meligrove Band is a Canadian indie rock band, based in Toronto, and consisting of Jason Nunes on vocals, guitar and piano, Darcy Rego on vocals and drums, Brian O'Reilly on guitar and synthesizer, and Michael Small on bass guitar. History The band was formed in 1997 in Mississauga by Nunes, Small and Rego, when the three attended Father Michael Goetz Secondary School in Mississauga. Their first public performance was in March 1998 at Club Shanghai in Toronto. The band pressed a demo cassette in May 1998, and its first album, Stars & Guitars, was released by Ductape Records in April 2000. Original drummer Rick Gomes departed in June 2001, and the band stayed a trio (with singer-guitarist Rego permanently moving to drums) until the release of their second album, Let It Grow on Endearing Records in October 2002. The album showed a move to a more orchestrated sound. Andrew Scott joined in October 2002, months before his former band, Femme Fatale, ceased touring. Scott's bandmates in Femme Fatale included Sebastien Grainger and Jesse F. Keeler, who later played together as Death from Above 1979. Although the Meligrove Band's sound has been compared to Sloan by some Canadian critics, Scott is not the same person as Sloan's Andrew Scott. His last show as a member of the band was in September 2007 in London, but he has occasionally appeared with them as a guest since. In 2003, Nunes, Small and Rego appeared in Joel Plaskett Emergency's Come On Teacher music video, playing Plaskett's high school posse. In 2004, the band appeared as themselves on an episode of the teen comedy Radio Free Roscoe. In early 2005, Small played briefly with Jessie Stein and Owen Pallett in SS Cardiacs, a predecessor band of The Luyas. In summer 2005, The Meligrove Band became the first Canadian group signed to V2 Records. In 2006, the label released their album Planets Conspire in the United Kingdom, Canada, Taiwan, Scandinavia and Finland Planets Conspire was featured as Rough Trade Shops' Album of the Month for April 2006, and in Canada it reached No. 2 on the national campus radio chart. That year the band toured in western Canada. The band's 2010 album, Shimmering Lights, was released in September 2010 by Nevado Records in Canada and Last Gang Records in the United States, and reached No. 1 on CBC Radio 3 in late October. The album also appeared on the !Earshot National Top 50 Chart. A documentary entitled Ages & Stages: The Story of the Meligrove Band was released in the summer of 2012. The film includes interviews with about 40 other Canadian bands and music industry personalities including Joel Plaskett, Tokyo Police Club, Born Ruffians, Fucked Up, The Arkells, The Most Serene Republic and Sebastien Grainger. The Meligrove Band song "Bones Attack!!" was used as the theme song for TV show The Basketball Jones. Their fifth album, Bones of Things, was released in November, 2014. The band took a break from touring in 2015, and played their last performance at Lee's Palace in Toronto in November, 2017. Discography Albums 2000 - Stars & Guitars (Ductape Records) 2002 - Let It Grow (Endearing Records) 2006 - Planets Conspire (V2 Records /[We Are Busy Bodies) 2010 - Shimmering Lights (Last Gang Records / Nevado Records) 2014 - Bones of Things (We Are Busy Bodies) 7" Singles 2006: Everyone's a Winner b/w Kingfisher Demo (V2 Records; United Kingdom only) 2010: Halflight b/w Super VGF (Nevado Records; Canada only) EPs 2013: Remixes I: Stay Hard (independent) Cassettes 1998: The Meligrove Band EP (independent) Compilation appearances 1999: Music to Fall Asleep By (Ductape Records) 2001: Songs in Motion (Hasil Records) 2003: Underpin Collective No. 1 (Underpin Collective) 2003: Recordings from CKLN's Wired for Sound, 2001-2002 (My Mean Magpie) 2003: Food for Thought vol. 1 (The Food and Shelter Project) 2004: Function Magazine (Ryerson University School of Image Arts) 2005: Queen Aritzia (M1 Group) 2006: Doormat Records Remembers the Low-Five (Doormat Records) 2006: Brit Rock Best (a collection of V2 Records artists, released in South Korea only) 2007: Friends in Bellwoods (Out of This Spark) 2007: Everything's Gone Green original soundtrack (Lakeshore Records) 2008: Songs for the Gang: Thrush Hermit Tribute (Gooseberry Records) 2011: Last Gang Records: The Collector's Edition, Volume 7 (Last Gang Records) References Citations External links The Meligrove Band Official website Musical groups established in 1997 Musical groups from Mississauga Canadian indie rock groups 1997 establishments in Ontario
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Meligrove%20Band", "role": "user" }, { "content": "The Meligrove Band is a Canadian indie rock band, based in Toronto, and consisting of Jason Nunes on vocals, guitar and piano, Darcy Rego on vocals and drums, Brian O'Reilly on guitar and synthesizer, and Michael Small on bass guitar.\n\nHistory\nThe band was formed in 1997 in Mississauga by Nunes, Small and Rego, when the three attended Father Michael Goetz Secondary School in Mississauga. Their first public performance was in March 1998 at Club Shanghai in Toronto. The band pressed a demo cassette in May 1998, and its first album, Stars & Guitars, was released by Ductape Records in April 2000. \n\nOriginal drummer Rick Gomes departed in June 2001, and the band stayed a trio (with singer-guitarist Rego permanently moving to drums) until the release of their second album, Let It Grow on Endearing Records in October 2002. The album showed a move to a more orchestrated sound.\n\nAndrew Scott joined in October 2002, months before his former band, Femme Fatale, ceased touring. Scott's bandmates in Femme Fatale included Sebastien Grainger and Jesse F. Keeler, who later played together as Death from Above 1979. Although the Meligrove Band's sound has been compared to Sloan by some Canadian critics, Scott is not the same person as Sloan's Andrew Scott. His last show as a member of the band was in September 2007 in London, but he has occasionally appeared with them as a guest since.\n\nIn 2003, Nunes, Small and Rego appeared in Joel Plaskett Emergency's Come On Teacher music video, playing Plaskett's high school posse. In 2004, the band appeared as themselves on an episode of the teen comedy Radio Free Roscoe.\n\nIn early 2005, Small played briefly with Jessie Stein and Owen Pallett in SS Cardiacs, a predecessor band of The Luyas.\n\nIn summer 2005, The Meligrove Band became the first Canadian group signed to V2 Records. In 2006, the label released their album Planets Conspire in the United Kingdom, Canada, Taiwan, Scandinavia and Finland Planets Conspire was featured as Rough Trade Shops' Album of the Month for April 2006, and in Canada it reached No. 2 on the national campus radio chart. That year the band toured in western Canada.\n\nThe band's 2010 album, Shimmering Lights, was released in September 2010 by Nevado Records in Canada and Last Gang Records in the United States, and reached No. 1 on CBC Radio 3 in late October. The album also appeared on the !Earshot National Top 50 Chart.\n\nA documentary entitled Ages & Stages: The Story of the Meligrove Band was released in the summer of 2012. The film includes interviews with about 40 other Canadian bands and music industry personalities including Joel Plaskett, Tokyo Police Club, Born Ruffians, Fucked Up, The Arkells, The Most Serene Republic and Sebastien Grainger.\n\nThe Meligrove Band song \"Bones Attack!!\" was used as the theme song for TV show The Basketball Jones.\n\nTheir fifth album, Bones of Things, was released in November, 2014.\n\nThe band took a break from touring in 2015, and played their last performance at Lee's Palace in Toronto in November, 2017.\n\nDiscography\n\nAlbums\n 2000 - Stars & Guitars (Ductape Records)\n 2002 - Let It Grow (Endearing Records)\n 2006 - Planets Conspire (V2 Records /[We Are Busy Bodies)\n 2010 - Shimmering Lights (Last Gang Records / Nevado Records)\n 2014 - Bones of Things (We Are Busy Bodies)\n\n7\" Singles\n 2006: Everyone's a Winner b/w Kingfisher Demo (V2 Records; United Kingdom only)\n 2010: Halflight b/w Super VGF (Nevado Records; Canada only)\n\nEPs\n 2013: Remixes I: Stay Hard (independent)\n\nCassettes\n 1998: The Meligrove Band EP (independent)\n\nCompilation appearances\n 1999: Music to Fall Asleep By (Ductape Records)\n 2001: Songs in Motion (Hasil Records)\n 2003: Underpin Collective No. 1 (Underpin Collective)\n 2003: Recordings from CKLN's Wired for Sound, 2001-2002 (My Mean Magpie)\n 2003: Food for Thought vol. 1 (The Food and Shelter Project)\n 2004: Function Magazine (Ryerson University School of Image Arts)\n 2005: Queen Aritzia (M1 Group)\n 2006: Doormat Records Remembers the Low-Five (Doormat Records)\n 2006: Brit Rock Best (a collection of V2 Records artists, released in South Korea only)\n 2007: Friends in Bellwoods (Out of This Spark)\n 2007: Everything's Gone Green original soundtrack (Lakeshore Records)\n 2008: Songs for the Gang: Thrush Hermit Tribute (Gooseberry Records)\n 2011: Last Gang Records: The Collector's Edition, Volume 7 (Last Gang Records)\n\nReferences\nCitations\n\nExternal links\n The Meligrove Band Official website\n\nMusical groups established in 1997\nMusical groups from Mississauga\nCanadian indie rock groups\n1997 establishments in Ontario", "role": "assistant" } ]
Agathocles of Syracuse
Agathocles (, Agathoklḗs; 361–289 BC) was a Greek tyrant of Syracuse (317–289 BC) and self-styled king of Sicily (304–289 BC). Biography Agathocles was born at Thermae Himeraeae (modern name Termini Imerese), Magna Graecia, in Sicily. The son of a potter who had moved to Syracuse in about 343 BC, he learned his father's trade, but afterwards entered the army along with his brother Antander. In 333 BC he married the widow of his patron Damas, a distinguished and wealthy citizen. He was twice banished for attempting to overthrow the oligarchical party in Syracuse. In 317 BC he returned with an army of mercenaries under a solemn oath to observe the democratic constitution which was established after they took the city. Having massacred the oligarchs and the richest of the citizenry, he thus made himself master of Syracuse, and he created a strong army and fleet and subdued the greater part of Sicily. War with Carthage followed. In 311 BC Agathocles was defeated in the Battle of the Himera River and besieged in Syracuse. In 310 BC he made a desperate effort to break through the blockade and attack Carthage. He landed at Cape Bon in August 310 BC, and was able to defeat the Carthaginians for the first time, and establish a camp near Tunis. He then turned east, and tried to take over trading coastal cities such as Neapolis and Hadrumetum, and on this occasion concluded an alliance with Aelymas, king of the Libyans according to Diodorus of Sicily, in an attempt to surround and isolate Carthage. After capturing Hadrumetum, Thapsus and other coastal towns, Agathocles turned his attention to central Tunisia. Before or during this campaign, he broke his alliance with Ailymas, whom he pursued and killed, but he kept his Numidian army, including war chariots they built. In 309/8 BC, Agathocles began trying to sway Ophellas, ruler of Cyrenaica, as he was likely to prove a useful ally in Agathocles' war against the Carthaginians. In order to gain his allegiance he promised to cede to Ophellas whatever conquests their combined forces might make in Africa, reserving to himself only the possession of Sicily. Ophellas gathered a powerful army from the homeland of his wife Euthydike (a descendant of Miltiades), Athens, where many citizens felt disgruntled after having lost their voting rights. Despite the natural obstacles which presented themselves on his route, Ophellas succeeded in reaching the Carthaginian territories after a toilsome and perilous march of more than two months. He was received by Agathocles with every demonstration of friendship, and the two armies encamped near each other, but a few days later Agathocles betrayed his new ally, by attacking the camp of the Cyrenaeans and having Ophellas killed. The Cyrenean troops, left without a leader, went over to Agathocles. Following several victories he was at last completely defeated (307 BC) and fled secretly to Sicily. After concluding peace with Carthage in 306 BC, Agathocles styled himself king of Sicily in 304 BC, and established his rule over the Greek cities of the island more firmly than ever. A peace treaty with Carthage left him in control of Sicily east of the Halycus River. Even in his old age he displayed the same restless energy, and is said to have been contemplating a fresh attack on Carthage at the time of his death. His last years were plagued by ill-health and the turbulence of his grandson Archagathus, at whose instigation he is said to have been poisoned; according to others, he died a natural death. He was a born leader of mercenaries, and, although he did not shrink from cruelty to gain his ends, he afterwards showed himself a mild and popular "tyrant". Agathocles restored the Syracusan democracy on his death bed and did not want his sons to succeed him as king. Agathocles was married three times. His first wife, by whom he had two sons, was the widow of his patron Damas, Archagathus and his brother, who were both murdered in 307 BC. His second wife was Alcia and they had a daughter called Lanassa, who married as the second wife of King Pyrrhus of Epirus, and a son, Agathocles, who was murdered in a succession dispute shortly before his father's death. His third wife was the Greek Ptolemaic Princess Theoxena, who was the second daughter of Berenice I from her first husband Philip and was a stepdaughter of Ptolemy I Soter. Theoxena bore Agathocles two children: Archagathus and Theoxena. Theoxena survived Agathocles. He had further descendants from his second and third marriage. Legacy Agathocles was cited as an example "Of those who become princes through their crimes" in chapter 8 of Niccolò Machiavelli's treatise on politics - The Prince (1513). He was described as behaving as a criminal at every stage of his career. Machiavelli claimed: Machiavelli goes on to reason that Agathocles' success, in contrast to other criminal tyrants, was due to his ability to commit his crimes quickly and ruthlessly, and states that cruelties are best used when they However, he came to "glory" as much as he did brutality by repelling invading Carthaginians and winning the loyalty of the denizens of his land. Family tree of Agathocles Primary sources Diodorus Siculus Library of History Books 19–21. Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus Book 22. Polyaenus 5.3 Polybius 9.23 References Cited sources Bibliography Further reading External links Coinage of Agathocles Agathocles- Encyclopædia Britannica Agathocles of Syracuse- Ancient History Encyclopedia |width=25% align=center|Preceded by:oligarchy position previously held by Timoleon in 337 BC |width=25% align=center|Tyrant of Syracuse317 BC289 BC |width=25% align=center|Succeeded by:Hicetas |- 361 BC births 289 BC deaths Ancient Greek generals Sicilian tyrants 4th-century BC Syracusans Ancient Himeraeans Greek exiles 3rd-century BC Syracusans 4th-century BC Greek monarchs 3rd-century BC monarchs People of the Sicilian Wars
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Agathocles of Syracuse", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Agathocles (, Agathoklḗs; 361–289 BC) was a Greek tyrant of Syracuse (317–289 BC) and self-styled king of Sicily (304–289 BC).\n\nBiography\nAgathocles was born at Thermae Himeraeae (modern name Termini Imerese), Magna Graecia, in Sicily. The son of a potter who had moved to Syracuse in about 343 BC, he learned his father's trade, but afterwards entered the army along with his brother Antander. In 333 BC he married the widow of his patron Damas, a distinguished and wealthy citizen. He was twice banished for attempting to overthrow the oligarchical party in Syracuse.\n\nIn 317 BC he returned with an army of mercenaries under a solemn oath to observe the democratic constitution which was established after they took the city. Having massacred the oligarchs and the richest of the citizenry, he thus made himself master of Syracuse, and he created a strong army and fleet and subdued the greater part of Sicily.\n\nWar with Carthage followed. In 311 BC Agathocles was defeated in the Battle of the Himera River and besieged in Syracuse. In 310 BC he made a desperate effort to break through the blockade and attack Carthage. He landed at Cape Bon in August 310 BC, and was able to defeat the Carthaginians for the first time, and establish a camp near Tunis. He then turned east, and tried to take over trading coastal cities such as Neapolis and Hadrumetum, and on this occasion concluded an alliance with Aelymas, king of the Libyans according to Diodorus of Sicily, in an attempt to surround and isolate Carthage. After capturing Hadrumetum, Thapsus and other coastal towns, Agathocles turned his attention to central Tunisia. Before or during this campaign, he broke his alliance with Ailymas, whom he pursued and killed, but he kept his Numidian army, including war chariots they built.\n\nIn 309/8 BC, Agathocles began trying to sway Ophellas, ruler of Cyrenaica, as he was likely to prove a useful ally in Agathocles' war against the Carthaginians. In order to gain his allegiance he promised to cede to Ophellas whatever conquests their combined forces might make in Africa, reserving to himself only the possession of Sicily. Ophellas gathered a powerful army from the homeland of his wife Euthydike (a descendant of Miltiades), Athens, where many citizens felt disgruntled after having lost their voting rights. Despite the natural obstacles which presented themselves on his route, Ophellas succeeded in reaching the Carthaginian territories after a toilsome and perilous march of more than two months. He was received by Agathocles with every demonstration of friendship, and the two armies encamped near each other, but a few days later Agathocles betrayed his new ally, by attacking the camp of the Cyrenaeans and having Ophellas killed. The Cyrenean troops, left without a leader, went over to Agathocles.\n\nFollowing several victories he was at last completely defeated (307 BC) and fled secretly to Sicily. After concluding peace with Carthage in 306 BC, Agathocles styled himself king of Sicily in 304 BC, and established his rule over the Greek cities of the island more firmly than ever. A peace treaty with Carthage left him in control of Sicily east of the Halycus River. Even in his old age he displayed the same restless energy, and is said to have been contemplating a fresh attack on Carthage at the time of his death.\n\nHis last years were plagued by ill-health and the turbulence of his grandson Archagathus, at whose instigation he is said to have been poisoned; according to others, he died a natural death. He was a born leader of mercenaries, and, although he did not shrink from cruelty to gain his ends, he afterwards showed himself a mild and popular \"tyrant\". Agathocles restored the Syracusan democracy on his death bed and did not want his sons to succeed him as king.\n\nAgathocles was married three times. His first wife, by whom he had two sons, was the widow of his patron Damas, Archagathus and his brother, who were both murdered in 307 BC. His second wife was Alcia and they had a daughter called Lanassa, who married as the second wife of King Pyrrhus of Epirus, and a son, Agathocles, who was murdered in a succession dispute shortly before his father's death. His third wife was the Greek Ptolemaic Princess Theoxena, who was the second daughter of Berenice I from her first husband Philip and was a stepdaughter of Ptolemy I Soter. Theoxena bore Agathocles two children: Archagathus and Theoxena. Theoxena survived Agathocles. He had further descendants from his second and third marriage.\n\nLegacy\nAgathocles was cited as an example \"Of those who become princes through their crimes\" in chapter 8 of Niccolò Machiavelli's treatise on politics - The Prince (1513).\nHe was described as behaving as a criminal at every stage of his career. Machiavelli claimed: \n\nMachiavelli goes on to reason that Agathocles' success, in contrast to other criminal tyrants, was due to his ability to commit his crimes quickly and ruthlessly, and states that cruelties are best used when they\n\nHowever, he came to \"glory\" as much as he did brutality by repelling invading Carthaginians and winning the loyalty of the denizens of his land.\n\nFamily tree of Agathocles\n\nPrimary sources\n Diodorus Siculus Library of History Books 19–21.\n Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus Book 22.\n Polyaenus 5.3\n Polybius 9.23\n\nReferences\n\nCited sources\n\nBibliography\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n\nCoinage of Agathocles\nAgathocles- Encyclopædia Britannica\nAgathocles of Syracuse- Ancient History Encyclopedia\n\n|width=25% align=center|Preceded by:oligarchy position previously held by Timoleon in 337 BC\n|width=25% align=center|Tyrant of Syracuse317 BC289 BC\n|width=25% align=center|Succeeded by:Hicetas\n|-\n\n361 BC births\n289 BC deaths\nAncient Greek generals\nSicilian tyrants\n4th-century BC Syracusans\nAncient Himeraeans\nGreek exiles\n3rd-century BC Syracusans\n4th-century BC Greek monarchs\n3rd-century BC monarchs\nPeople of the Sicilian Wars", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20III%20of%20Scotland
Alexander III (Medieval ; Modern Gaelic: ; 4 September 1241 – 19 March 1286) was King of Scots from 1249 until his death. He concluded the Treaty of Perth, by which Scotland acquired sovereignty over the Western Isles and the Isle of Man. His heir, Margaret, Maid of Norway, died before she could be crowned. Life Alexander was born at Roxburgh, the only son of Alexander II by his second wife Marie de Coucy. Alexander's father died on 6 July 1249 and he became king at the age of seven, inaugurated at Scone on 13 July 1249. The years of his minority featured an embittered struggle for the control of affairs between two rival parties, the one led by Walter Comyn, Earl of Menteith, the other by Alan Durward, Justiciar of Scotia. The former dominated the early years of Alexander's reign. At the marriage of Alexander to Margaret of England in 1251, Henry III of England seized the opportunity to demand homage from his son-in-law for the Scottish kingdom, but Alexander did not comply. In 1255, an interview between the English and Scottish kings at Kelso led to Menteith and his party losing to Durward's party. But though disgraced, they still retained great influence, and two years later, seizing the person of the king, they compelled their rivals to consent to the erection of a regency representative of both parties. On attaining his majority at the age of 21 in 1262, Alexander declared his intention of resuming the projects on the Western Isles which the death of his father thirteen years before had cut short. He laid a formal claim before King Haakon IV of Norway. Haakon rejected the claim, and in the following year responded with a formidable invasion. Sailing around the west coast of Scotland he halted off the Isle of Arran, and negotiations commenced. Alexander artfully prolonged the talks until the autumn storms should begin. At length Haakon, weary of delay, attacked, only to encounter a terrific storm which greatly damaged his ships. The Battle of Largs (October 1263) proved indecisive, but even so, Haakon's position was hopeless. Baffled, he turned homewards, but died in Orkney on 15 December 1263. The Isles now lay at Alexander's feet, and in 1266 Haakon's successor concluded the Treaty of Perth by which he ceded the Isle of Man and the Western Isles to Scotland in return for a monetary payment. Norway retained Orkney and Shetland until 1469 when they became a dowry for James III's bride, Margaret of Denmark. Death of Alexander III Alexander had married Margaret, daughter of King Henry III of England and Eleanor of Provence, on 26 December 1251, when he was ten years old and she was eleven. She died in 1275, after they had had three children. Margaret (28 February 1261 – 9 April 1283), who married King Eric II of Norway Alexander, Prince of Scotland (21 January 1264 Jedburgh – 28 January 1284 Lindores Abbey); buried in Dunfermline Abbey David (20 March 1272 – June 1281 Stirling Castle); buried in Dunfermline Abbey According to the Lanercost Chronicle, Alexander did not spend his decade as a widower alone: "he used never to forbear on account of season nor storm, nor for perils of flood or rocky cliffs, but would visit none too creditably nuns or matrons, virgins or widows as the fancy seized him, sometimes in disguise." Towards the end of Alexander's reign, the death of all three of his children within a few years made the question of the succession one of pressing importance. In 1284 he induced the Estates to recognize as his heir-presumptive his granddaughter Margaret, the "Maid of Norway". The need for a male heir led him to contract a second marriage to Yolande de Dreux on 1 November 1285. Alexander died in a fall from his horse while riding in the dark to visit the queen at Kinghorn in Fife on 19 March 1286 because it was her birthday the next day. He had spent the evening at Edinburgh Castle celebrating his second marriage and overseeing a meeting with royal advisors. He was cautioned against making the journey to Fife because of weather conditions, but crossed the Forth from Dalmeny to Inverkeithing anyway. On arriving in Inverkeithing, he insisted on not stopping for the night, despite the pleas of the nobles accompanying him and one of the burgesses of the town, Alexander Le Saucier. Le Saucier (who was either linked to the King's kitchen or the master of the local saltpans) must have been known to the King, since his rather blunt warning to the King lacks the usual deference: "My lord, what are you doing out in such weather and darkness? How many times have I tried to persuade you that midnight travelling will do you no good?" However, Alexander ignored the repeated warnings about travelling in a storm, and set off with his retinue and two local guides. The king became separated from his party near Kinghorn, and was found dead with a broken neck near the shore the following morning. It is assumed that his horse lost its footing in the dark. While some texts say that he fell off a cliff, there is none at the site where his body was found; however, there is a very steep rocky embankment, which "would have been fatal in the dark." After Alexander's death, his realm was plunged into a period of darkness that would eventually lead to war with England. He was buried in Dunfermline Abbey. As Alexander left no surviving children, the heir to the throne was his unborn child by Queen Yolande. When Yolande's pregnancy ended, probably with a miscarriage, Alexander's three-year-old granddaughter Margaret, Maid of Norway, became the heir. Margaret died, still uncrowned, on her way to Scotland in 1290. The inauguration of John Balliol as king on 30 November 1292 ended the six years of the Guardians of Scotland governing the land. The death of Alexander and the subsequent period of instability in Scotland was lamented in an early Scots poem recorded by Andrew of Wyntoun in his Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland. In 1886, a monument to Alexander III was erected at the approximate location of his death in Kinghorn. Fictional portrayals Alexander III has been depicted in historical novels. They include: The Thirsty Sword (1892) by Robert Leighton. The novel depicts the "Norse invasion of Scotland" (1262–1263, part of the Scottish–Norwegian War) and the Battle of Largs. It includes depictions of Alexander III and his opponent Haakon IV of Norway. Alexander the Glorious (1965) by Jane Oliver. The novel covers the entire reign of Alexander III (1249–1286), "almost entirely from Alexander's viewpoint". The Crown in Darkness (1988) by Paul C. Doherty. A crime fiction novel where Hugh Corbett investigates the "mysterious death" of Alexander III (1286). Alexander supposedly suffered a fatal fall from his horse. But there are suspicions of murder. The novel concludes that Alexander was indeed murdered "by a fanatical servant" of Edward I of England. The killer acting according to "Edward's secret desire to overwhelm and control Scotland". Doherty suggests that the personal relations of the two kings were strained by constant arguments, though this is not confirmed by historical sources. Quest For A Maid (1988) by Frances Mary Hendry. The novel depicts the life of Meg, her power-hungry older sister Inge, Lady Marjorie, Countess of Carrick and their part in securing the succession of Lady Marjorie's son Robert the Bruce to the Scottish throne. It includes depictions of Alexander III's death as "falling off a cliff" with sorcery as the cause. Insurrection (2010) by Robyn Young. This novel is the first of a series of novels primarily about the life and times of Robert the Bruce. However, it covers Alexander III and the circumstances surrounding his death in some detail. Raphael Holinshed, in his oft-fanciful history of England in his Chronicles, stated that at Alexander III's wedding, a horrible monster, mostly skeleton but with raw flesh, appeared at the end of the procession and caused the wedding to be hurriedly concluded. This was, in tradition, an omen of death. Crusader (1991) by Nigel Tranter. This novel follows the minority of Alexander III and his relationship with David de Lindsay. Tranter, who has written scores of historical novels spanning the range of Scotland's history, also wrote "Envoy Extraordinary" (1999) (about Patrick Earl of Dunbar) and "True Thomas" (1981) (about Thomas the Rhymer), both of which take place during the reign of Alexander III, and in which Alexander is a featured character. Ancestry Notes Sources Anderson, Alan Orr (ed.), Early Sources of Scottish History: AD 500–1286, 2 Vols, (Edinburgh, 1922), republished, Marjorie Anderson (ed.) (Stamford, 1991) idem (ed.), Scottish Annals from English Chroniclers: AD 500–1286, (London, 1908), republished, Marjorie Anderson (ed.) (Stamford, 1969) . . Scott, Robert McNair. Robert the Bruce: King of Scots, 1869 Further reading Alexander III at the official website of the British monarchy Alexander III at BBC History |- 1241 births 1286 deaths House of Dunkeld Nobility from the Scottish Borders Deaths by horse-riding accident in Scotland Medieval child monarchs 13th-century Scottish monarchs Burials at Dunfermline Abbey Scottish people of the Wars of Scottish Independence Gaelic monarchs in Scotland Scottish Roman Catholics
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20III%20of%20Scotland", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Alexander III (Medieval ; Modern Gaelic: ; 4 September 1241 – 19 March 1286) was King of Scots from 1249 until his death. He concluded the Treaty of Perth, by which Scotland acquired sovereignty over the Western Isles and the Isle of Man. His heir, Margaret, Maid of Norway, died before she could be crowned.\n\nLife\nAlexander was born at Roxburgh, the only son of Alexander II by his second wife Marie de Coucy. Alexander's father died on 6 July 1249 and he became king at the age of seven, inaugurated at Scone on 13 July 1249.\n\nThe years of his minority featured an embittered struggle for the control of affairs between two rival parties, the one led by Walter Comyn, Earl of Menteith, the other by Alan Durward, Justiciar of Scotia. The former dominated the early years of Alexander's reign. At the marriage of Alexander to Margaret of England in 1251, Henry III of England seized the opportunity to demand homage from his son-in-law for the Scottish kingdom, but Alexander did not comply. In 1255, an interview between the English and Scottish kings at Kelso led to Menteith and his party losing to Durward's party. But though disgraced, they still retained great influence, and two years later, seizing the person of the king, they compelled their rivals to consent to the erection of a regency representative of both parties.\n\nOn attaining his majority at the age of 21 in 1262, Alexander declared his intention of resuming the projects on the Western Isles which the death of his father thirteen years before had cut short. He laid a formal claim before King Haakon IV of Norway. Haakon rejected the claim, and in the following year responded with a formidable invasion. Sailing around the west coast of Scotland he halted off the Isle of Arran, and negotiations commenced. Alexander artfully prolonged the talks until the autumn storms should begin. At length Haakon, weary of delay, attacked, only to encounter a terrific storm which greatly damaged his ships. The Battle of Largs (October 1263) proved indecisive, but even so, Haakon's position was hopeless. Baffled, he turned homewards, but died in Orkney on 15 December 1263. The Isles now lay at Alexander's feet, and in 1266 Haakon's successor concluded the Treaty of Perth by which he ceded the Isle of Man and the Western Isles to Scotland in return for a monetary payment. Norway retained Orkney and Shetland until 1469 when they became a dowry for James III's bride, Margaret of Denmark.\n\nDeath of Alexander III\n\nAlexander had married Margaret, daughter of King Henry III of England and Eleanor of Provence, on 26 December 1251, when he was ten years old and she was eleven. She died in 1275, after they had had three children.\n Margaret (28 February 1261 – 9 April 1283), who married King Eric II of Norway\n Alexander, Prince of Scotland (21 January 1264 Jedburgh – 28 January 1284 Lindores Abbey); buried in Dunfermline Abbey\n David (20 March 1272 – June 1281 Stirling Castle); buried in Dunfermline Abbey\n\nAccording to the Lanercost Chronicle, Alexander did not spend his decade as a widower alone: \"he used never to forbear on account of season nor storm, nor for perils of flood or rocky cliffs, but would visit none too creditably nuns or matrons, virgins or widows as the fancy seized him, sometimes in disguise.\"\n\nTowards the end of Alexander's reign, the death of all three of his children within a few years made the question of the succession one of pressing importance. In 1284 he induced the Estates to recognize as his heir-presumptive his granddaughter Margaret, the \"Maid of Norway\". The need for a male heir led him to contract a second marriage to Yolande de Dreux on 1 November 1285.\n\nAlexander died in a fall from his horse while riding in the dark to visit the queen at Kinghorn in Fife on 19 March 1286 because it was her birthday the next day. He had spent the evening at Edinburgh Castle celebrating his second marriage and overseeing a meeting with royal advisors. He was cautioned against making the journey to Fife because of weather conditions, but crossed the Forth from Dalmeny to Inverkeithing anyway. On arriving in Inverkeithing, he insisted on not stopping for the night, despite the pleas of the nobles accompanying him and one of the burgesses of the town, Alexander Le Saucier. Le Saucier (who was either linked to the King's kitchen or the master of the local saltpans) must have been known to the King, since his rather blunt warning to the King lacks the usual deference: \"My lord, what are you doing out in such weather and darkness? How many times have I tried to persuade you that midnight travelling will do you no good?\"\n\nHowever, Alexander ignored the repeated warnings about travelling in a storm, and set off with his retinue and two local guides. The king became separated from his party near Kinghorn, and was found dead with a broken neck near the shore the following morning. It is assumed that his horse lost its footing in the dark. While some texts say that he fell off a cliff, there is none at the site where his body was found; however, there is a very steep rocky embankment, which \"would have been fatal in the dark.\" After Alexander's death, his realm was plunged into a period of darkness that would eventually lead to war with England. He was buried in Dunfermline Abbey.\n\nAs Alexander left no surviving children, the heir to the throne was his unborn child by Queen Yolande. When Yolande's pregnancy ended, probably with a miscarriage, Alexander's three-year-old granddaughter Margaret, Maid of Norway, became the heir. Margaret died, still uncrowned, on her way to Scotland in 1290. The inauguration of John Balliol as king on 30 November 1292 ended the six years of the Guardians of Scotland governing the land.\n\nThe death of Alexander and the subsequent period of instability in Scotland was lamented in an early Scots poem recorded by Andrew of Wyntoun in his Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland.\n\nIn 1886, a monument to Alexander III was erected at the approximate location of his death in Kinghorn.\n\nFictional portrayals\n\nAlexander III has been depicted in historical novels. They include:\n\nThe Thirsty Sword (1892) by Robert Leighton. The novel depicts the \"Norse invasion of Scotland\" (1262–1263, part of the Scottish–Norwegian War) and the Battle of Largs. It includes depictions of Alexander III and his opponent Haakon IV of Norway.\nAlexander the Glorious (1965) by Jane Oliver. The novel covers the entire reign of Alexander III (1249–1286), \"almost entirely from Alexander's viewpoint\".\nThe Crown in Darkness (1988) by Paul C. Doherty. A crime fiction novel where Hugh Corbett investigates the \"mysterious death\" of Alexander III (1286). Alexander supposedly suffered a fatal fall from his horse. But there are suspicions of murder. The novel concludes that Alexander was indeed murdered \"by a fanatical servant\" of Edward I of England. The killer acting according to \"Edward's secret desire to overwhelm and control Scotland\". Doherty suggests that the personal relations of the two kings were strained by constant arguments, though this is not confirmed by historical sources.\nQuest For A Maid (1988) by Frances Mary Hendry. The novel depicts the life of Meg, her power-hungry older sister Inge, Lady Marjorie, Countess of Carrick and their part in securing the succession of Lady Marjorie's son Robert the Bruce to the Scottish throne. It includes depictions of Alexander III's death as \"falling off a cliff\" with sorcery as the cause.\nInsurrection (2010) by Robyn Young. This novel is the first of a series of novels primarily about the life and times of Robert the Bruce. However, it covers Alexander III and the circumstances surrounding his death in some detail.\nRaphael Holinshed, in his oft-fanciful history of England in his Chronicles, stated that at Alexander III's wedding, a horrible monster, mostly skeleton but with raw flesh, appeared at the end of the procession and caused the wedding to be hurriedly concluded. This was, in tradition, an omen of death.\nCrusader (1991) by Nigel Tranter. This novel follows the minority of Alexander III and his relationship with David de Lindsay. Tranter, who has written scores of historical novels spanning the range of Scotland's history, also wrote \"Envoy Extraordinary\" (1999) (about Patrick Earl of Dunbar) and \"True Thomas\" (1981) (about Thomas the Rhymer), both of which take place during the reign of Alexander III, and in which Alexander is a featured character.\n\nAncestry\n\nNotes\n\nSources\nAnderson, Alan Orr (ed.), Early Sources of Scottish History: AD 500–1286, 2 Vols, (Edinburgh, 1922), republished, Marjorie Anderson (ed.) (Stamford, 1991)\nidem (ed.), Scottish Annals from English Chroniclers: AD 500–1286, (London, 1908), republished, Marjorie Anderson (ed.) (Stamford, 1969)\n.\n\n \n\n \n\n.\n \n\nScott, Robert McNair. Robert the Bruce: King of Scots, 1869\n\nFurther reading\n \n Alexander III at the official website of the British monarchy\n Alexander III at BBC History\n\n|-\n\n1241 births\n1286 deaths\nHouse of Dunkeld\nNobility from the Scottish Borders\nDeaths by horse-riding accident in Scotland\nMedieval child monarchs\n13th-century Scottish monarchs\nBurials at Dunfermline Abbey\nScottish people of the Wars of Scottish Independence\nGaelic monarchs in Scotland\nScottish Roman Catholics", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthan%20Police
The Rajasthan Police is the law enforcement agency for the state of Rajasthan in India. The Rajasthan Police has its headquarters in the Jaipur, the state capital. The motto of the force is "committed to serve". History History of Indian police under British rule is marked by a series of attempts to introduce more advance standards of conduct and integrity and to raise the tone of the force by improving the pay and prospects of its members. The reconstruction of police was a step towards the improvement of the administration of criminal justice in India. Rajasthan was formed by the merger of the erstwhile princely states so there is great demand of good quality security services because previously no United public administration services existed. The security and the police forces of the former princely states varied in composition, functions and administrative procedures. Following the merger, the police forces of the princely states united as of January, 1951. Organisational structure Rajasthan Police is headed by the Director General of Police (DGP). The DGP is assisted by the staff officers of the rank of ADGP, IGP, DIG, AIG, SP. Rajasthan Police is governed by the Department of Home, Government of Rajasthan. The State Police is divided into several divisions, units, zones, ranges for better administration. Hierarchy Officers Director General Of Police (DGP) Additional Director General of Police (ADGP) Inspector General of Police (IG) Deputy Inspector General of Police (DIG) Superintendent of Police (SP) Additional Superintendent of Police (Addl.SP) Assistant Superintendent of Police (ASP) Deputy SP (DySP) / Circle Officer (CO) Subordinates Inspector Sub inspector (SI) Assistant Sub Inspector (ASI) Head constable (HC) Constable (PC) Recruitment and service Recruitment is generally through the Rajasthan Public Service Commission (RPSC), which conducts a state-level examination called Rajasthan Administrative Service/Sub-ordinate Services Exam (RAS). After passing the exam, recruits undergo training at RPA Jaipur and RPTC. They are governed by Rajasthan Service Rules. The nine organisational units are Crime branch, Rajasthan Armed Constabulary (RAC), State Special Branch, Anti Terrorist Squad (ATS), Planning and Welfare, Training, Forensic Science laboratory, Telecommunications and Traffic Police. As of 2014 the Rajasthan Police employed 82,193 persons. Insignia of Rajasthan Police (State Police) Gazetted Officers Non-gazetted officers Hierarchy Officers Director General of Police (DGP) Additional Director General of Police Inspector General of Police (IGP) Deputy Inspector General of Police Senior Superintendent of Police Superintendent of Police (SP) Additional Superintendent of Police Assistant SP (IPS) or Deputy SP (RPS) Sub-ordinates Inspector of Police Sub-Inspector of Police Assistant Sub-Inspector of Police Head Constable Senior Constable Constable Present scenario Over the years Rajasthan Police has firmly and professionally dealt with bandits (dacoits) in the Chambal ravines, organised crime, spies, smugglers, narco-terrorists and subversive elements from across the long border with Pakistan. The Rajasthan Police is headed by the Director General of Police (DGP). Rajasthan is divided into 2 police commissionerate, 7 police range each headed by an Inspector General of Police (IGP). The state is further divided into 40 districts (including 3 rural districts, 2 city districts in Jaipur City and 2 railway police districts), 171 circles, 709 police stations and 788 out-posts. The force had 889 Inspectors, 3366 Sub-Inspectors, 3902 Asst. Sub-Inspectors, 8867 Head Constables and 52,837 Constables and about 700 Indian Police Service (IPS) and Rajasthan Police Service (RPS) officers. Rajasthan Armed Constabulary Soon after independence, the law and order situation along the 1070 km Indo-Pakistani border became a serious problem. Incursions and cattle lifting by Pakistani raiders was a regular feature and it became imperative to put an end to it. In 1949-50, the duty of guarding the border was handed over to the joint forces of the Central Reserve Police and the Provincial Armed Constabulary, which continued until 1952. In 1952, the Government of Rajasthan decided to raise a special force that could not only be deployed along the border but also assist the civil police in combating the dacoity menace. The first headquarters and training centre was established at Bharatpur in 1952 and five battalions received training there. These men, some ex-soldiers drawn from the State forces and some from places outside Rajasthan, were a part of the first 5 battalions of the Rajasthan Armed Constabulary. Each battalion consisted of 6 companies and one company remained at the battalion headquarters. These battalions were then dispatched to the border areas of Sriganganagar, Raisinghnagar, Barmer, and Jaisalmer. One unit was stationed at Ghat Gate, Jaipur to check dacoity. Within a year of its inception, the RAC proved its worth both on the border and within the State by successfully carrying out its various duties. The members of RAC displayed gallantry and high sense of morale on occasions that required courage, perseverance, and devotion to duty. Its men battled against all odds, combating not only the enemy but also facing the rigours of the desert areas devoid even of the bare necessities of life. The RAC continued as a temporary force until 1958, there after it was made permanent. From that year up to the late 1970s more battalions of RAC were raised as per the situation and the need. India saw two wars with Pakistan and one with China and there was unrest in Jammu and Kashmir, NEFA, as well as Mizoram. RAC battalions were dispatched to these sensitive areas and earned accolades for their courage and efficiency. In 1962, two companies were taken out of each unit and the 6th Battalion was formed. More battalions followed in the subsequent years. Later, seven of these RAC battalions were merged with the Border Security Force and two with the Central Reserve Police Force. Over a period of time, increasing criminal tendencies, subversive political activities, communalism and violence, have all led to the worsening of the law and order situation all over the country. Rajasthan could not remain unaffected. Hence, the need was felt to create a special task force, familiar with modern techniques necessary to deal effectively with communal disturbances. In 1998, a Special Task Force, along the lines of the Rapid Action Force of C.R.P.F., was formed to maintain peace in the sensitive districts of Rajasthan. These companies are trained and fully equipped to handle riots. The training imparted to the select RAC companies is decided as per requirements. There are 3 companies of RAC, which have drawn expert swimmers from various R.A.C. battalions and are being trained for flood relief work. The 67 years of RAC's existence have been full of legendary stories, of heroic encounters, of gallant men and their dare devilry. One story that is still related with considerable pride is about the unforgettable encounter with dacoits in Thor village of Dholpur - it lasted for 18 hours. The outcome? thirteen dacoits held and no casualties on the RAC side. As on today fifteen battalions of RAC including one special battalion formed by only Ladies Constables Specially trained Unit named Hadi Rani Mahila Battalion (14 regular battalions + 1 Mahila battalion) and a sole battalion of MBC are there in the State as State paramilitary force. Out of these 14 battalions of RAC, 11 battalions are deployed in Rajasthan while 3 are in Delhi. All units First Battalion – Jodhpur Second Battalion – Kota Third Battalion – Bikaner Fourth Battalion – Jaipur Fifth Battalion – Jaipur Sixth Battalion – Dholpur Seventh Battalion – Bharatpur Eighth Battalion – Delhi Ninth Battalion – Tonk Tenth Battalion – Bikaner Eleventh Battalion – Delhi Twelfth Battalion – Delhi Thirteenth Battalion – Jail Security Fourteenth Battalion – Bharatpur See also Mewar Bhil Corps Notes References External links Rajasthan Police official website Rajasthan Police Sub Inspector Exam 2021 State law enforcement agencies of India 1951 establishments in Rajasthan Government agencies established in 1951
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthan%20Police", "role": "user" }, { "content": "The Rajasthan Police is the law enforcement agency for the state of Rajasthan in India. The Rajasthan Police has its headquarters in the Jaipur, the state capital. The motto of the force is \"committed to serve\".\n\nHistory \nHistory of Indian police under British rule is marked by a series of attempts to introduce more advance standards of conduct and integrity and to raise the tone of the force by improving the pay and prospects of its members. The reconstruction of police was a step towards the improvement of the administration of criminal justice in India. Rajasthan was formed by the merger of the erstwhile princely states so there is great demand of good quality security services because previously no United public administration services existed. The security and the police forces of the former princely states varied in composition, functions and administrative procedures. Following the merger, the police forces of the princely states united as of January, 1951.\n\nOrganisational structure \nRajasthan Police is headed by the Director General of Police (DGP). The DGP is assisted by the staff officers of the rank of ADGP, IGP, DIG, AIG, SP. Rajasthan Police is governed by the Department of Home, Government of Rajasthan. The State Police is divided into several divisions, units, zones, ranges for better administration.\n\nHierarchy\n\nOfficers \n\n Director General Of Police (DGP)\n Additional Director General of Police (ADGP)\n Inspector General of Police (IG)\n Deputy Inspector General of Police (DIG)\n Superintendent of Police (SP)\n Additional Superintendent of Police (Addl.SP)\n Assistant Superintendent of Police (ASP)\n Deputy SP (DySP) / Circle Officer (CO)\n\nSubordinates \n\n Inspector\n Sub inspector (SI)\n Assistant Sub Inspector (ASI)\n Head constable (HC)\n Constable (PC)\n\nRecruitment and service \nRecruitment is generally through the Rajasthan Public Service Commission (RPSC), which conducts a state-level examination called Rajasthan Administrative Service/Sub-ordinate Services Exam (RAS). After passing the exam, recruits undergo training at RPA Jaipur and RPTC. They are governed by Rajasthan Service Rules. The nine organisational units are Crime branch, Rajasthan Armed Constabulary (RAC), State Special Branch, Anti Terrorist Squad (ATS), Planning and Welfare, Training, Forensic Science laboratory, Telecommunications and Traffic Police.\n\nAs of 2014 the Rajasthan Police employed 82,193 persons.\n\nInsignia of Rajasthan Police (State Police)\nGazetted Officers\n\nNon-gazetted officers\n\nHierarchy\n\nOfficers\n\n Director General of Police (DGP)\n Additional Director General of Police \n Inspector General of Police (IGP)\n Deputy Inspector General of Police \n Senior Superintendent of Police \n Superintendent of Police (SP)\n Additional Superintendent of Police \n Assistant SP (IPS) or Deputy SP (RPS)\n\nSub-ordinates\n Inspector of Police \n Sub-Inspector of Police \n Assistant Sub-Inspector of Police \n Head Constable \n Senior Constable \n Constable\n\nPresent scenario\n\nOver the years Rajasthan Police has firmly and professionally dealt with bandits (dacoits) in the Chambal ravines, organised crime, spies, smugglers, narco-terrorists and subversive elements from across the long border with Pakistan. The Rajasthan Police is headed by the Director General of Police (DGP). Rajasthan is divided into 2 police commissionerate, 7 police range each headed by an Inspector General of Police (IGP). The state is further divided into 40 districts (including 3 rural districts, 2 city districts in Jaipur City and 2 railway police districts), 171 circles, 709 police stations and 788 out-posts. The force had 889 Inspectors, 3366 Sub-Inspectors, 3902 Asst. Sub-Inspectors, 8867 Head Constables and 52,837 Constables and about 700 Indian Police Service (IPS) and Rajasthan Police Service (RPS) officers.\n\nRajasthan Armed Constabulary\n\nSoon after independence, the law and order situation along the 1070 km Indo-Pakistani border became a serious problem. Incursions and cattle lifting by Pakistani raiders was a regular feature and it became imperative to put an end to it. In 1949-50, the duty of guarding the border was handed over to the joint forces of the Central Reserve Police and the Provincial Armed Constabulary, which continued until 1952. In 1952, the Government of Rajasthan decided to raise a special force that could not only be deployed along the border but also assist the civil police in combating the dacoity menace. The first headquarters and training centre was established at Bharatpur in 1952 and five battalions received training there. These men, some ex-soldiers drawn from the State forces and some from places outside Rajasthan, were a part of the first 5 battalions of the Rajasthan Armed Constabulary. Each battalion consisted of 6 companies and one company remained at the battalion headquarters. These battalions were then dispatched to the border areas of Sriganganagar, Raisinghnagar, Barmer, and Jaisalmer. One unit was stationed at Ghat Gate, Jaipur to check dacoity. Within a year of its inception, the RAC proved its worth both on the border and within the State by successfully carrying out its various duties.\n\nThe members of RAC displayed gallantry and high sense of morale on occasions that required courage, perseverance, and devotion to duty. Its men battled against all odds, combating not only the enemy but also facing the rigours of the desert areas devoid even of the bare necessities of life. The RAC continued as a temporary force until 1958, there after it was made permanent. From that year up to the late 1970s more battalions of RAC were raised as per the situation and the need. India saw two wars with Pakistan and one with China and there was unrest in Jammu and Kashmir, NEFA, as well as Mizoram. RAC battalions were dispatched to these sensitive areas and earned accolades for their courage and efficiency. In 1962, two companies were taken out of each unit and the 6th Battalion was formed. More battalions followed in the subsequent years. Later, seven of these RAC battalions were merged with the Border Security Force and two with the Central Reserve Police Force. Over a period of time, increasing criminal tendencies, subversive political activities, communalism and violence, have all led to the worsening of the law and order situation all over the country. Rajasthan could not remain unaffected.\n\nHence, the need was felt to create a special task force, familiar with modern techniques necessary to deal effectively with communal disturbances. In 1998, a Special Task Force, along the lines of the Rapid Action Force of C.R.P.F., was formed to maintain peace in the sensitive districts of Rajasthan. These companies are trained and fully equipped to handle riots. The training imparted to the select RAC companies is decided as per requirements. There are 3 companies of RAC, which have drawn expert swimmers from various R.A.C. battalions and are being trained for flood relief work. The 67 years of RAC's existence have been full of legendary stories, of heroic encounters, of gallant men and their dare devilry. One story that is still related with considerable pride is about the unforgettable encounter with dacoits in Thor village of Dholpur - it lasted for 18 hours. The outcome? thirteen dacoits held and no casualties on the RAC side. As on today fifteen battalions of RAC including one special battalion formed by only Ladies Constables Specially trained Unit named Hadi Rani Mahila Battalion (14 regular battalions + 1 Mahila battalion) and a sole battalion of MBC are there in the State as State paramilitary force. Out of these 14 battalions of RAC, 11 battalions are deployed in Rajasthan while 3 are in Delhi.\n\nAll units\nFirst Battalion – Jodhpur\nSecond Battalion – Kota\nThird Battalion – Bikaner\nFourth Battalion – Jaipur\nFifth Battalion – Jaipur\nSixth Battalion – Dholpur\nSeventh Battalion – Bharatpur\nEighth Battalion – Delhi\nNinth Battalion – Tonk\nTenth Battalion – Bikaner\nEleventh Battalion – Delhi\nTwelfth Battalion – Delhi\nThirteenth Battalion – Jail Security\nFourteenth Battalion – Bharatpur\n\nSee also\n Mewar Bhil Corps\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Rajasthan Police official website\n Rajasthan Police Sub Inspector Exam 2021\n\n \nState law enforcement agencies of India\n1951 establishments in Rajasthan\nGovernment agencies established in 1951", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Cruz%20de%20Goi%C3%A1s
Santa Cruz de Goiás is a municipality in southeast Goiás state, Brazil. Geography Santa Cruz is located in the southeastern part of the state, 33 km. west of regional center, Pires do Rio. The Rio dos Bois, a tributary of the Corumbá River flows from north to south through the municipality. It has boundaries with Pires do Rio, Palmelo, Cristianópolis, Caldas Novas and Piracanjuba. It is 121 kilometers from the state capital, Goiânia and is connected by BR-352 / Bela Vista de Goiás / Cristianópolis / GO-020. See Distancias Rodoviarias Sepin for all the distances. The municipality is bathed by the Rio dos Bois, Rio do Peixe, córregos Manoel Duarte, Muquém, Buriti, Pedra de Amolar, Brumadinho, Caiapó, Pirapitinga, Fundo, Mato Virgem, Água Suja, São Benedito, Córrego da Chuva, Sapé, Dantas, and by the Ribeirão Brumado. In topography there is the Serra do Rio do Peixe, the hills of Clemente, Queiroz, Cuscuzeiro, Dois Irmãos, Pertapé, Serra dos Macacos, Cabeça de Mel and Capão Bonito. The climate is tropical humid. Political Information Mayor: Esley Augusto Damaso (January 2005) City council: 09 Eligible voters: 2,898 (December/2007) Demographics Population distribution is characterized by the fact that the rural population outnumbered the urban by almost two to one. Population density: 3.19 inhabitants/km2 (2007) Urban population: 1,007 (2007) Rural population: 2,535 (2007) Population growth: a loss of about 500 people since 1980 The economy The economy is based on agriculture, cattle raising, services, public administration, and small transformation industries. Industrial units: 3 (2007) Commercial units: 18 (2007) Cattle herd: 65,000 head (15,000 milk cows) Main crops: rice, beans, manioc, coffee, bananas, soybeans (10,000 hectares) and corn Agricultural data 2006 Number of farms: 725 Total area: 97,104 ha. Area of permanent crops: 92 ha. Area of perennial crops: 13,369 ha. Area of natural pasture: 55,190 ha. Area of woodland and forests: 26,435 ha. Persons dependent on farming: 1,500 Farms with tractors: 161 Number of tractors: 316 Cattle herd: 65,000 head IBGE Education (2006) Schools: 4 Classrooms: 25 Teachers: 40 Students: 726 Middle schools enrollment: 123 Higher education: none Adult literacy rate: 87.5% (2000) (national average was 86.4%) Health (2007) Hospitals: 1 Hospital beds: 12 Ambulatory clinics: 3 Infant mortality rate: 14.0 (2000) (national average was 33.0) Human Development Index MHDI: 0.782 State ranking: 26 (out of 242 municipalities) National ranking: 1,006 (out of 5,507 municipalities) For the complete list see Frigoletto.com History Unlike many of the municipalities in Goiás, Santa Cruz has its origins in the 18th century, when mule drivers in 1721 on their way to the mines of Cuiabá discovered gold in the region. A cross was raised and the arraial (village) of Santa Cruz was founded in 1729. Later when the territory was divided in two Santa Cruz was the center of a julgado, which was almost the size of Portugal. In 1833 it was raised to the status of a municipality. The first railroad arrived 28 kilometers away in 1914 and the station was called Pires do Rio, which later became the most important city of the region. With attractive landscapes around the city, Santa Cruz has rivers and waterfalls that promise future touristic development. See also List of municipalities in Goiás Microregions of Goiás References Frigoletto Sepin Municipalities in Goiás Populated places established in 1729 1729 establishments in Brazil
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Cruz%20de%20Goi%C3%A1s", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Santa Cruz de Goiás is a municipality in southeast Goiás state, Brazil.\n\nGeography\nSanta Cruz is located in the southeastern part of the state, 33 km. west of regional center, Pires do Rio. The Rio dos Bois, a tributary of the Corumbá River flows from north to south through the municipality.\nIt has boundaries with Pires do Rio, Palmelo, Cristianópolis, Caldas Novas and Piracanjuba. It is 121 kilometers from the state capital, Goiânia and is connected by BR-352 / Bela Vista de Goiás / Cristianópolis / GO-020. See Distancias Rodoviarias Sepin for all the distances.\n\nThe municipality is bathed by the Rio dos Bois, Rio do Peixe, córregos Manoel Duarte, Muquém, Buriti, Pedra de Amolar, Brumadinho, Caiapó, Pirapitinga, Fundo, Mato Virgem, Água Suja, São Benedito, Córrego da Chuva, Sapé, Dantas, and by the Ribeirão Brumado. In topography there is the Serra do Rio do Peixe, the hills of Clemente, Queiroz, Cuscuzeiro, Dois Irmãos, Pertapé, Serra dos Macacos, Cabeça de Mel and Capão Bonito. The climate is tropical humid.\n\nPolitical Information\nMayor: Esley Augusto Damaso (January 2005)\nCity council: 09\nEligible voters: 2,898 (December/2007)\n\nDemographics\nPopulation distribution is characterized by the fact that the rural population outnumbered the urban by almost two to one. \nPopulation density: 3.19 inhabitants/km2 (2007)\nUrban population: 1,007 (2007)\nRural population: 2,535 (2007)\nPopulation growth: a loss of about 500 people since 1980\n\nThe economy\nThe economy is based on agriculture, cattle raising, services, public administration, and small transformation industries. \nIndustrial units: 3 (2007)\nCommercial units: 18 (2007)\nCattle herd: 65,000 head (15,000 milk cows)\nMain crops: rice, beans, manioc, coffee, bananas, soybeans (10,000 hectares) and corn\n\nAgricultural data 2006\nNumber of farms: 725\nTotal area: 97,104 ha.\nArea of permanent crops: 92 ha.\nArea of perennial crops: 13,369 ha.\nArea of natural pasture: 55,190 ha. \nArea of woodland and forests: 26,435 ha. \nPersons dependent on farming: 1,500\nFarms with tractors: 161\nNumber of tractors: 316\nCattle herd: 65,000 head IBGE\n\nEducation (2006)\nSchools: 4\nClassrooms: 25\nTeachers: 40\nStudents: 726\nMiddle schools enrollment: 123\nHigher education: none\nAdult literacy rate: 87.5% (2000) (national average was 86.4%)\n\nHealth (2007)\nHospitals: 1\nHospital beds: 12\nAmbulatory clinics: 3\nInfant mortality rate: 14.0 (2000) (national average was 33.0)\n\nHuman Development Index\nMHDI: 0.782\nState ranking: 26 (out of 242 municipalities)\nNational ranking: 1,006 (out of 5,507 municipalities) For the complete list see Frigoletto.com\n\nHistory\nUnlike many of the municipalities in Goiás, Santa Cruz has its origins in the 18th century, when mule drivers in 1721 on their way to the mines of Cuiabá discovered gold in the region. A cross was raised and the arraial (village) of Santa Cruz was founded in 1729. Later when the territory was divided in two Santa Cruz was the center of a julgado, which was almost the size of Portugal. In 1833 it was raised to the status of a municipality. The first railroad arrived 28 kilometers away in 1914 and the station was called Pires do Rio, which later became the most important city of the region.\n\nWith attractive landscapes around the city, Santa Cruz has rivers and waterfalls that promise future touristic development.\n\nSee also \nList of municipalities in Goiás\nMicroregions of Goiás\n\nReferences\n\nFrigoletto\n Sepin\n\nMunicipalities in Goiás\nPopulated places established in 1729\n1729 establishments in Brazil", "role": "assistant" } ]
1998–99 in English football
The 1998–99 season was the 119th season of competitive football in England. Overview Premier League Manchester United overcame close competition from Arsenal and Chelsea to win their fifth Premiership title in seven seasons. They went on to win the treble of the Premiership title, FA Cup and European Cup, an achievement which gained manager Alex Ferguson a knighthood. Nottingham Forest went down to Division One just one season after winning promotion. They had started the season terribly after manager Dave Bassett was sacked and Dutch striker Pierre van Hooijdonk refused to play after a dispute with the club. Experienced Ron Atkinson was brought in on a temporary contract but could not stave off relegation. Joining Forest in the Premiership drop zone were Blackburn Rovers, who had been Premiership champions just four years earlier, and Charlton Athletic. Southampton avoided relegation on the last day of the season, and their survival also signalled the go-ahead for a new stadium which would be in use for the 2001–02 season. Division One Sunderland were crowned Division One champions with a record 105 points, having lost just three games all season. The two other promotion places were secured by two of the division's least fancied sides – runners-up Bradford City, back in the top division for the first time in 77 years, and playoff winners Watford, who thus won their second successive promotion during Graham Taylor's second spell as manager. Bury, Oxford United and Bristol City occupied the three relegation places in Division One. Oxford's dismal season was mainly down to debts of £10 million which were putting the club in real danger of closure and had also resulted in the suspension of construction of their new stadium near the Blackbird Leys estate. Division Two Kevin Keegan completed his spell as Fulham manager before taking the England job by guiding the Cottagers to the Division Two championship with 101 points. Following them up were runners-up Walsall and playoff winners Manchester City. Going down were York City, Northampton Town, Lincoln City and Macclesfield Town. Narrowly avoiding the drop to Division Three were Oldham Athletic, who just five years earlier had been a Premiership side and FA Cup semi-finalists. Division Three Brentford, Cambridge United, Cardiff City and Scunthorpe United occupied the four promotion places in Division Three. Carlisle United secured their league status with seconds to spare in their final game. They entered the game in bottom place, and with 90 minutes on the clock in their home game against Plymouth Argyle they were drawing 1–1 and needed a win to stay up. The referee then allowed four minutes of stoppage time and with just seconds to go, goalkeeper Jimmy Glass came upfield and scored from a rebounded corner to preserve his club's place in the league, which had been held since 1928. Scarborough, who had only joined the league in 1987, were relegated instead. Glass, 25, had been signed on loan from Swindon Town after the transfer deadline because an injury crisis had left Carlisle without a goalkeeper for the final few games of the season. FA Cup Manchester United beat Newcastle United 2–0 to secure their third double triumph in six seasons and completed the second part of their treble. League Cup Tottenham Hotspur, under the management of George Graham, won the League Cup by defeating Leicester City in the final. On the way they knocked out Manchester United, stopping Scotsman Alex Ferguson emulating his fellow countrymen Celtic's quadruple success of 1967. Individual awards and records Tottenham's French midfielder David Ginola was voted PFA Players' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year after helping his club win the League Cup. 19-year-old Arsenal and France striker Nicolas Anelka was voted PFA Young Player of the Year. David Seaman became the most successful goalkeeper in English league history after conceding just 17 league goals in a season with Arsenal. Successful managers Alex Ferguson was knighted after guiding Manchester United to the treble of the Premiership title, FA Cup and European Cup. George Graham gave Tottenham Hotspur their first successful season for almost a decade by guiding them to League Cup glory. Peter Reid took Sunderland into the Premiership as Division One champions with 105 points. Harry Redknapp guided West Ham United to fifth place in the Premiership to secure their first European qualification for nearly 20 years. Paul Jewell ended Bradford City's 77-year wait for a return to the top division. Graham Taylor took Watford into the Premiership as they won the Division One playoffs and secured their second successive promotion. Kevin Keegan finished his spell as Fulham manager by guiding them to the Division Two title with 101 points, before quitting to concentrate on his role as England manager. Ray Graydon pulled off a major surprise in his first season as Walsall manager by gaining promotion to Division One. Steve Cotterill, 35, guided Cheltenham Town into the Football League as Conference champions. Brian Laws took Scunthorpe United out of the league's basement division for the first time in more than a decade after they won the Division Three playoffs. Events Ferguson knighted after United's treble Manchester United completed the treble of the Premiership title, FA Cup and European Cup. Part one of United's treble was completed when they beat Tottenham 2–1 on the last day of the season to ensure that Arsenal did not retain the Premiership title. A week later they completed the second part of the treble with a 2–0 victory over Newcastle United in the FA Cup final. United's treble aspirations seemed to have been thwarted in the European Cup final at Barcelona's Nou Camp stadium, with Bayern Munich leading 1–0 at the end of normal time. Referee Pierluigi Collina allowed three minutes of stoppage time and within the first minute, substitute Teddy Sheringham forced an equaliser. Sheringham's goal looked to have forced extra time, but with the last kick of the game Ole Gunnar Solskjær scored a winner and United fans and players went wild. On 12 June, Alex Ferguson received a knighthood in recognition for his services to football, making him the seventh knight of English football and the third knight to be associated with Manchester United after Matt Busby and Bobby Charlton. Hoddle ousted On 2 February, the FA terminated Glenn Hoddle's contract as England manager after he appeared in The Times and suggested that disabled people were being "punished for sins in previous lives". His comments had sparked outrage amongst disabled people to such an extent that the FA felt they had no option but to sack him. The search began for his successor. A month later, former Newcastle manager Kevin Keegan agreed to take charge of the England team but stayed on as Fulham manager until the end of the season, guiding them to the Division Two title. New arrivals in Premiership A year after their playoff final defeat to Charlton Athletic in a penalty shoot-out, Peter Reid's Sunderland returned to the Premiership after winning the Division One championship with a record 105 points. Sunderland, who had moved into their new home, the Stadium of Light, two years earlier, had been widely tipped for promotion to the top flight. Bradford City, led by manager Paul Jewell, had been outside the top division since 1922. Their only silverware had been an FA Cup triumph in 1911. But the inexperienced Jewell surprised many observers by putting together a strong Bradford side who cruised to second place in Division One and booked their place in the Premiership. The third and final place in the Premiership went to playoff winners Watford, managed by Graham Taylor for the second time (he had previously been in charge from 1976 until 1987). Taylor had finally achieved some success the previous year in form of the Division Two championship, having endured a torrid time with England and then Wolves. Watford secured a second successive promotion by beating Bolton Wanderers 2–0 in the playoff final. Glass's last gasp goal keeps Carlisle in league Carlisle United went into the final game of the 1998–99 Division Three campaign knowing that they had to beat Plymouth Argyle to hang on to the Football League place they had held since 1928. In April, an injury crisis had forced Carlisle to bring in goalkeeper Jimmy Glass on loan from Swindon Town and the Football League gave permission for the transfer to go ahead despite the transfer deadline having already passed. With 90 minutes on the clock for Carlisle's home fixture against Plymouth, the referee allowed four minutes of stoppage time. Ten seconds before the end of stoppage time, Jimmy Glass ran upfield after a corner was given and slammed the ball into the back of the net to keep Carlisle in the league and send Scarborough down to the Conference. Blackburn go down Blackburn Rovers, Premiership champions in 1995, were relegated from the Premiership in 1999 with a side which had lost almost all of its title winning players. Roy Hodgson had arrived as manager in 1997 and achieved UEFA Cup qualification in his first season as manager, only to be sacked the following November as Blackburn found themselves caught up in a relegation battle. Manchester United's successful assistant manager Brian Kidd was brought in as his successor. But Blackburn's relegation fight was finally lost after they drew 0–0 at home to Manchester United in the penultimate game of the season. Chairman Jack Walker was now faced with finding the funds to build a side that could win promotion back to the Premiership, 12 months after he handed an open cheque book to Roy Hodgson in hope of winning the league. Cheltenham promoted Cheltenham Town won the Conference with Steve Cotterill guiding the Robins to the Football League. They had won the FA Trophy the previous season but were beaten to promotion by Halifax Town. They replaced Scarborough. League tables FA Premier League The seventh season of the FA Premier League saw Manchester United finish champions for the fifth time, one point ahead of the previous season's champions Arsenal. United also ended Arsenal's defence of the FA Cup, going on to defeat Newcastle United in the final to become the first English team to win the league title and FA Cup double on three occasions, having already won the double in 1994 and 1996. They then went on to win the Champions League to become only the second English club to win three major trophies in the same season. This made them the first English club to win the Champions League in fifteen years, and manager Alex Ferguson was knighted. Chelsea's revival continued with a third-place finish in the league, although they failed to add any more silverware to the three cups won in the previous two seasons. Following the loss of manager George Graham to Tottenham in the autumn, Leeds United finished fourth under their new manager David O'Leary. Fifth place went to West Ham United, who qualified for Europe for the first time in nearly twenty years. Aston Villa, who had topped the table for much of the first half of the season, could only finish sixth, while Liverpool's seventh-place finish was a disappointing start for new manager Gérard Houllier. Tottenham Hotspur finished 11th under new manager George Graham but won the League Cup to end their eight-year wait for a major trophy and a place in Europe. They also reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup. Newly promoted Nottingham Forest were relegated in bottom place, their third relegation in seven seasons prompting manager Ron Atkinson (only appointed in January) to announce his retirement from management. Blackburn Rovers, league champions just four years earlier, were the next team to go down; the appointment of long-serving Manchester United assistant Brian Kidd as manager appeared to have turned the corner after a terrible start to the season, but a failure to win any of their final eight matches saw them relegated. Newly promoted Charlton Athletic were the last side to lose their top flight status, going down on the final day of the season as Southampton survived. Leading goalscorer: Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink (Leeds), Michael Owen (Liverpool) and Dwight Yorke (Manchester United) – 18 Division One After the play-off final disappointment of the previous year, Sunderland returned to the top-flight in record breaking fashion, earning 105 points, setting a new record under the three points for a win system. Bradford City, who had only narrowly avoided relegation in the previous two seasons, returned to the top-flight for the first time in over 75 years, as Paul Jewell enjoyed a highly successful first full season as manager. Watford beat out pre-season favourites Bolton Wanderers in the play-off final, earning them their second successive promotion and also earning manager Graham Taylor the joint record for most promotions earned by a single manager. Wolverhampton Wanderers just missed out on the playoffs after the dismissal of Mark McGhee in November paved the way for his assistant Colin Lee to take over and oversee a strong run of form which lifted the side into the top half of the table to finish seventh. Steve Bruce began his managerial career by guiding Sheffield United to an 8th-place finish before succeeding Peter Jackson at Huddersfield Town. Mark Goldberg's dream of turning Crystal Palace into a major footballing force quickly turned into a nightmare as financial problems almost put the club out of business, with head coach Terry Venables quitting halfway through the season and Steve Coppell taking charge for the fourth time in fifteen years to steer Palace to 14th place. Bristol City finished bottom and suffered immediate relegation back to Division Two, as the club's decision to replace promotion-winning manager John Ward with Benny Lennartsson just a few weeks into the season failed to pay off. Oxford United finished second bottom amid increasing financial turmoil, and Bury were relegated on the last day due to the League's usage of goals scored over goal difference to separate sides on the same number of points (Port Vale would otherwise have been relegated due to their considerably worse goal difference). Adding to Bury's frustration, goal difference was reinstated the following season. Leading goalscorer: Lee Hughes (West Bromwich Albion) – 31 Division Two Despite manager Kevin Keegan juggling his job with the England manager's job for the second half of the season, Fulham won the Division Two title and earned their second promotion in three seasons, though Keegan departed after the season ended. Walsall proved the surprise package of the division and entered the second tier for only the third time in their history. Manchester City, who had suffered a spectacular fall from grace over the last few years, immediately won promotion during their first ever season at this level, defeating Gillingham in a dramatic play-off final. Ambitious Reading could only manage an 11th-place finish in their first season at the impressive new Madejski Stadium, while Stoke City's early promise under Brian Little was short-lived and an 8th-place finish was not enough for even a playoff place. Stoke then turned to Gary Megson in their quest to get back into Division One. This season proved a step too far for Macclesfield, who had been promoted from the Conference and Division Three in successive years, and they were relegated in bottom place. Lincoln City were unable to recover from a dreadful start to the season and occupied the second bottom spot, also returning to Division Three after just a year. Northampton Town suffered a massively disappointing season after finishing fourth the previous year, and were relegated in third-bottom place. York City cruelly went down on the last day, after experiencing a disastrous second half of the season and falling into the relegation zone with mere seconds remaining of their final match. Oldham Athletic finished one place and point clear of the relegation zone and avoided a third relegation in six seasons. Leading goalscorer: Jamie Cureton (Bristol Rovers) – 25 Division Three Brentford chairman Ron Noades' unorthodox decision to appoint himself as manager paid off in surprising fashion, and they won promotion back to Division Two as champions. Cambridge United had actually led the division for most of the season but suffered from drawing too many games in the final months of the season and thus had to settle for second place. Cardiff City took the final automatic promotion spot, as Frank Burrows brought immediate success to the club in his second spell as manager. Scunthorpe United won the play-offs, earning their first promotion since 1983, giving them football above the fourth tier for the first time at Glanford Park. In one of the most dramatic ends to a season in recent memory, Scarborough were relegated to the Football Conference. They had been bottom for most of the second half of the season, but appeared to have turned the corner by earning two wins and a draw from their last three matches. Carlisle United, who had been below them prior to the final match of the season, earned a shock injury time winner through goalkeeper Jimmy Glass, saving their League status and sending Scarborough down. Hull City were in the relegation battle up to the penultimate game of the season, soon after Southend United won their battle against a third successive relegation. Leading goalscorer: Marco Gabbiadini (Darlington) – 24 Diary of the season 16 July 1998 – Former French national coach Gérard Houllier is appointed joint manager of Liverpool to work alongside Roy Evans. It is the first time in the club's 106-year history that two managers have been placed in charge of the first team. 19 July 1998 – Manchester United deny reports that they will be joining a proposed European Super League of up to 32 clubs. 3 August 1998 – Newcastle United pay £5.25million for Germany midfielder Dietmar Hamann from Bayern Munich. 9 August 1998 – Arsenal claim their third trophy of 1998 with a 3–0 win over Manchester United in the Charity Shield. 12 August 1998 – Newcastle United sign Nolberto Solano, the Peruvian midfielder, from Boca Juniors for £2.48million. 15 August 1998 – The Premier League season begins with champions Arsenal beating newly promoted Nottingham Forest 2–1 at Highbury. Chelsea begin with a surprise 2–1 defeat at Coventry City. Manchester United are held to a 2–2 home draw by Leicester City. Wimbledon take the lead of the Premier League on the opening day with a 3–1 home win over Tottenham Hotspur. Charlton Athletic mark their return to the elite by drawing 0–0 at Newcastle. 20 August 1998 – Manchester United pay a club record £12.6million for Aston Villa striker Dwight Yorke. 22 August 1998 – Charlton Athletic demolish Southampton 5–0 at The Valley. Tottenham's dismal start continued when they lose 3–0 at home to Sheffield Wednesday. Manchester United are held to a draw again, this time 0–0 against West Ham United at Upton Park. Newcastle United lose 4–1 at home to Liverpool. 27 August 1998 – Kenny Dalglish is sacked after 19 months as manager of Newcastle United. 31 August 1998 – Newcastle United appoint Ruud Gullit as their new manager, the day before his 36th birthday. The first month of the league season ends with newly promoted Charlton Athletic top of the Premier League, but the end-of-month table has little significance as only two games have been played so far. Sunderland head the race for a place in next season's Premier League as Division One leaders, with Wolverhampton Wanderers in second place. Hopes are high of a successful season for Midlands clubs as West Bromwich Albion are third and Birmingham City stand fourth. Norwich City, rebuilding under new manager Bruce Rioch occupy fifth, while the top six is completed by a Watford side who are searching for a second successive promotion. Just outside the playoff zone are Bury, whose excellent start to the season has sparked speculation that they might match Swansea City and Wimbledon's record of three promotions in four seasons. 6 September 1998 – Christian Gross is sacked after nine months as manager of Tottenham Hotspur. 8 September 1998 – Aston Villa pay Middlesbrough £6.75million for midfielder Paul Merson. 9 September 1998 – – An inquest records a verdict of suicide on former Norwich City and Nottingham Forest striker Justin Fashanu, who was found hanged at a lock-up garage in London four months ago. – Manchester United record a Premier League win at the fourth attempt by beating Charlton Athletic 4–1 at Old Trafford. Wimbledon continue their recent resurgence with a 4–3 win at West Ham. – Manchester United accepts a £623.4million takeover bid from BSkyB. 12 September 1998 – -Arsenal sign Swedish midfielder Freddie Ljungberg from Halmstad for £3million. – Tottenham's dismal start to the season continues as they lose 3–0 at home to newly promoted Middlesbrough. 19 September 1998 – Newcastle United show signs of a return to their old form with a 5–1 away win over Coventry City. Newly promoted Charlton Athletic hold Liverpool to a 3–3 draw at Anfield. 20 September 1998 – Arsenal beat Manchester United 3–0 in the league at Highbury – the fourth defeat they have inflicted upon Alex Ferguson's team in less than a year. 23 September 1998 – Everton sign 22-year-old goalkeeper Steve Simonsen from Tranmere Rovers for £3.3million. 30 September 1998 – September ends with Aston Villa as Premier League leaders 5 points above second-placed Derby County are putting up a surprise title challenge after being predicted by many to struggle in the battle against relegation. Manchester United, Liverpool and Wimbledon complete the top five. Southampton prop up the top flight with one point from their opening six games, while Coventry City and Blackburn Rovers completing the relegation zone. Sunderland remain top of Division One, level on points with surprise promotion challengers Huddersfield Town. Bolton Wanderers, Watford, Birmingham City and Norwich City occupy the playoff places, while surprise promotion contenders Bury are keeping up the pressure on the top six. 1 October 1998 – George Graham quits Leeds United after two years as manager to take over at Tottenham Hotspur. 3 October 1998 – Middlesbrough's return to the top flight continues with a 4–0 home win over Sheffield Wednesday. 9 October 1998 – Everton sign Ivorian striker Ibrahima Bakayoko from Montpellier for £4.5million. 15 October 1998 – Steve Watson, Newcastle United's longest serving player (who joined the club on leaving school in 1990), is sold to Aston Villa for £4.5million. 25 October 1998 – Leicester City confirm that manager Martin O'Neill will not be moving to Leeds United. Caretaker David O'Leary, formerly assistant manager at Elland Road, gets the manager's job on a permanent basis. 28 October 1998 – Chelsea player-manager Gianluca Vialli scores a hat-trick in the 4–1 League Cup third round win over Aston Villa. Making his debut as a late substitute is 17-year-old defender John Terry. On the same day, striker Brian Laudrup's departure from Chelsea is announced after just four months at the club. 31 October 1998 – Ron Reeves, a 55-year-old steward, is killed outside Highfield Road stadium after being crushed by the Arsenal team coach just before a game with Coventry City. The month ends with Aston Villa still top, a point ahead of second placed Manchester United, while Arsenal are close behind in third place. A wide gap is beginning to open up between the top three and the rest of the division, with Liverpool, Middlesbrough, Chelsea, Leicester City and West Ham United putting up the nearest competition. Southampton, still only with one win to their name, occupy bottom place and are joined in the relegation zone by Coventry City and Nottingham Forest. Sunderland and Huddersfield Town continue to head the race for Premier League football, with the top six being completed by Birmingham City, Ipswich Town, Watford and Norwich City. Grimsby Town (eighth) have emerged as surprise contenders for a second successive promotion, but Bury's challenge is falling away and they now occupy 15th place. Wolverhampton Wanderers fare little better after their dismal start to the season, now occupying 12th place. 5 November 1998: Wolverhampton Wanderers sack manager Mark McGhee after three years at the helm. 12 November 1998 – Peter Schmeichel, goalkeeper of Manchester United since 1991, announces his intention to leave the club at the end of this season. Roy Evans resigns as joint manager of Liverpool after nearly five years in charge and more than 30 years on the club's payroll, leaving Gérard Houllier in sole charge. 14 November 1998 – Colchester United fall victim to arguably the biggest upset of the FA Cup fourth round when they are defeated 4–1 by non-league Bedlington Terriers. Other Football League clubs to be eliminated by non-league counterparts include Barnet, Southend United and Shrewsbury Town. 21 November 1998 – Blackburn Rovers lose 2–0 at home to Southampton, leaving them bottom of the Premier League with a mere nine points from their opening 14 games. Manager Roy Hodgson resigns within hours of the defeat. Long-serving coach Tony Parkes is put in charge of the first team on a temporary basis. On the same day, Manchester United suffer a shock 3–1 defeat at Sheffield Wednesday. 30 November 1998 – November draws to a close with Aston Villa still leading Manchester United by a single point, but a surprise title challenge is creeping upon them from a West Ham United side with no previous top division titles to their name, and who have not finished in the top five for more than a decade. Arsenal and Chelsea complete the top five. Blackburn Rovers now prop up the top flight, having started the season among the teams tipped by many to challenge for the title. Southampton and Nottingham Forest remain in the drop zone. Sunderland continue to lead Division One, their nearest threat coming from Ipswich Town. Watford, Birmingham City, Bolton Wanderers and Sheffield United complete the top six, with Wolverhampton Wanderers providing the closest competition for the top six after a rejuvenation under new manager Colin Lee. 4 December 1998 – Brian Kidd steps down as Manchester United assistant manager to succeed Roy Hodgson as manager of Blackburn Rovers. 5 December 1998 – Blackburn beat Charlton 1–0 in their first game under Brian Kidd at Ewood Park. 8 December 1998 – Five years after leaving them from Blackburn Rovers, David Batty returns to Leeds United in a £4.4 million move from Newcastle United. 16 December 1998 – Brian McClair, who was among the names linked with succeeding Brian Kidd as assistant manager at Manchester United, is appointed as Kidd's assistant at Blackburn. 19 December 1998 – Manchester United lost 3–2 at home to Middlesbrough – their first home defeat for nine months. United are managed by coach Jimmy Ryan, as Alex Ferguson misses the game on compassionate grounds following the death of his sister-in-law, and United have yet to find a permanent successor to Brian Kidd as assistant manager. 23 December 1998 – The Independent reports that up to ten Premier League clubs could break away to join a European Super League if the Premier League loses its forthcoming High Court case with the Office of Fair Trading. The case will see the Office of Fair Trading bring a case against the Football League, BSkyB and the BBC in the hope of ending collective bargaining for television deals by Premier League clubs. 26 December 1998 – The key drama on Boxing Day sees defender Ronny Johnsen score twice in Manchester United's 3–0 home win over Nottingham Forest, 30 December 1998 – French defender Didier Domi joins Newcastle United in a £4 million move from Paris Saint-Germain. 31 December 1998 – 1998 draws to a close with Aston Villa still leading the Premier League, but with Chelsea, Manchester United, Arsenal, Leeds United and West Ham United all posing a fairly close threat. Nottingham Forest, Southampton and Charlton Athletic occupy the bottom three places. Sunderland and Ipswich Town continue to lead the way in the race for a Premier League place, with the playoff zone being occupied by Birmingham City, Bolton Wanderers, Watford and an ever-improving Bradford City. 4 January 1999 – Arsenal began their defence of the FA Cup by beating Preston North End 2–0 in the third round at Deepdale, while last year's runners-up Newcastle United win 2–1 at home to Crystal Palace. Manchester United, many people's favourites for the trophy, get off to a good start in the competition by beating Middlesbrough 3–1 at Old Trafford. However, Leeds United are held to a goalless draw at Conference side Rushden & Diamonds. 5 January 1999 – Nottingham Forest, bottom of the Premier League and winless for 17 games, sack manager Dave Bassett after less than two years in charge. Micky Adams, former Swansea City and Brentford manager, is placed in temporary charge of Forest. 8 January 1999 – 15-year-old Notts County schoolboy forward Jermaine Pennant signs for Arsenal's academy in a £2 million deal. 9 January 1999 – The first Premier League games of 1999 include Coventry City's 4–0 home win over Nottingham Forest – the 18th successive league game that the visitors have failed to win. Southampton beat fellow relegation strugglers Charlton Athletic 3–1 at The Dell. 11 January 1999 – Ron Atkinson is appointed manager of Nottingham Forest until the end of the season. 13 January 1999 – Leeds United avoid what would have been one of the biggest FA Cup upsets of modern times and beat Rushden and Diamonds 3–1 in the third round replay at Elland Road. 14 January 1999 – Wimbledon pay a club record £7.5 million for West Ham United striker John Hartson, who six months ago was a transfer target for Manchester United. 16 January 1999 – Two high scoring games in the Premier League sees Dwight Yorke and Robbie Fowler score hat tricks for their respective clubs as Manchester United thrash Leicester City 6–2 at Filbert Street, while Liverpool crush Southampton 7–1 at Anfield. 18 January 1999 – Bryan Kidd boosts his Blackburn Rovers side in their battle against relegation by signing Crystal Palace striker Matt Jansen for £4.1 million. 23 January 1999 – Aston Villa suffer a shock FA Cup exit at home to Division Two leaders Fulham in the fourth round. 24 January 1999 – Two late goals see Manchester United overturn Liverpool's 1–0 lead and win 2–1 in the fourth round tie at Old Trafford. 25 January 1999 – Cash-strapped Division One strugglers Oxford United hold Chelsea to an impressive 1–1 draw at the Manor Ground. 27 January 1999 – Two midfielders change clubs for £4 million – Marc-Vivien Foé from Lens to West Ham United and Jason McAteer from Liverpool to Blackburn Rovers. 28 January 1999 – Steve McManaman agrees to sign for Real Madrid from Liverpool at the end of the season. 30 January 1999 – Glenn Hoddle appears in an interview in The Sunday Times in which he suggests that disabled people are paying for their sins in a previous life. Nottingham Forest end their 19-match winless run in the league with a 1–0 away win over Everton. 31 January 1999 – January ends with Manchester United now top of the Premier League, but former leaders Aston Villa still only a point behind bracketed on points with Chelsea. Arsenal, meanwhile, have crept into the title frame and now stand fourth – just two points off the top. West Ham United's challenge has crumbled and they now stand ninth, with 11 points separating them from top spot. Nottingham Forest, meanwhile, have gone from bad to worse and now prop up the table. They are joined in the drop zone by Southampton and Charlton Athletic after Brian Kidd guided Blackburn Rovers out of the bottom three. Sunderland and Bradford City lead the way in Division One, with Bolton Wanderers, Ipswich Town, Watford and Birmingham City completing the top six. Grimsby Town are back in form and giving the top six a serious run for their money. 2 February 1999 – Glenn Hoddle is sacked as England manager two days after his controversial remarks. 3 February 1999 – Oxford United's luck in the FA Cup runs out: 17-year-old Mikael Forssell bags a brace on his first start for 4–2 victors Chelsea in the fourth round replay at Stamford Bridge. 4 February 1999 - Tim Sherwood signs for Tottenham Hotspur from Blackburn Rovers for £4 million, and Silvio Marić joins Newcastle United from Croatia Zagreb for $5.8 million. 5 February 1999 - Derby County assistant manager Steve McClaren is named as Manchester United's new assistant manager. 6 February 1999 – Manchester United record the highest ever away win in the Premier League by beating Nottingham Forest 8–1 at the City Ground. Substitute Ole Gunnar Solskjær scores four times. 28 February 1999 – February draws to a close with Manchester United now top of the Premier League four points, although nearest rivals Chelsea have a game in hand. Arsenal, Aston Villa and Leeds United complete the top five. Nottingham Forest remain bottom and are now ten points adrift of safety, while Southampton remain in the bottom three but Charlton Athletic have jumped clear at the expense of Blackburn Rovers. Sunderland are still top of Division One, their nearest competition coming from Bradford City and Ipswich Town who are level on points. Bolton Wanderers, Birmingham City and Watford complete the top six. Wolverhampton Wanderers, Grimsby Town and West Bromwich Albion continue to keep up the pressure in the push for a playoff place. 5 March 1999 – Former Doncaster Rovers chairman Ken Richardson is sentenced to four years in prison for paying a friend to start a fire at the club's Belle Vue ground in 1995. The arsonist, 41-year-old Alan Kristiansen, receives a one-year prison sentence, while two other men receive suspended sentences for their part in the fire, which caused £100,000 worth of damage. 7 March 1999 – Manchester United draw 0–0 with Chelsea in the FA Cup quarter-final at Old Trafford, with Paul Scholes being sent off for United and Roberto Di Matteo for Chelsea in a game which kicked off just hours after the death was announced of legendary former United striker Dennis Viollet from cancer at age 65. 10 March 1999 – Dwight Yorke keeps Manchester United in line for the treble as he scores both their goals in the 2–0 quarter-final replay win at Chelsea. 11 March 1999 – Aston Villa sign midfielder Steve Stone from Nottingham Forest for £5.5 million. 13 March 1999 – Nottingham Forest keep their faint survival hopes alive with a 3–1 away win over Wimbledon, only their third league win of the season. 16 March 1999 – Barnsley, the only non-Premier League team to reach the FA Cup quarter-finals, bow out at Oakwell when David Ginola scores the only goal of the game for Tottenham Hotspur, who remain in contention for a cup double. 17 March 1999 – The Monopolies and Mergers Commission vetoes BSkyB's takeover of Manchester United. 21 March 1999 – Tottenham Hotspur end their eight-year wait for a major trophy (and European qualification) thanks to a 1–0 win over Leicester City in the League Cup final. 22 March 1999 – Blackburn Rovers pay Derby County £3.4 million for midfielder Lee Carsley. 31 March 1999 – March ends with Manchester United still top of the Premier League by a four-point margin, with Arsenal and Chelsea as their nearest contenders. Leeds United, occupying fourth place, are still within a shout of the league title. West Ham United complete the top five, competing with most of the rest of the "safe" Premier League teams for a UEFA Cup place. Nottingham Forest's dreadful run of form has continued and they now need a miracle to escape relegation. Charlton Athletic and Southampton complete the bottom three. Sunderland are now 12 points ahead of their nearest rivals Ipswich Town at the top of Division One. Bradford City, Birmingham City and Bolton Wanderers remain in the playoff zone, where they are joined by a Wolverhampton Wanderers side whose form is continuing to improve. 3 April 1999 – Both league-leaders Manchester United and second-placed Arsenal drop points as they are both held, by Wimbledon and Southampton respectively. Elsewhere, Liverpool win the Merseyside derby 3–2, and Leeds United rack up their seventh win on the bounce–a club record–by beating Nottingham Forest. 11 April 1999 – Manchester United and Arsenal, competing head to head for both the Premier League title and the FA Cup, draw 0–0 at Villa Park in the FA Cup semi-final. In other semi-final, at Old Trafford, two goals in extra time from Alan Shearer send Newcastle United through to the final for the second year running and spell an end to Tottenham's hopes of a cup double. 14 April 1999 – One of the most thrilling games so far this season sees Manchester United beat Arsenal 2–1 in extra time in the FA Cup semi-final replay. United had taken the lead after 17th minutes thanks to David Beckham, only for Dennis Bergkamp to equalise after 69 minutes. Bergkamp could have won the game for Arsenal with just a minute remaining, but Peter Schmeichel saved his penalty shot and forced extra time, in which Ryan Giggs won it for United with a spectacular 109th-minute goal. 21 April 1999 – Manchester United reach their first European Cup final for 31 years – and only their second of all time – by recording a 4–3 aggregate win over Juventus. They won 3–2 in tonight's clash in Turin, having been 2–0 down at half-time. They drew 1–1 in the first leg at Old Trafford on 7 April. 23 April 1999 – UEFA rejects calls from English clubs for four, rather than three, Champions League qualification places to be available for next season's competition – this will only happen in the unlikely event of Manchester United winning the European Cup next month and finishing outside the top three of the Premier League. 24 April 1999 – Nottingham Forest's Premier League relegation is confirmed with a 2–0 defeat to Aston Villa, after which manager Ron Atkinson announces that he will retire at the end of this season. 30 April 1999 – April draws to a close with Arsenal now leading the Premier League, but Manchester United are a point behind with a game in hand. Chelsea and Leeds United remain in distant contention, while the final European place is being contested by Aston Villa, West Ham United, Middlesbrough, Derby County, Liverpool and Leicester City. Nottingham Forest's inevitable relegation has now been confirmed, with Southampton, Charlton Athletic, Blackburn Rovers, Coventry City, Everton and Sheffield Wednesday all in the battle of avoid going down as well. Sunderland are definitely in the Premier League next season, as champions of Division One. Bradford City and Ipswich Town are level on points in the race for second place, with Birmingham City now the only team who can catch either of them. Bolton Wanderers and Wolverhampton Wanderers complete the top six, but Watford are pushing hard for a playoff place. 6 May 1999 – Blackburn Rovers are relegated to Division One just four years after being Premier League champions. 8 May 1999 – On-loan goalkeeper Jimmy Glass scored an injury-time winner for Carlisle United on the final day of the season to save their Football League status, and relegate Scarborough to the Conference. 9 May 1999 – Sunderland's 2–1 win over Birmingham City on the final day of the Division One season has given them an English league record of 105 points this season. They will be joined in the elite next season by Bradford City, whose second-place finish has given them top flight football for the first time since 1922. Ipswich Town, Birmingham City, Watford and Bolton Wanderers will contest the playoffs. Meanwhile, Manchester United go back on top of the Premier League with a 1–0 win at Middlesbrough. 11 May 1999 – Arsenal lose their penultimate league game of the season 1–0 at Leeds United, losing their chance to go top of the Premier League – meaning that a win for Manchester United against Blackburn Rovers on Thursday will make it almost certain (regardless of final day results) that the league title will return to Old Trafford. 13 May 1999 – Manchester United are held to a goalless draw by former assistant manager Brian Kidd's Blackburn at Ewood Park – a result which confirms Blackburn's relegation (just four years after being champions) and allows the title destiny to remain firmly in United's hands. 16 May 1999 – Manchester United clinch their fifth Premier League title in seven seasons after beating Tottenham 2–1 at home on the final day of the season, rendering Arsenal's 1–0 home win over Aston Villa useless. Third placed Chelsea beat Derby County 2–1, while Leeds United end David O'Leary's first season in management in fourth place with a 2–2 draw at Coventry. West Ham's 4–0 home win over Middlesbrough secures them a fifth-place finish and a place in the 1999–2000 UEFA Cup, their highest finish for 13 years and their first European campaign in 19 years. The last relegation place goes to Charlton Athletic, who lose 1–0 at home to 12th placed Sheffield Wednesday, while Southampton confirm their survival with a 2–0 win over Everton. 18 May 1999 – Liverpool sign Finnish defender Sami Hyypiä from Dutch side Willem II for £3 million. 22 May 1999 – Manchester United complete a unique third 'double' of the league title and FA Cup with a 2–0 win over Newcastle United at Wembley. Teddy Sheringham opens the scoring in the 11th minute and Paul Scholes adds to United's tally in the 53rd minute. In four days' time, they will be competing in the European Cup final to challenge for a unique treble. 26 May 1999 – Two late goals (the equaliser from Teddy Sheringham and the winner from Ole Gunnar Solskjær) save Manchester United from the jaws of defeat and they beat Bayern Munich 2–1 in the Champions League final at the Camp Nou to complete a unique treble. 30 May 1999 – Watford seal promotion to the Premier League with a 2–0 win over Bolton Wanderers in the Division One playoff final at Wembley. They are first team since Notts County in 1991 to reach the top flight with two successive promotions. 31 May 1999 – Two late goals save Manchester City from the jaws of defeat as they pull Gillingham back to 2–2 in the Division Two Play-off Final at Wembley. They go on to win 3–1 on penalties to attain their first promotion in ten years. 12 June 1999 – Alex Ferguson receives a knighthood just over two weeks after guiding Manchester United to the treble. Famous debutants The season saw several future England players make their first-team debuts. Steven Gerrard, 18, appeared as a late substitute for Liverpool in their win over Blackburn Rovers in November 1998, starting a long career at the heart of the Reds' first-team. Future England defender Wayne Bridge made his first-team debut for Southampton in their 2–1 home loss to Liverpool in August 1998. 19-year-old Leeds United goalkeeper Paul Robinson enjoyed several first-team appearances, the first being a goalless draw with Chelsea in October 1998. Robinson's Leeds teammate Alan Smith, 18, made an immediate impact at Liverpool the following month, coming off the bench to score almost instantly. Jonathan Woodgate, 18, played for Leeds in their 1–1 draw with Nottingham Forest in October 1998 and ended the season as part of the England side. Defender John Terry, 17, played for Chelsea for the first time in the final minutes of a League Cup win over Aston Villa in October 1998. 17-year-old Joe Cole made his debut for West Ham United in a 4–1 defeat to Manchester United Retirements Steve Nicol, 37, retired from playing after a season at Doncaster Rovers, after his efforts to get them back into the Football League from the Conference proved unsuccessful. Ian Rush, 37, retired from playing after a season at Wrexham in Division Two. Steve Bruce, 38, Sheffield United player-manager, made his last professional appearance on 28 November 1998 and officially announced his retirement as a player on 24 May 1999. Chris Waddle, 37, left Torquay United on 3 November 1998 after a seven-match spell with the Division Three club. Steve Bull, 34, retired from playing after 13 years and a club record 306 goals at Wolverhampton Wanderers, where he was the longest serving player by the time he announced his retirement on 13 July 1999. Deaths 2 September 1998: Jackie Blanchflower, 65, was a Manchester United and Northern Ireland centre-half during the 1950s. He suffered a fractured pelvis in the Munich air disaster of 1958 and retired from football following medical advice a year later. He was the younger brother of former Tottenham Hotspur captain Danny Blanchflower (1926–1993). 23 September 1998: Ray Bowden, 89, was the last surviving member of Arsenal great interwar side, having played for them as an inside-forward from 1933 and 1937, during which time he collected three league titles and an FA Cup winner's medal. 18 October 1998: Dick Sheppard, 53, played 39 league games in goal for West Bromwich Albion during the 1960s before a six-year spell at Bristol Rovers which yielded 151 league appearances. He later served the West Country club as a goalkeeping coach. 7 November 1998: John Osborne, 57, who died of cancer, kept goal for West Bromwich Albion in their 1968 FA Cup triumph. He began his career with Chesterfield and after reaching the pinnacle of his career with Albion he wound up with Walsall. 24 December 1998: Matt Gillies, 77, managed Leicester City to their first major trophy in 1964 when they won the League Cup during his club record 10-year spell as manager. They also reached two FA Cup finals when he was in charge, losing both times. He had also played more than 100 league games for the club as a player in the 1950s, signing from Bolton Wanderers after starting his career with Motherwell in his native Scotland. 25 December 1998: John McGrath, 60, was manager of Preston North End when they won promotion to the Third Division in 1987. As a player, he was centre-half for clubs including Newcastle United and Southampton. He died of a heart attack on Christmas Day, six years after leaving his final managerial post at Halifax Town. 18 January 1999: Horace Cumner, 80, who was capped three times as a forward for Wales in the late 1930s, starting his playing career at Arsenal, playing 14 league games and scoring three goals before signing for Notts County after the end of World War II. He later turned out for Watford, Scunthorpe United and Bradford City in a career which continued into the 1950s. 4 February 1999: Arthur Mann, 51, began his footballing career at Hearts before moving south of the border to play for Manchester City and later Notts County, Shrewsbury Town, Mansfield Town and finally non-league Kettering Town. Was later assistant manager to Alan Buckley at Grimsby Town (1989–1994) and later West Bromwich Albion (1994–1997). Died in an accident at a scrapyard in Birmingham. 23 February 1999: Les Howe, 86, scored 26 league goals in 165 appearances for Tottenham Hotspur as a wing-half in the 1930s before his career was effectively ended by the war. 1 March 1999: Albert "Digger" Kettle, 76, was a defender in the Colchester United side which was elected to the Football League in 1950, and played a total of 145 games for the club in the Southern League and Football League. 6 March 1999: Dennis Viollet, 65, was another former Manchester United player (centre-forward) and Munich air disaster survivor. He continued playing after the tragedy and remained on United's payroll until he joined Stoke City in 1962, by which time he had scored 179 goals in all competitions for the club and scored 32 league goals in the 1959–60 season, a club record. At the time of his death from cancer, he was living in the United States of America, having coached various teams there since the 1970s. Despite his goalscoring success at the highest level, he was only capped twice by England. 16 March 1999: John Liddell, 65, had a prolific start to his senior career in his native Scotland after joining St Johnstone in his mid twenties, scoring 32 goals in 35 league games before moving south of the border to Oldham Athletic in 1961, where he played 23 league games and scored 10 goals before joining non-league Mossley a year later. He then turned out for Worcester City. 28 April 1999: Sir Alf Ramsey, 79, managed England to their finest moment – World Cup glory in 1966. Had played for Tottenham and England during the postwar years and had proved himself as a club manager by winning the league title for Ipswich Town in 1962 – at the end of their first season as a top division club. Remained at the helm with England until 1974, and later had a brief spell as manager of Birmingham City. 29 April 1999: Les Bennett, 81, played 272 league games at inside-forward for Tottenham Hotspur between 1946 and 1954, and was a key player in the title winning side of 1951. He completed his senior career with West Ham United before playing for a further five years at non-league level, finally hanging up his boots in 1960 at the age of 42. 14 May 1999: Bobby Veck, 79, played 23 league games for Southampton in the immediate postwar years before signing for Gillingham on their return to the Football League in 1950, playing 36 league games and scoring 12 goals for them before retiring from senior football to play in the non-league divisions. 2 June 1999: Ron Reynolds, 71, began his career as a goalkeeper at Aldershot at the end of World War II, playing 114 games in the Third Division North before signing for Tottenham Hotspur in 1950. He was at White Hart Lane for 10 years and played 86 league games for the club. He then signed for Southampton and made 90 league appearances for the Saints before his career was ended by injury in 1963. References
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "1998–99 in English football", "role": "user" }, { "content": "The 1998–99 season was the 119th season of competitive football in England.\n\nOverview\n\nPremier League\nManchester United overcame close competition from Arsenal and Chelsea to win their fifth Premiership title in seven seasons. They went on to win the treble of the Premiership title, FA Cup and European Cup, an achievement which gained manager Alex Ferguson a knighthood.\n\nNottingham Forest went down to Division One just one season after winning promotion. They had started the season terribly after manager Dave Bassett was sacked and Dutch striker Pierre van Hooijdonk refused to play after a dispute with the club. Experienced Ron Atkinson was brought in on a temporary contract but could not stave off relegation. Joining Forest in the Premiership drop zone were Blackburn Rovers, who had been Premiership champions just four years earlier, and Charlton Athletic. Southampton avoided relegation on the last day of the season, and their survival also signalled the go-ahead for a new stadium which would be in use for the 2001–02 season.\n\nDivision One\nSunderland were crowned Division One champions with a record 105 points, having lost just three games all season. The two other promotion places were secured by two of the division's least fancied sides – runners-up Bradford City, back in the top division for the first time in 77 years, and playoff winners Watford, who thus won their second successive promotion during Graham Taylor's second spell as manager.\n\nBury, Oxford United and Bristol City occupied the three relegation places in Division One. Oxford's dismal season was mainly down to debts of £10 million which were putting the club in real danger of closure and had also resulted in the suspension of construction of their new stadium near the Blackbird Leys estate.\n\nDivision Two\nKevin Keegan completed his spell as Fulham manager before taking the England job by guiding the Cottagers to the Division Two championship with 101 points. Following them up were runners-up Walsall and playoff winners Manchester City.\n\nGoing down were York City, Northampton Town, Lincoln City and Macclesfield Town. Narrowly avoiding the drop to Division Three were Oldham Athletic, who just five years earlier had been a Premiership side and FA Cup semi-finalists.\n\nDivision Three\nBrentford, Cambridge United, Cardiff City and Scunthorpe United occupied the four promotion places in Division Three.\n\nCarlisle United secured their league status with seconds to spare in their final game. They entered the game in bottom place, and with 90 minutes on the clock in their home game against Plymouth Argyle they were drawing 1–1 and needed a win to stay up. The referee then allowed four minutes of stoppage time and with just seconds to go, goalkeeper Jimmy Glass came upfield and scored from a rebounded corner to preserve his club's place in the league, which had been held since 1928. Scarborough, who had only joined the league in 1987, were relegated instead. Glass, 25, had been signed on loan from Swindon Town after the transfer deadline because an injury crisis had left Carlisle without a goalkeeper for the final few games of the season.\n\nFA Cup\nManchester United beat Newcastle United 2–0 to secure their third double triumph in six seasons and completed the second part of their treble.\n\nLeague Cup\nTottenham Hotspur, under the management of George Graham, won the League Cup by defeating Leicester City in the final. On the way they knocked out Manchester United, stopping Scotsman Alex Ferguson emulating his fellow countrymen Celtic's quadruple success of 1967.\n\nIndividual awards and records\nTottenham's French midfielder David Ginola was voted PFA Players' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year after helping his club win the League Cup.\n\n19-year-old Arsenal and France striker Nicolas Anelka was voted PFA Young Player of the Year.\n\nDavid Seaman became the most successful goalkeeper in English league history after conceding just 17 league goals in a season with Arsenal.\n\nSuccessful managers\nAlex Ferguson was knighted after guiding Manchester United to the treble of the Premiership title, FA Cup and European Cup.\n\nGeorge Graham gave Tottenham Hotspur their first successful season for almost a decade by guiding them to League Cup glory.\n\nPeter Reid took Sunderland into the Premiership as Division One champions with 105 points.\n\nHarry Redknapp guided West Ham United to fifth place in the Premiership to secure their first European qualification for nearly 20 years.\n\nPaul Jewell ended Bradford City's 77-year wait for a return to the top division.\n\nGraham Taylor took Watford into the Premiership as they won the Division One playoffs and secured their second successive promotion.\n\nKevin Keegan finished his spell as Fulham manager by guiding them to the Division Two title with 101 points, before quitting to concentrate on his role as England manager.\n\nRay Graydon pulled off a major surprise in his first season as Walsall manager by gaining promotion to Division One.\n\nSteve Cotterill, 35, guided Cheltenham Town into the Football League as Conference champions.\n\nBrian Laws took Scunthorpe United out of the league's basement division for the first time in more than a decade after they won the Division Three playoffs.\n\nEvents\n\nFerguson knighted after United's treble\nManchester United completed the treble of the Premiership title, FA Cup and European Cup.\n\nPart one of United's treble was completed when they beat Tottenham 2–1 on the last day of the season to ensure that Arsenal did not retain the Premiership title. A week later they completed the second part of the treble with a 2–0 victory over Newcastle United in the FA Cup final.\n\nUnited's treble aspirations seemed to have been thwarted in the European Cup final at Barcelona's Nou Camp stadium, with Bayern Munich leading 1–0 at the end of normal time. Referee Pierluigi Collina allowed three minutes of stoppage time and within the first minute, substitute Teddy Sheringham forced an equaliser. Sheringham's goal looked to have forced extra time, but with the last kick of the game Ole Gunnar Solskjær scored a winner and United fans and players went wild.\n\nOn 12 June, Alex Ferguson received a knighthood in recognition for his services to football, making him the seventh knight of English football and the third knight to be associated with Manchester United after Matt Busby and Bobby Charlton.\n\nHoddle ousted\nOn 2 February, the FA terminated Glenn Hoddle's contract as England manager after he appeared in The Times and suggested that disabled people were being \"punished for sins in previous lives\". His comments had sparked outrage amongst disabled people to such an extent that the FA felt they had no option but to sack him.\n\nThe search began for his successor. A month later, former Newcastle manager Kevin Keegan agreed to take charge of the England team but stayed on as Fulham manager until the end of the season, guiding them to the Division Two title.\n\nNew arrivals in Premiership\nA year after their playoff final defeat to Charlton Athletic in a penalty shoot-out, Peter Reid's Sunderland returned to the Premiership after winning the Division One championship with a record 105 points. Sunderland, who had moved into their new home, the Stadium of Light, two years earlier, had been widely tipped for promotion to the top flight.\n\nBradford City, led by manager Paul Jewell, had been outside the top division since 1922. Their only silverware had been an FA Cup triumph in 1911. But the inexperienced Jewell surprised many observers by putting together a strong Bradford side who cruised to second place in Division One and booked their place in the Premiership.\n\nThe third and final place in the Premiership went to playoff winners Watford, managed by Graham Taylor for the second time (he had previously been in charge from 1976 until 1987). Taylor had finally achieved some success the previous year in form of the Division Two championship, having endured a torrid time with England and then Wolves. Watford secured a second successive promotion by beating Bolton Wanderers 2–0 in the playoff final.\n\nGlass's last gasp goal keeps Carlisle in league\nCarlisle United went into the final game of the 1998–99 Division Three campaign knowing that they had to beat Plymouth Argyle to hang on to the Football League place they had held since 1928. In April, an injury crisis had forced Carlisle to bring in goalkeeper Jimmy Glass on loan from Swindon Town and the Football League gave permission for the transfer to go ahead despite the transfer deadline having already passed.\n\nWith 90 minutes on the clock for Carlisle's home fixture against Plymouth, the referee allowed four minutes of stoppage time. Ten seconds before the end of stoppage time, Jimmy Glass ran upfield after a corner was given and slammed the ball into the back of the net to keep Carlisle in the league and send Scarborough down to the Conference.\n\nBlackburn go down\nBlackburn Rovers, Premiership champions in 1995, were relegated from the Premiership in 1999 with a side which had lost almost all of its title winning players. Roy Hodgson had arrived as manager in 1997 and achieved UEFA Cup qualification in his first season as manager, only to be sacked the following November as Blackburn found themselves caught up in a relegation battle. Manchester United's successful assistant manager Brian Kidd was brought in as his successor. But Blackburn's relegation fight was finally lost after they drew 0–0 at home to Manchester United in the penultimate game of the season. Chairman Jack Walker was now faced with finding the funds to build a side that could win promotion back to the Premiership, 12 months after he handed an open cheque book to Roy Hodgson in hope of winning the league.\n\nCheltenham promoted \nCheltenham Town won the Conference with Steve Cotterill guiding the Robins to the Football League. They had won the FA Trophy the previous season but were beaten to promotion by Halifax Town. They replaced Scarborough.\n\nLeague tables\n\nFA Premier League\n\nThe seventh season of the FA Premier League saw Manchester United finish champions for the fifth time, one point ahead of the previous season's champions Arsenal. United also ended Arsenal's defence of the FA Cup, going on to defeat Newcastle United in the final to become the first English team to win the league title and FA Cup double on three occasions, having already won the double in 1994 and 1996. They then went on to win the Champions League to become only the second English club to win three major trophies in the same season. This made them the first English club to win the Champions League in fifteen years, and manager Alex Ferguson was knighted.\n\nChelsea's revival continued with a third-place finish in the league, although they failed to add any more silverware to the three cups won in the previous two seasons. Following the loss of manager George Graham to Tottenham in the autumn, Leeds United finished fourth under their new manager David O'Leary. Fifth place went to West Ham United, who qualified for Europe for the first time in nearly twenty years. Aston Villa, who had topped the table for much of the first half of the season, could only finish sixth, while Liverpool's seventh-place finish was a disappointing start for new manager Gérard Houllier.\n\nTottenham Hotspur finished 11th under new manager George Graham but won the League Cup to end their eight-year wait for a major trophy and a place in Europe. They also reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup.\n\nNewly promoted Nottingham Forest were relegated in bottom place, their third relegation in seven seasons prompting manager Ron Atkinson (only appointed in January) to announce his retirement from management. Blackburn Rovers, league champions just four years earlier, were the next team to go down; the appointment of long-serving Manchester United assistant Brian Kidd as manager appeared to have turned the corner after a terrible start to the season, but a failure to win any of their final eight matches saw them relegated. Newly promoted Charlton Athletic were the last side to lose their top flight status, going down on the final day of the season as Southampton survived.\n\nLeading goalscorer: Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink (Leeds), Michael Owen (Liverpool) and Dwight Yorke (Manchester United) – 18\n\nDivision One\nAfter the play-off final disappointment of the previous year, Sunderland returned to the top-flight in record breaking fashion, earning 105 points, setting a new record under the three points for a win system. Bradford City, who had only narrowly avoided relegation in the previous two seasons, returned to the top-flight for the first time in over 75 years, as Paul Jewell enjoyed a highly successful first full season as manager. Watford beat out pre-season favourites Bolton Wanderers in the play-off final, earning them their second successive promotion and also earning manager Graham Taylor the joint record for most promotions earned by a single manager.\n\nWolverhampton Wanderers just missed out on the playoffs after the dismissal of Mark McGhee in November paved the way for his assistant Colin Lee to take over and oversee a strong run of form which lifted the side into the top half of the table to finish seventh. Steve Bruce began his managerial career by guiding Sheffield United to an 8th-place finish before succeeding Peter Jackson at Huddersfield Town. Mark Goldberg's dream of turning Crystal Palace into a major footballing force quickly turned into a nightmare as financial problems almost put the club out of business, with head coach Terry Venables quitting halfway through the season and Steve Coppell taking charge for the fourth time in fifteen years to steer Palace to 14th place.\n\nBristol City finished bottom and suffered immediate relegation back to Division Two, as the club's decision to replace promotion-winning manager John Ward with Benny Lennartsson just a few weeks into the season failed to pay off. Oxford United finished second bottom amid increasing financial turmoil, and Bury were relegated on the last day due to the League's usage of goals scored over goal difference to separate sides on the same number of points (Port Vale would otherwise have been relegated due to their considerably worse goal difference). Adding to Bury's frustration, goal difference was reinstated the following season.\n\nLeading goalscorer: Lee Hughes (West Bromwich Albion) – 31\n\nDivision Two\nDespite manager Kevin Keegan juggling his job with the England manager's job for the second half of the season, Fulham won the Division Two title and earned their second promotion in three seasons, though Keegan departed after the season ended. Walsall proved the surprise package of the division and entered the second tier for only the third time in their history. Manchester City, who had suffered a spectacular fall from grace over the last few years, immediately won promotion during their first ever season at this level, defeating Gillingham in a dramatic play-off final.\n\nAmbitious Reading could only manage an 11th-place finish in their first season at the impressive new Madejski Stadium, while Stoke City's early promise under Brian Little was short-lived and an 8th-place finish was not enough for even a playoff place. Stoke then turned to Gary Megson in their quest to get back into Division One.\n\nThis season proved a step too far for Macclesfield, who had been promoted from the Conference and Division Three in successive years, and they were relegated in bottom place. Lincoln City were unable to recover from a dreadful start to the season and occupied the second bottom spot, also returning to Division Three after just a year. Northampton Town suffered a massively disappointing season after finishing fourth the previous year, and were relegated in third-bottom place. York City cruelly went down on the last day, after experiencing a disastrous second half of the season and falling into the relegation zone with mere seconds remaining of their final match.\n\nOldham Athletic finished one place and point clear of the relegation zone and avoided a third relegation in six seasons.\n\nLeading goalscorer: Jamie Cureton (Bristol Rovers) – 25\n\nDivision Three\nBrentford chairman Ron Noades' unorthodox decision to appoint himself as manager paid off in surprising fashion, and they won promotion back to Division Two as champions. Cambridge United had actually led the division for most of the season but suffered from drawing too many games in the final months of the season and thus had to settle for second place. Cardiff City took the final automatic promotion spot, as Frank Burrows brought immediate success to the club in his second spell as manager. Scunthorpe United won the play-offs, earning their first promotion since 1983, giving them football above the fourth tier for the first time at Glanford Park.\n\nIn one of the most dramatic ends to a season in recent memory, Scarborough were relegated to the Football Conference. They had been bottom for most of the second half of the season, but appeared to have turned the corner by earning two wins and a draw from their last three matches. Carlisle United, who had been below them prior to the final match of the season, earned a shock injury time winner through goalkeeper Jimmy Glass, saving their League status and sending Scarborough down.\n\nHull City were in the relegation battle up to the penultimate game of the season, soon after Southend United won their battle against a third successive relegation.\n\nLeading goalscorer: Marco Gabbiadini (Darlington) – 24\n\nDiary of the season\n16 July 1998 – Former French national coach Gérard Houllier is appointed joint manager of Liverpool to work alongside Roy Evans. It is the first time in the club's 106-year history that two managers have been placed in charge of the first team.\n\n19 July 1998 – Manchester United deny reports that they will be joining a proposed European Super League of up to 32 clubs.\n\n3 August 1998 – Newcastle United pay £5.25million for Germany midfielder Dietmar Hamann from Bayern Munich.\n\n9 August 1998 – Arsenal claim their third trophy of 1998 with a 3–0 win over Manchester United in the Charity Shield.\n\n12 August 1998 – Newcastle United sign Nolberto Solano, the Peruvian midfielder, from Boca Juniors for £2.48million.\n\n15 August 1998 – The Premier League season begins with champions Arsenal beating newly promoted Nottingham Forest 2–1 at Highbury. Chelsea begin with a surprise 2–1 defeat at Coventry City. Manchester United are held to a 2–2 home draw by Leicester City. Wimbledon take the lead of the Premier League on the opening day with a 3–1 home win over Tottenham Hotspur. Charlton Athletic mark their return to the elite by drawing 0–0 at Newcastle.\n\n20 August 1998 – Manchester United pay a club record £12.6million for Aston Villa striker Dwight Yorke.\n\n22 August 1998 – Charlton Athletic demolish Southampton 5–0 at The Valley. Tottenham's dismal start continued when they lose 3–0 at home to Sheffield Wednesday. Manchester United are held to a draw again, this time 0–0 against West Ham United at Upton Park. Newcastle United lose 4–1 at home to Liverpool.\n\n27 August 1998 – Kenny Dalglish is sacked after 19 months as manager of Newcastle United.\n\n31 August 1998 – Newcastle United appoint Ruud Gullit as their new manager, the day before his 36th birthday. The first month of the league season ends with newly promoted Charlton Athletic top of the Premier League, but the end-of-month table has little significance as only two games have been played so far. Sunderland head the race for a place in next season's Premier League as Division One leaders, with Wolverhampton Wanderers in second place. Hopes are high of a successful season for Midlands clubs as West Bromwich Albion are third and Birmingham City stand fourth. Norwich City, rebuilding under new manager Bruce Rioch occupy fifth, while the top six is completed by a Watford side who are searching for a second successive promotion. Just outside the playoff zone are Bury, whose excellent start to the season has sparked speculation that they might match Swansea City and Wimbledon's record of three promotions in four seasons.\n\n6 September 1998 – Christian Gross is sacked after nine months as manager of Tottenham Hotspur.\n\n8 September 1998 – Aston Villa pay Middlesbrough £6.75million for midfielder Paul Merson.\n\n9 September 1998 –\n – An inquest records a verdict of suicide on former Norwich City and Nottingham Forest striker Justin Fashanu, who was found hanged at a lock-up garage in London four months ago.\n – Manchester United record a Premier League win at the fourth attempt by beating Charlton Athletic 4–1 at Old Trafford. Wimbledon continue their recent resurgence with a 4–3 win at West Ham.\n – Manchester United accepts a £623.4million takeover bid from BSkyB.\n\n12 September 1998 –\n -Arsenal sign Swedish midfielder Freddie Ljungberg from Halmstad for £3million.\n – Tottenham's dismal start to the season continues as they lose 3–0 at home to newly promoted Middlesbrough.\n\n19 September 1998 – Newcastle United show signs of a return to their old form with a 5–1 away win over Coventry City. Newly promoted Charlton Athletic hold Liverpool to a 3–3 draw at Anfield.\n\n20 September 1998 – Arsenal beat Manchester United 3–0 in the league at Highbury – the fourth defeat they have inflicted upon Alex Ferguson's team in less than a year.\n\n23 September 1998 – Everton sign 22-year-old goalkeeper Steve Simonsen from Tranmere Rovers for £3.3million.\n\n30 September 1998 – September ends with Aston Villa as Premier League leaders 5 points above second-placed Derby County are putting up a surprise title challenge after being predicted by many to struggle in the battle against relegation. Manchester United, Liverpool and Wimbledon complete the top five. Southampton prop up the top flight with one point from their opening six games, while Coventry City and Blackburn Rovers completing the relegation zone. Sunderland remain top of Division One, level on points with surprise promotion challengers Huddersfield Town. Bolton Wanderers, Watford, Birmingham City and Norwich City occupy the playoff places, while surprise promotion contenders Bury are keeping up the pressure on the top six.\n\n1 October 1998 – George Graham quits Leeds United after two years as manager to take over at Tottenham Hotspur.\n\n3 October 1998 – Middlesbrough's return to the top flight continues with a 4–0 home win over Sheffield Wednesday.\n\n9 October 1998 – Everton sign Ivorian striker Ibrahima Bakayoko from Montpellier for £4.5million.\n\n15 October 1998 – Steve Watson, Newcastle United's longest serving player (who joined the club on leaving school in 1990), is sold to Aston Villa for £4.5million.\n\n25 October 1998 – Leicester City confirm that manager Martin O'Neill will not be moving to Leeds United. Caretaker David O'Leary, formerly assistant manager at Elland Road, gets the manager's job on a permanent basis.\n\n28 October 1998 – Chelsea player-manager Gianluca Vialli scores a hat-trick in the 4–1 League Cup third round win over Aston Villa. Making his debut as a late substitute is 17-year-old defender John Terry. On the same day, striker Brian Laudrup's departure from Chelsea is announced after just four months at the club.\n\n31 October 1998 – Ron Reeves, a 55-year-old steward, is killed outside Highfield Road stadium after being crushed by the Arsenal team coach just before a game with Coventry City. The month ends with Aston Villa still top, a point ahead of second placed Manchester United, while Arsenal are close behind in third place. A wide gap is beginning to open up between the top three and the rest of the division, with Liverpool, Middlesbrough, Chelsea, Leicester City and West Ham United putting up the nearest competition. Southampton, still only with one win to their name, occupy bottom place and are joined in the relegation zone by Coventry City and Nottingham Forest. Sunderland and Huddersfield Town continue to head the race for Premier League football, with the top six being completed by Birmingham City, Ipswich Town, Watford and Norwich City. Grimsby Town (eighth) have emerged as surprise contenders for a second successive promotion, but Bury's challenge is falling away and they now occupy 15th place. Wolverhampton Wanderers fare little better after their dismal start to the season, now occupying 12th place.\n\n5 November 1998: Wolverhampton Wanderers sack manager Mark McGhee after three years at the helm.\n\n12 November 1998 – Peter Schmeichel, goalkeeper of Manchester United since 1991, announces his intention to leave the club at the end of this season. Roy Evans resigns as joint manager of Liverpool after nearly five years in charge and more than 30 years on the club's payroll, leaving Gérard Houllier in sole charge.\n\n14 November 1998 – Colchester United fall victim to arguably the biggest upset of the FA Cup fourth round when they are defeated 4–1 by non-league Bedlington Terriers. Other Football League clubs to be eliminated by non-league counterparts include Barnet, Southend United and Shrewsbury Town.\n\n21 November 1998 – Blackburn Rovers lose 2–0 at home to Southampton, leaving them bottom of the Premier League with a mere nine points from their opening 14 games. Manager Roy Hodgson resigns within hours of the defeat. Long-serving coach Tony Parkes is put in charge of the first team on a temporary basis. On the same day, Manchester United suffer a shock 3–1 defeat at Sheffield Wednesday.\n\n30 November 1998 – November draws to a close with Aston Villa still leading Manchester United by a single point, but a surprise title challenge is creeping upon them from a West Ham United side with no previous top division titles to their name, and who have not finished in the top five for more than a decade. Arsenal and Chelsea complete the top five. Blackburn Rovers now prop up the top flight, having started the season among the teams tipped by many to challenge for the title. Southampton and Nottingham Forest remain in the drop zone. Sunderland continue to lead Division One, their nearest threat coming from Ipswich Town. Watford, Birmingham City, Bolton Wanderers and Sheffield United complete the top six, with Wolverhampton Wanderers providing the closest competition for the top six after a rejuvenation under new manager Colin Lee.\n\n4 December 1998 – Brian Kidd steps down as Manchester United assistant manager to succeed Roy Hodgson as manager of Blackburn Rovers.\n\n5 December 1998 – Blackburn beat Charlton 1–0 in their first game under Brian Kidd at Ewood Park.\n\n8 December 1998 – Five years after leaving them from Blackburn Rovers, David Batty returns to Leeds United in a £4.4 million move from Newcastle United.\n\n16 December 1998 – Brian McClair, who was among the names linked with succeeding Brian Kidd as assistant manager at Manchester United, is appointed as Kidd's assistant at Blackburn.\n\n19 December 1998 – Manchester United lost 3–2 at home to Middlesbrough – their first home defeat for nine months. United are managed by coach Jimmy Ryan, as Alex Ferguson misses the game on compassionate grounds following the death of his sister-in-law, and United have yet to find a permanent successor to Brian Kidd as assistant manager.\n\n23 December 1998 – The Independent reports that up to ten Premier League clubs could break away to join a European Super League if the Premier League loses its forthcoming High Court case with the Office of Fair Trading. The case will see the Office of Fair Trading bring a case against the Football League, BSkyB and the BBC in the hope of ending collective bargaining for television deals by Premier League clubs.\n\n26 December 1998 – The key drama on Boxing Day sees defender Ronny Johnsen score twice in Manchester United's 3–0 home win over Nottingham Forest,\n\n30 December 1998 – French defender Didier Domi joins Newcastle United in a £4 million move from Paris Saint-Germain.\n\n31 December 1998 – 1998 draws to a close with Aston Villa still leading the Premier League, but with Chelsea, Manchester United, Arsenal, Leeds United and West Ham United all posing a fairly close threat. Nottingham Forest, Southampton and Charlton Athletic occupy the bottom three places. Sunderland and Ipswich Town continue to lead the way in the race for a Premier League place, with the playoff zone being occupied by Birmingham City, Bolton Wanderers, Watford and an ever-improving Bradford City.\n\n4 January 1999 – Arsenal began their defence of the FA Cup by beating Preston North End 2–0 in the third round at Deepdale, while last year's runners-up Newcastle United win 2–1 at home to Crystal Palace. Manchester United, many people's favourites for the trophy, get off to a good start in the competition by beating Middlesbrough 3–1 at Old Trafford. However, Leeds United are held to a goalless draw at Conference side Rushden & Diamonds.\n\n5 January 1999 – Nottingham Forest, bottom of the Premier League and winless for 17 games, sack manager Dave Bassett after less than two years in charge. Micky Adams, former Swansea City and Brentford manager, is placed in temporary charge of Forest.\n\n8 January 1999 – 15-year-old Notts County schoolboy forward Jermaine Pennant signs for Arsenal's academy in a £2 million deal.\n\n9 January 1999 – The first Premier League games of 1999 include Coventry City's 4–0 home win over Nottingham Forest – the 18th successive league game that the visitors have failed to win. Southampton beat fellow relegation strugglers Charlton Athletic 3–1 at The Dell.\n\n11 January 1999 – Ron Atkinson is appointed manager of Nottingham Forest until the end of the season.\n\n13 January 1999 – Leeds United avoid what would have been one of the biggest FA Cup upsets of modern times and beat Rushden and Diamonds 3–1 in the third round replay at Elland Road.\n\n14 January 1999 – Wimbledon pay a club record £7.5 million for West Ham United striker John Hartson, who six months ago was a transfer target for Manchester United.\n\n16 January 1999 – Two high scoring games in the Premier League sees Dwight Yorke and Robbie Fowler score hat tricks for their respective clubs as Manchester United thrash Leicester City 6–2 at Filbert Street, while Liverpool crush Southampton 7–1 at Anfield.\n\n18 January 1999 – Bryan Kidd boosts his Blackburn Rovers side in their battle against relegation by signing Crystal Palace striker Matt Jansen for £4.1 million.\n\n23 January 1999 – Aston Villa suffer a shock FA Cup exit at home to Division Two leaders Fulham in the fourth round.\n\n24 January 1999 – Two late goals see Manchester United overturn Liverpool's 1–0 lead and win 2–1 in the fourth round tie at Old Trafford.\n\n25 January 1999 – Cash-strapped Division One strugglers Oxford United hold Chelsea to an impressive 1–1 draw at the Manor Ground.\n\n27 January 1999 – Two midfielders change clubs for £4 million – Marc-Vivien Foé from Lens to West Ham United and Jason McAteer from Liverpool to Blackburn Rovers.\n\n28 January 1999 – Steve McManaman agrees to sign for Real Madrid from Liverpool at the end of the season.\n\n30 January 1999 – Glenn Hoddle appears in an interview in The Sunday Times in which he suggests that disabled people are paying for their sins in a previous life. Nottingham Forest end their 19-match winless run in the league with a 1–0 away win over Everton.\n\n31 January 1999 – January ends with Manchester United now top of the Premier League, but former leaders Aston Villa still only a point behind bracketed on points with Chelsea. Arsenal, meanwhile, have crept into the title frame and now stand fourth – just two points off the top. West Ham United's challenge has crumbled and they now stand ninth, with 11 points separating them from top spot. Nottingham Forest, meanwhile, have gone from bad to worse and now prop up the table. They are joined in the drop zone by Southampton and Charlton Athletic after Brian Kidd guided Blackburn Rovers out of the bottom three. Sunderland and Bradford City lead the way in Division One, with Bolton Wanderers, Ipswich Town, Watford and Birmingham City completing the top six. Grimsby Town are back in form and giving the top six a serious run for their money.\n\n2 February 1999 – Glenn Hoddle is sacked as England manager two days after his controversial remarks.\n\n3 February 1999 – Oxford United's luck in the FA Cup runs out: 17-year-old Mikael Forssell bags a brace on his first start for 4–2 victors Chelsea in the fourth round replay at Stamford Bridge.\n\n4 February 1999 - Tim Sherwood signs for Tottenham Hotspur from Blackburn Rovers for £4 million, and Silvio Marić joins Newcastle United from Croatia Zagreb for $5.8 million.\n\n5 February 1999 - Derby County assistant manager Steve McClaren is named as Manchester United's new assistant manager.\n\n6 February 1999 – Manchester United record the highest ever away win in the Premier League by beating Nottingham Forest 8–1 at the City Ground. Substitute Ole Gunnar Solskjær scores four times.\n\n28 February 1999 – February draws to a close with Manchester United now top of the Premier League four points, although nearest rivals Chelsea have a game in hand. Arsenal, Aston Villa and Leeds United complete the top five. Nottingham Forest remain bottom and are now ten points adrift of safety, while Southampton remain in the bottom three but Charlton Athletic have jumped clear at the expense of Blackburn Rovers. Sunderland are still top of Division One, their nearest competition coming from Bradford City and Ipswich Town who are level on points. Bolton Wanderers, Birmingham City and Watford complete the top six. Wolverhampton Wanderers, Grimsby Town and West Bromwich Albion continue to keep up the pressure in the push for a playoff place.\n\n5 March 1999 – Former Doncaster Rovers chairman Ken Richardson is sentenced to four years in prison for paying a friend to start a fire at the club's Belle Vue ground in 1995. The arsonist, 41-year-old Alan Kristiansen, receives a one-year prison sentence, while two other men receive suspended sentences for their part in the fire, which caused £100,000 worth of damage.\n\n7 March 1999 – Manchester United draw 0–0 with Chelsea in the FA Cup quarter-final at Old Trafford, with Paul Scholes being sent off for United and Roberto Di Matteo for Chelsea in a game which kicked off just hours after the death was announced of legendary former United striker Dennis Viollet from cancer at age 65.\n\n10 March 1999 – Dwight Yorke keeps Manchester United in line for the treble as he scores both their goals in the 2–0 quarter-final replay win at Chelsea.\n\n11 March 1999 – Aston Villa sign midfielder Steve Stone from Nottingham Forest for £5.5 million.\n\n13 March 1999 – Nottingham Forest keep their faint survival hopes alive with a 3–1 away win over Wimbledon, only their third league win of the season.\n\n16 March 1999 – Barnsley, the only non-Premier League team to reach the FA Cup quarter-finals, bow out at Oakwell when David Ginola scores the only goal of the game for Tottenham Hotspur, who remain in contention for a cup double.\n\n17 March 1999 – The Monopolies and Mergers Commission vetoes BSkyB's takeover of Manchester United.\n\n21 March 1999 – Tottenham Hotspur end their eight-year wait for a major trophy (and European qualification) thanks to a 1–0 win over Leicester City in the League Cup final.\n\n22 March 1999 – Blackburn Rovers pay Derby County £3.4 million for midfielder Lee Carsley.\n\n31 March 1999 – March ends with Manchester United still top of the Premier League by a four-point margin, with Arsenal and Chelsea as their nearest contenders. Leeds United, occupying fourth place, are still within a shout of the league title. West Ham United complete the top five, competing with most of the rest of the \"safe\" Premier League teams for a UEFA Cup place. Nottingham Forest's dreadful run of form has continued and they now need a miracle to escape relegation. Charlton Athletic and Southampton complete the bottom three. Sunderland are now 12 points ahead of their nearest rivals Ipswich Town at the top of Division One. Bradford City, Birmingham City and Bolton Wanderers remain in the playoff zone, where they are joined by a Wolverhampton Wanderers side whose form is continuing to improve.\n\n3 April 1999 – Both league-leaders Manchester United and second-placed Arsenal drop points as they are both held, by Wimbledon and Southampton respectively. Elsewhere, Liverpool win the Merseyside derby 3–2, and Leeds United rack up their seventh win on the bounce–a club record–by beating Nottingham Forest.\n\n11 April 1999 – Manchester United and Arsenal, competing head to head for both the Premier League title and the FA Cup, draw 0–0 at Villa Park in the FA Cup semi-final. In other semi-final, at Old Trafford, two goals in extra time from Alan Shearer send Newcastle United through to the final for the second year running and spell an end to Tottenham's hopes of a cup double.\n\n14 April 1999 – One of the most thrilling games so far this season sees Manchester United beat Arsenal 2–1 in extra time in the FA Cup semi-final replay. United had taken the lead after 17th minutes thanks to David Beckham, only for Dennis Bergkamp to equalise after 69 minutes. Bergkamp could have won the game for Arsenal with just a minute remaining, but Peter Schmeichel saved his penalty shot and forced extra time, in which Ryan Giggs won it for United with a spectacular 109th-minute goal.\n\n21 April 1999 – Manchester United reach their first European Cup final for 31 years – and only their second of all time – by recording a 4–3 aggregate win over Juventus. They won 3–2 in tonight's clash in Turin, having been 2–0 down at half-time. They drew 1–1 in the first leg at Old Trafford on 7 April.\n\n23 April 1999 – UEFA rejects calls from English clubs for four, rather than three, Champions League qualification places to be available for next season's competition – this will only happen in the unlikely event of Manchester United winning the European Cup next month and finishing outside the top three of the Premier League.\n\n24 April 1999 – Nottingham Forest's Premier League relegation is confirmed with a 2–0 defeat to Aston Villa, after which manager Ron Atkinson announces that he will retire at the end of this season.\n\n30 April 1999 – April draws to a close with Arsenal now leading the Premier League, but Manchester United are a point behind with a game in hand. Chelsea and Leeds United remain in distant contention, while the final European place is being contested by Aston Villa, West Ham United, Middlesbrough, Derby County, Liverpool and Leicester City. Nottingham Forest's inevitable relegation has now been confirmed, with Southampton, Charlton Athletic, Blackburn Rovers, Coventry City, Everton and Sheffield Wednesday all in the battle of avoid going down as well. Sunderland are definitely in the Premier League next season, as champions of Division One. Bradford City and Ipswich Town are level on points in the race for second place, with Birmingham City now the only team who can catch either of them. Bolton Wanderers and Wolverhampton Wanderers complete the top six, but Watford are pushing hard for a playoff place.\n\n6 May 1999 – Blackburn Rovers are relegated to Division One just four years after being Premier League champions.\n\n8 May 1999 – On-loan goalkeeper Jimmy Glass scored an injury-time winner for Carlisle United on the final day of the season to save their Football League status, and relegate Scarborough to the Conference.\n\n9 May 1999 – Sunderland's 2–1 win over Birmingham City on the final day of the Division One season has given them an English league record of 105 points this season. They will be joined in the elite next season by Bradford City, whose second-place finish has given them top flight football for the first time since 1922. Ipswich Town, Birmingham City, Watford and Bolton Wanderers will contest the playoffs. Meanwhile, Manchester United go back on top of the Premier League with a 1–0 win at Middlesbrough.\n\n11 May 1999 – Arsenal lose their penultimate league game of the season 1–0 at Leeds United, losing their chance to go top of the Premier League – meaning that a win for Manchester United against Blackburn Rovers on Thursday will make it almost certain (regardless of final day results) that the league title will return to Old Trafford.\n\n13 May 1999 – Manchester United are held to a goalless draw by former assistant manager Brian Kidd's Blackburn at Ewood Park – a result which confirms Blackburn's relegation (just four years after being champions) and allows the title destiny to remain firmly in United's hands.\n\n16 May 1999 – Manchester United clinch their fifth Premier League title in seven seasons after beating Tottenham 2–1 at home on the final day of the season, rendering Arsenal's 1–0 home win over Aston Villa useless. Third placed Chelsea beat Derby County 2–1, while Leeds United end David O'Leary's first season in management in fourth place with a 2–2 draw at Coventry. West Ham's 4–0 home win over Middlesbrough secures them a fifth-place finish and a place in the 1999–2000 UEFA Cup, their highest finish for 13 years and their first European campaign in 19 years. The last relegation place goes to Charlton Athletic, who lose 1–0 at home to 12th placed Sheffield Wednesday, while Southampton confirm their survival with a 2–0 win over Everton.\n\n18 May 1999 – Liverpool sign Finnish defender Sami Hyypiä from Dutch side Willem II for £3 million.\n\n22 May 1999 – Manchester United complete a unique third 'double' of the league title and FA Cup with a 2–0 win over Newcastle United at Wembley. Teddy Sheringham opens the scoring in the 11th minute and Paul Scholes adds to United's tally in the 53rd minute. In four days' time, they will be competing in the European Cup final to challenge for a unique treble.\n\n26 May 1999 – Two late goals (the equaliser from Teddy Sheringham and the winner from Ole Gunnar Solskjær) save Manchester United from the jaws of defeat and they beat Bayern Munich 2–1 in the Champions League final at the Camp Nou to complete a unique treble.\n\n30 May 1999 – Watford seal promotion to the Premier League with a 2–0 win over Bolton Wanderers in the Division One playoff final at Wembley. They are first team since Notts County in 1991 to reach the top flight with two successive promotions.\n\n31 May 1999 – Two late goals save Manchester City from the jaws of defeat as they pull Gillingham back to 2–2 in the Division Two Play-off Final at Wembley. They go on to win 3–1 on penalties to attain their first promotion in ten years.\n\n12 June 1999 – Alex Ferguson receives a knighthood just over two weeks after guiding Manchester United to the treble.\n\nFamous debutants\nThe season saw several future England players make their first-team debuts.\nSteven Gerrard, 18, appeared as a late substitute for Liverpool in their win over Blackburn Rovers in November 1998, starting a long career at the heart of the Reds' first-team.\n Future England defender Wayne Bridge made his first-team debut for Southampton in their 2–1 home loss to Liverpool in August 1998.\n 19-year-old Leeds United goalkeeper Paul Robinson enjoyed several first-team appearances, the first being a goalless draw with Chelsea in October 1998.\n Robinson's Leeds teammate Alan Smith, 18, made an immediate impact at Liverpool the following month, coming off the bench to score almost instantly.\nJonathan Woodgate, 18, played for Leeds in their 1–1 draw with Nottingham Forest in October 1998 and ended the season as part of the England side.\n Defender John Terry, 17, played for Chelsea for the first time in the final minutes of a League Cup win over Aston Villa in October 1998.\n 17-year-old Joe Cole made his debut for West Ham United in a 4–1 defeat to Manchester United\n\nRetirements\nSteve Nicol, 37, retired from playing after a season at Doncaster Rovers, after his efforts to get them back into the Football League from the Conference proved unsuccessful.\nIan Rush, 37, retired from playing after a season at Wrexham in Division Two.\nSteve Bruce, 38, Sheffield United player-manager, made his last professional appearance on 28 November 1998 and officially announced his retirement as a player on 24 May 1999.\nChris Waddle, 37, left Torquay United on 3 November 1998 after a seven-match spell with the Division Three club.\nSteve Bull, 34, retired from playing after 13 years and a club record 306 goals at Wolverhampton Wanderers, where he was the longest serving player by the time he announced his retirement on 13 July 1999.\n\nDeaths\n2 September 1998: Jackie Blanchflower, 65, was a Manchester United and Northern Ireland centre-half during the 1950s. He suffered a fractured pelvis in the Munich air disaster of 1958 and retired from football following medical advice a year later. He was the younger brother of former Tottenham Hotspur captain Danny Blanchflower (1926–1993).\n23 September 1998: Ray Bowden, 89, was the last surviving member of Arsenal great interwar side, having played for them as an inside-forward from 1933 and 1937, during which time he collected three league titles and an FA Cup winner's medal.\n18 October 1998: Dick Sheppard, 53, played 39 league games in goal for West Bromwich Albion during the 1960s before a six-year spell at Bristol Rovers which yielded 151 league appearances. He later served the West Country club as a goalkeeping coach.\n7 November 1998: John Osborne, 57, who died of cancer, kept goal for West Bromwich Albion in their 1968 FA Cup triumph. He began his career with Chesterfield and after reaching the pinnacle of his career with Albion he wound up with Walsall.\n24 December 1998: Matt Gillies, 77, managed Leicester City to their first major trophy in 1964 when they won the League Cup during his club record 10-year spell as manager. They also reached two FA Cup finals when he was in charge, losing both times. He had also played more than 100 league games for the club as a player in the 1950s, signing from Bolton Wanderers after starting his career with Motherwell in his native Scotland.\n25 December 1998: John McGrath, 60, was manager of Preston North End when they won promotion to the Third Division in 1987. As a player, he was centre-half for clubs including Newcastle United and Southampton. He died of a heart attack on Christmas Day, six years after leaving his final managerial post at Halifax Town.\n18 January 1999: Horace Cumner, 80, who was capped three times as a forward for Wales in the late 1930s, starting his playing career at Arsenal, playing 14 league games and scoring three goals before signing for Notts County after the end of World War II. He later turned out for Watford, Scunthorpe United and Bradford City in a career which continued into the 1950s.\n4 February 1999: Arthur Mann, 51, began his footballing career at Hearts before moving south of the border to play for Manchester City and later Notts County, Shrewsbury Town, Mansfield Town and finally non-league Kettering Town. Was later assistant manager to Alan Buckley at Grimsby Town (1989–1994) and later West Bromwich Albion (1994–1997). Died in an accident at a scrapyard in Birmingham.\n23 February 1999: Les Howe, 86, scored 26 league goals in 165 appearances for Tottenham Hotspur as a wing-half in the 1930s before his career was effectively ended by the war.\n1 March 1999: Albert \"Digger\" Kettle, 76, was a defender in the Colchester United side which was elected to the Football League in 1950, and played a total of 145 games for the club in the Southern League and Football League.\n6 March 1999: Dennis Viollet, 65, was another former Manchester United player (centre-forward) and Munich air disaster survivor. He continued playing after the tragedy and remained on United's payroll until he joined Stoke City in 1962, by which time he had scored 179 goals in all competitions for the club and scored 32 league goals in the 1959–60 season, a club record. At the time of his death from cancer, he was living in the United States of America, having coached various teams there since the 1970s. Despite his goalscoring success at the highest level, he was only capped twice by England.\n16 March 1999: John Liddell, 65, had a prolific start to his senior career in his native Scotland after joining St Johnstone in his mid twenties, scoring 32 goals in 35 league games before moving south of the border to Oldham Athletic in 1961, where he played 23 league games and scored 10 goals before joining non-league Mossley a year later. He then turned out for Worcester City.\n28 April 1999: Sir Alf Ramsey, 79, managed England to their finest moment – World Cup glory in 1966. Had played for Tottenham and England during the postwar years and had proved himself as a club manager by winning the league title for Ipswich Town in 1962 – at the end of their first season as a top division club. Remained at the helm with England until 1974, and later had a brief spell as manager of Birmingham City.\n29 April 1999: Les Bennett, 81, played 272 league games at inside-forward for Tottenham Hotspur between 1946 and 1954, and was a key player in the title winning side of 1951. He completed his senior career with West Ham United before playing for a further five years at non-league level, finally hanging up his boots in 1960 at the age of 42.\n14 May 1999: Bobby Veck, 79, played 23 league games for Southampton in the immediate postwar years before signing for Gillingham on their return to the Football League in 1950, playing 36 league games and scoring 12 goals for them before retiring from senior football to play in the non-league divisions.\n2 June 1999: Ron Reynolds, 71, began his career as a goalkeeper at Aldershot at the end of World War II, playing 114 games in the Third Division North before signing for Tottenham Hotspur in 1950. He was at White Hart Lane for 10 years and played 86 league games for the club. He then signed for Southampton and made 90 league appearances for the Saints before his career was ended by injury in 1963.\n\nReferences", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Maryland%20School%20of%20Nursing%20Living%20History%20Museum
The University of Maryland School of Nursing Living History Museum is located in Baltimore, Maryland, United States, and is dedicated to sharing the rich history and heritage of the nursing profession. The Museum features hundreds of original objects and photographs, as well as compelling audio and video presentations. The Museum traces the evolution of the School of Nursing’s mission in nursing education, research and practice from its early years as a hospital training school to its emergence as a premier professional school. The Museum highlights the rarely acknowledged historical contributions of nurses, challenges widespread myths and misconceptions about nursing, and explores the contemporary role of nurses as health care providers. It is an opportunity for visitors to encounter—many for the first time—the untold story of American nursing through the experiences of University of Maryland nurses from the School’s founding in 1889 to the present. The University of Maryland School of Nursing Living History Museum is located at 655 W. Lombard Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, just a short walk from Baltimore's Inner Harbor. The Museum is open Tuesday and Wednesday during academic terms from 10:00 a.m. - 2:00 p.m., and by arrangement at other times. References External links The University of Maryland School of Nursing Museum Website Volunteering at the Living History Museum American Association for the History of Nursing, Inc. Nursing museums Nursing Living History Museum Nursing Living History Museum School of Nursing Living History Museum School of Nursing Living History Museum Medical museums in Maryland
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Maryland%20School%20of%20Nursing%20Living%20History%20Museum", "role": "user" }, { "content": "The University of Maryland School of Nursing Living History Museum is located in Baltimore, Maryland, United States, and is dedicated to sharing the rich history and heritage of the nursing profession. The Museum features hundreds of original objects and photographs, as well as compelling audio and video presentations. The Museum traces the evolution of the School of Nursing’s mission in nursing education, research and practice from its early years as a hospital training school to its emergence as a premier professional school.\n\nThe Museum highlights the rarely acknowledged historical contributions of nurses, challenges widespread myths and misconceptions about nursing, and explores the contemporary role of nurses as health care providers. It is an opportunity for visitors to encounter—many for the first time—the untold story of American nursing through the experiences of University of Maryland nurses from the School’s founding in 1889 to the present.\n\nThe University of Maryland School of Nursing Living History Museum is located at 655 W. Lombard Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, just a short walk from Baltimore's Inner Harbor. The Museum is open Tuesday and Wednesday during academic terms from 10:00 a.m. - 2:00 p.m., and by arrangement at other times.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n The University of Maryland School of Nursing Museum Website\n Volunteering at the Living History Museum\n American Association for the History of Nursing, Inc.\n\nNursing museums\nNursing Living History Museum\nNursing Living History Museum\nSchool of Nursing Living History Museum\nSchool of Nursing Living History Museum\nMedical museums in Maryland", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton%20Wildcats%20%28Australian%20rules%20football%29
The Hamilton Wildcats are an Australian rules football team formed in 1990 in Canada. Their men's and women's teams currently compete in the AFL Ontario (AFLO). History The club was established in 1990 as the "Hamilton Wildcats AFC" by Bill Frampton, an entrepreneur who took an interest in Australian football. He was inspired on the rapid growth of other OAFL teams in the 1980s. After promoting and recruiting players, the team played their inaugural match in the 1990 summer season. In July 1995 the Wildcats were invited to demonstrate the game of Australian rules football in front of 21,000 spectators during a half-time of a Canadian Football League match. After that, the club signed a contract to broadcast their home games on a local TV channel. The Wildcats were runner ups in the 1996 season. A women's section was added to the club in 2012, also joining the OAFL. Seven years later, the women's team won their first premiership. References External links Sports clubs and teams in Hamilton, Ontario Australian rules football clubs in Canada Ontario Australian Football League clubs 1990 establishments in Ontario Australian rules football clubs established in 1990
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton%20Wildcats%20%28Australian%20rules%20football%29", "role": "user" }, { "content": "The Hamilton Wildcats are an Australian rules football team formed in 1990 in Canada. Their men's and women's teams currently compete in the AFL Ontario (AFLO).\n\nHistory \nThe club was established in 1990 as the \"Hamilton Wildcats AFC\" by Bill Frampton, an entrepreneur who took an interest in Australian football. He was inspired on the rapid growth of other OAFL teams in the 1980s. After promoting and recruiting players, the team played their inaugural match in the 1990 summer season.\n\nIn July 1995 the Wildcats were invited to demonstrate the game of Australian rules football in front of 21,000 spectators during a half-time of a Canadian Football League match. After that, the club signed a contract to broadcast their home games on a local TV channel. The Wildcats were runner ups in the 1996 season.\n\nA women's section was added to the club in 2012, also joining the OAFL. Seven years later, the women's team won their first premiership.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n \n\nSports clubs and teams in Hamilton, Ontario\nAustralian rules football clubs in Canada\nOntario Australian Football League clubs\n1990 establishments in Ontario\nAustralian rules football clubs established in 1990", "role": "assistant" } ]
Abba Mari
Abba Mari ben Moses ben Joseph, was a Provençal rabbi, born at Lunel, near Montpellier, towards the end of the 13th century. He is also known as Yarhi from his birthplace (Hebrew Yerah, i.e. moon, lune), and he further took the name Astruc, Don Astruc or En Astruc of Lunel from the word "astruc" meaning lucky. The descendant of men learned in rabbinic lore, Abba Mari devoted himself to the study of theology and philosophy, and made himself acquainted with the writings of Moses Maimonides and Nachmanides as well as with the Talmud. In Montpellier, where he lived from 1303 to 1306, he was much distressed by the prevalence of Aristotelian rationalism, which (in his opinion) through the medium of the works of Maimonides, threatened the authority of the Old Testament, obedience to the law, and the belief in miracles and revelation. He therefore, in a series of letters (afterwards collected under the title Minhat Kenaot, i.e., "Offering of Zealotry") called upon the famous rabbi Solomon ben Aderet of Barcelona to come to the aid of orthodoxy. Ben Aderet, with the approval of other prominent Spanish rabbis, sent a letter to the community at Montpellier proposing to forbid the study of philosophy to those who were less than twenty-five years of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from the liberal section, a decree in this sense was issued by Ben Aderet in 1305. The result was a great schism among the Jews of Spain and southern France, and a new impulse was given to the study of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish rabbis. Upon the expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV in 1306, Abba Mari settled at Perpignan, where he published the letters connected with the controversy. His subsequent history is unknown. Beside the letters, he was the author of liturgical poetry and works on civil law. Defender of Law and Tradition Leader of the opposition to the rationalism of the Maimonists in the Montpellier controversy of 1303–1306; born at Lunel—hence his name, Yarḥi (from Yeraḥ = Moon = Lune). He was a descendant of Meshullam ben Jacob of Lunel, one of whose five sons was Joseph, the grandfather of Abba Mari, who, like his son Moses, the father of Abba Mari, was highly respected for both his rabbinical learning and his general erudition. Abba Mari moved to Montpellier, where, to his chagrin, he found the study of rabbinical lore greatly neglected by the young, who devoted all of their time and zeal to science and philosophy. The rationalistic method pursued by the new school of Maimonists (including Levi ben Abraham ben Chayyim of Villefranche, near the town of Perpignan, and Jacob Anatolio) especially provoked his indignation; for the sermons preached and the works published by them seemed to resolve the entire Scriptures into allegory and threatened to undermine the Jewish faith and the observance of the Law and tradition. He was not without some philosophical training. He mentions even with reverence the name of Maimonides, whose work he possessed and studied; but he was more inclined toward the mysticism of Nachmanides. Above all, he was a thorough believer in revelation and in a divine providence, and was a sincere, law-observing follower of rabbinical Judaism. He would not allow Aristotle, "the searcher after God among the heathen," to be ranked with Moses. Opponent of Rationalism Abba Mari possessed considerable Talmudic knowledge and some poetical talent; but his zeal for the Law made him an agitator and a persecutor of all the advocates of liberal thought. Being himself without sufficient authority, he appealed in a number of letters, afterward published under the title of Minḥat Ḳenaot (Jealousy Offering), to Solomon ben Adret of Barcelona, the most influential rabbi of the time, to use his powerful authority to check the source of evil by hurling his anathema against both the study of philosophy and the allegorical interpretations of the Bible, which did away with all belief in miracles. Ben Adret, while reluctant to interfere in the affairs of other congregations, was in perfect accord with Abba Mari as to the danger of the new rationalistic systems, and advised him to organize the conservative forces in defense of the Law. Abba Mari, through Ben Adret's aid, obtained allies eager to take up his cause, among whom were Don Bonafoux Vidal of Barcelona and his brother, Don Crescas Vidal, then in Perpignan. The proposition of the latter to prohibit, under penalty of excommunication, the study of philosophy and any of the sciences except medicine, by one under thirty years of age, met with the approval of Ben Adret. Accordingly, Ben Adret addressed to the congregation of Montpellier a letter, signed by fifteen other rabbis, proposing to issue a decree pronouncing the anathema against all those who should pursue the study of philosophy and science before due maturity in age and in rabbinical knowledge. On a Sabbath in September, 1304, the letter was to be read before the congregation, when Jacob Machir Don Profiat Tibbon, the renowned astronomical and mathematical writer, entered his protest against such unlawful interference by the Barcelona rabbis, and a schism ensued. Twenty-eight members signed Abba Mari's letter of approval; the others, under Tibbon's leadership, addressed another letter to Ben Adret, rebuking him and his colleagues for condemning a whole community without knowledge of the local conditions. Finally, the agitation for and against the liberal ideas brought about a schism in the entire Jewish population in southern France and Spain. Encouraged, however, by letters signed by the rabbis of Argentière and Lunel, and particularly by the support of Kalonymus ben Todros, the nasi of Narbonne, and of the eminent Talmudist Asheri of Toledo, Ben Adret issued a decree, signed by thirty-three rabbis of Barcelona, excommunicating those who should, within the next fifty years, study physics or metaphysics before their thirtieth year of age (basing his action on the principle laid down by Maimonides, Guide for the Perplexed part one chapter 34), and had the order promulgated in the synagogue on Sabbath, July 26, 1305. When this heresy-decree, to be made effective, was forwarded to other congregations for approval, the friends of liberal thought, under the leadership of the Tibbonites, issued a counter-ban, and the conflict threatened to assume a serious character, as blind party zeal (this time on the liberal side) did not shrink from asking the civil powers to intervene. But an unlooked-for calamity brought the warfare to an end. The expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV ("the Fair"), in, caused the Jews of Montpellier to take refuge, partly in Provence, partly in Perpignan and partly in Majorca. Consequently, Abba Mari removed first to Arles, and, within the same year, to Perpignan, where he finally settled and disappeared from public view. There he published his correspondence with Ben Adret and his colleagues. Minchat Kenaot Abba Mari collected the correspondence and added to each letter a few explanatory notes. Of this collection, called Minchat Kenaot, several manuscript copies survive (at Oxford; Paris; Günzburg Libr., Saint Petersburg; Parma; Ramsgate Montefiore College Library; and Turin). Some of these are mere fragments. The printed edition (Presburg, 1838), prepared by M. L. Bislichis, contains: (1) Preface; (2) a treatise of eighteen chapters on the incorporeality of God; (3) correspondence; (4) a treatise, called Sefer ha-Yarḥi, included also in letter 58; (5) a defense of The Guide and its author by Shem-Tob Palquera. As the three cardinal doctrines of Judaism, Abba Mari accentuates: (1) Recognition of God's existence and of His absolute sovereignty, eternity, unity, and incorporeality, as taught in revelation, especially in the Ten Commandments; (2) the world's creation by Him out of nothing, as evidenced particularly by the Sabbath; (3) special Divine providence, as manifested in the Biblical miracles. In the preface, Abba Mari explains his object in collecting the correspondence; and in the treatise which follows he shows that the study of philosophy, useful in itself as a help toward the acquisition of the knowledge of God, requires great caution, lest we be misled by the Aristotelian philosophy or its false interpretation, as regards the principles of creatio ex nihilo and divine individual providence. The manuscripts include twelve letters which are not included in the printed edition of Minḥat Ḳenaot. The correspondence refers mainly to the proposed restriction of the study of the Aristotelian philosophy. Casually, other theological questions are discussed. For example, letters 1, 5, and 8 contain a discussion on the question, whether the use of a piece of metal with the figure of a lion, as a talisman, is permitted by Jewish law for medicinal purposes, or is prohibited as idolatrous. In letter 131, Abba Mari mourns the death of Ben Adret, and in letter 132 he sends words of sympathy to the congregation of Perpignan, on the death of Don Vidal Shlomo (the Meiri) and Rabbi Meshullam. Letter 33 contains the statement of Abba Mari that two letters which he desired to insert could not be discovered by him. MS. Ramsgate, No. 52, has the same statement, but also the two letters missing in the printed copies. In Sefer haYarchi, Abba Mari refers to the great caution shown by the rabbis of old regarding the teaching of the philosophical mysteries, and recommended by men like the Hai Gaon, Maimonides, and David Kimhi. A response of Abba Mari on a ritual question is contained in MS. Ramsgate, No. 136; and Zunz mentions a ḳinah composed by Abba Mari. Minchat Kenaot is instructive reading for the historian because it throws much light upon the deeper problems which agitated Judaism, the question of the relation of religion to the philosophy of the age, which neither the zeal of the fanatic nor the bold attitude of the liberal-minded could solve in any fixed dogmatic form or by any anathema, as the independent spirit of the congregations refused to accord to the rabbis the power possessed by the Church of dictating to the people what they should believe or respect. At the close of the work are added several eulogies written by Abba Mari on Ben Adret (who died in 1310), and on Don Vidal, Solomon of Perpignan, and Don Bonet Crescas of Lunel. References 13th-century births 14th-century deaths People from Lunel 14th-century French rabbis Provençal rabbis French Orthodox rabbis Jewish refugees
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Abba Mari", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Abba Mari ben Moses ben Joseph, was a Provençal rabbi, born at Lunel, near Montpellier, towards the end of the 13th century. He is also known as Yarhi from his birthplace (Hebrew Yerah, i.e. moon, lune), and he further took the name Astruc, Don Astruc or En Astruc of Lunel from the word \"astruc\" meaning lucky.\n\nThe descendant of men learned in rabbinic lore, Abba Mari devoted himself to the study of theology and philosophy, and made himself acquainted with the writings of Moses Maimonides and Nachmanides as well as with the Talmud.\n\nIn Montpellier, where he lived from 1303 to 1306, he was much distressed by the prevalence of Aristotelian rationalism, which (in his opinion) through the medium of the works of Maimonides, threatened the authority of the Old Testament, obedience to the law, and the belief in miracles and revelation. He therefore, in a series of letters (afterwards collected under the title Minhat Kenaot, i.e., \"Offering of Zealotry\") called upon the famous rabbi Solomon ben Aderet of Barcelona to come to the aid of orthodoxy. Ben Aderet, with the approval of other prominent Spanish rabbis, sent a letter to the community at Montpellier proposing to forbid the study of philosophy to those who were less than twenty-five years of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from the liberal section, a decree in this sense was issued by Ben Aderet in 1305. The result was a great schism among the Jews of Spain and southern France, and a new impulse was given to the study of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish rabbis.\n\nUpon the expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV in 1306, Abba Mari settled at Perpignan, where he published the letters connected with the controversy. His subsequent history is unknown. Beside the letters, he was the author of liturgical poetry and works on civil law.\n\nDefender of Law and Tradition\nLeader of the opposition to the rationalism of the Maimonists in the Montpellier controversy of 1303–1306; born at Lunel—hence his name, Yarḥi (from Yeraḥ = Moon = Lune). He was a descendant of Meshullam ben Jacob of Lunel, one of whose five sons was Joseph, the grandfather of Abba Mari, who, like his son Moses, the father of Abba Mari, was highly respected for both his rabbinical learning and his general erudition. Abba Mari moved to Montpellier, where, to his chagrin, he found the study of rabbinical lore greatly neglected by the young, who devoted all of their time and zeal to science and philosophy. The rationalistic method pursued by the new school of Maimonists (including Levi ben Abraham ben Chayyim of Villefranche, near the town of Perpignan, and Jacob Anatolio) especially provoked his indignation; for the sermons preached and the works published by them seemed to resolve the entire Scriptures into allegory and threatened to undermine the Jewish faith and the observance of the Law and tradition. He was not without some philosophical training. He mentions even with reverence the name of Maimonides, whose work he possessed and studied; but he was more inclined toward the mysticism of Nachmanides. Above all, he was a thorough believer in revelation and in a divine providence, and was a sincere, law-observing follower of rabbinical Judaism. He would not allow Aristotle, \"the searcher after God among the heathen,\" to be ranked with Moses.\n\nOpponent of Rationalism\nAbba Mari possessed considerable Talmudic knowledge and some poetical talent; but his zeal for the Law made him an agitator and a persecutor of all the advocates of liberal thought. Being himself without sufficient authority, he appealed in a number of letters, afterward published under the title of Minḥat Ḳenaot (Jealousy Offering), to Solomon ben Adret of Barcelona, the most influential rabbi of the time, to use his powerful authority to check the source of evil by hurling his anathema against both the study of philosophy and the allegorical interpretations of the Bible, which did away with all belief in miracles. Ben Adret, while reluctant to interfere in the affairs of other congregations, was in perfect accord with Abba Mari as to the danger of the new rationalistic systems, and advised him to organize the conservative forces in defense of the Law. Abba Mari, through Ben Adret's aid, obtained allies eager to take up his cause, among whom were Don Bonafoux Vidal of Barcelona and his brother, Don Crescas Vidal, then in Perpignan. The proposition of the latter to prohibit, under penalty of excommunication, the study of philosophy and any of the sciences except medicine, by one under thirty years of age, met with the approval of Ben Adret. Accordingly, Ben Adret addressed to the congregation of Montpellier a letter, signed by fifteen other rabbis, proposing to issue a decree pronouncing the anathema against all those who should pursue the study of philosophy and science before due maturity in age and in rabbinical knowledge. On a Sabbath in September, 1304, the letter was to be read before the congregation, when Jacob Machir Don Profiat Tibbon, the renowned astronomical and mathematical writer, entered his protest against such unlawful interference by the Barcelona rabbis, and a schism ensued. Twenty-eight members signed Abba Mari's letter of approval; the others, under Tibbon's leadership, addressed another letter to Ben Adret, rebuking him and his colleagues for condemning a whole community without knowledge of the local conditions. Finally, the agitation for and against the liberal ideas brought about a schism in the entire Jewish population in southern France and Spain.\n\nEncouraged, however, by letters signed by the rabbis of Argentière and Lunel, and particularly by the support of Kalonymus ben Todros, the nasi of Narbonne, and of the eminent Talmudist Asheri of Toledo, Ben Adret issued a decree, signed by thirty-three rabbis of Barcelona, excommunicating those who should, within the next fifty years, study physics or metaphysics before their thirtieth year of age (basing his action on the principle laid down by Maimonides, Guide for the Perplexed part one chapter 34), and had the order promulgated in the synagogue on Sabbath, July 26, 1305. When this heresy-decree, to be made effective, was forwarded to other congregations for approval, the friends of liberal thought, under the leadership of the Tibbonites, issued a counter-ban, and the conflict threatened to assume a serious character, as blind party zeal (this time on the liberal side) did not shrink from asking the civil powers to intervene. But an unlooked-for calamity brought the warfare to an end. The expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV (\"the Fair\"), in, caused the Jews of Montpellier to take refuge, partly in Provence, partly in Perpignan and partly in Majorca. Consequently, Abba Mari removed first to Arles, and, within the same year, to Perpignan, where he finally settled and disappeared from public view. There he published his correspondence with Ben Adret and his colleagues.\n\nMinchat Kenaot\nAbba Mari collected the correspondence and added to each letter a few explanatory notes. Of this collection, called Minchat Kenaot, several manuscript copies survive (at Oxford; Paris; Günzburg Libr., Saint Petersburg; Parma; Ramsgate Montefiore College Library; and Turin). Some of these are mere fragments. The printed edition (Presburg, 1838), prepared by M. L. Bislichis, contains: (1) Preface; (2) a treatise of eighteen chapters on the incorporeality of God; (3) correspondence; (4) a treatise, called Sefer ha-Yarḥi, included also in letter 58; (5) a defense of The Guide and its author by Shem-Tob Palquera.\n\nAs the three cardinal doctrines of Judaism, Abba Mari accentuates: (1) Recognition of God's existence and of His absolute sovereignty, eternity, unity, and incorporeality, as taught in revelation, especially in the Ten Commandments; (2) the world's creation by Him out of nothing, as evidenced particularly by the Sabbath; (3) special Divine providence, as manifested in the Biblical miracles. In the preface, Abba Mari explains his object in collecting the correspondence; and in the treatise which follows he shows that the study of philosophy, useful in itself as a help toward the acquisition of the knowledge of God, requires great caution, lest we be misled by the Aristotelian philosophy or its false interpretation, as regards the principles of creatio ex nihilo and divine individual providence. The manuscripts include twelve letters which are not included in the printed edition of Minḥat Ḳenaot.\n\nThe correspondence refers mainly to the proposed restriction of the study of the Aristotelian philosophy. Casually, other theological questions are discussed. For example, letters 1, 5, and 8 contain a discussion on the question, whether the use of a piece of metal with the figure of a lion, as a talisman, is permitted by Jewish law for medicinal purposes, or is prohibited as idolatrous. In letter 131, Abba Mari mourns the death of Ben Adret, and in letter 132 he sends words of sympathy to the congregation of Perpignan, on the death of Don Vidal Shlomo (the Meiri) and Rabbi Meshullam. Letter 33 contains the statement of Abba Mari that two letters which he desired to insert could not be discovered by him. MS. Ramsgate, No. 52, has the same statement, but also the two letters missing in the printed copies. In Sefer haYarchi, Abba Mari refers to the great caution shown by the rabbis of old regarding the teaching of the philosophical mysteries, and recommended by men like the Hai Gaon, Maimonides, and David Kimhi. A response of Abba Mari on a ritual question is contained in MS. Ramsgate, No. 136; and Zunz mentions a ḳinah composed by Abba Mari.\n\nMinchat Kenaot is instructive reading for the historian because it throws much light upon the deeper problems which agitated Judaism, the question of the relation of religion to the philosophy of the age, which neither the zeal of the fanatic nor the bold attitude of the liberal-minded could solve in any fixed dogmatic form or by any anathema, as the independent spirit of the congregations refused to accord to the rabbis the power possessed by the Church of dictating to the people what they should believe or respect.\n\nAt the close of the work are added several eulogies written by Abba Mari on Ben Adret (who died in 1310), and on Don Vidal, Solomon of Perpignan, and Don Bonet Crescas of Lunel.\n\nReferences\n\n13th-century births\n14th-century deaths\nPeople from Lunel\n14th-century French rabbis\nProvençal rabbis\nFrench Orthodox rabbis\nJewish refugees", "role": "assistant" } ]
Larsnes
Larsnes is the administrative centre of the municipality of Sande in Møre og Romsdal county, Norway. It is located on the southwest side of the island of Gurskøya, about east of the island of Kvamsøya, southwest of the village of Gursken, and about southwest of the town of Ulsteinvik. The village is home to manufacturing industry, fish processing, fish farming, and cement production. Larsnes Chapel is located in this village. The village has a population (2018) of 626 and a population density of . From 1905 to 1964, the village of Larsnes was part of the short-lived municipality of Rovde. Notable residents Bjartmar Gjerde (1931–2009), a Norwegian politician for the Labour Party References Sunnmøre Villages in Møre og Romsdal Sande, Møre og Romsdal
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Larsnes", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Larsnes is the administrative centre of the municipality of Sande in Møre og Romsdal county, Norway. It is located on the southwest side of the island of Gurskøya, about east of the island of Kvamsøya, southwest of the village of Gursken, and about southwest of the town of Ulsteinvik.\n\nThe village is home to manufacturing industry, fish processing, fish farming, and cement production. Larsnes Chapel is located in this village.\n\nThe village has a population (2018) of 626 and a population density of .\n\nFrom 1905 to 1964, the village of Larsnes was part of the short-lived municipality of Rovde.\n\nNotable residents\nBjartmar Gjerde (1931–2009), a Norwegian politician for the Labour Party\n\nReferences\n\nSunnmøre\nVillages in Møre og Romsdal\nSande, Møre og Romsdal", "role": "assistant" } ]
Neil Denis
Neil Denis is a Canadian actor best known for his role as Rya'c, son of Teal'c, a Jaffa in Stargate SG-1. His first appearance was in University Hospital in 1995 at the age of 8. He also appeared in the Canadian television series 2030 CE. He has provided the voice for Spyke in X-Men: Evolution. He is known for his portrayal of Jose Merel in A Girl Like Me: The Gwen Araujo Story. Filmography University Hospital Danny (1 episode, 1995) The X-Files The Catcher (1 episode, 1996) The Sentinel Carjacker Kid #1 (1 episode, 1997) A Call to Remember (1997) (TV) George Hicks Zenon: Girl of the 21st Century (1999) (TV) Leo Stargate SG-1 Rya'c (6 episodes, 1997–2004) Big and Hairy (1998) (TV) Kid Max Q (1998) (TV) Michael Daniels The Inspectors (1998) (TV) Will Golf Punks (1998) Thork Dead Man's Gun Arthur John (1 episode, 1998) Goosebumps Todd Erikson (3 episodes, 1998) RoboCop: Alpha Commando (1998) Additional Voices (unknown episodes) Freedom (1 episode, 2000) Frankie & Hazel (2000) (TV) Abdul, Pup First Wave (2000) Skater (1 episode, 2000) Out of Time (2000) (TV) Sean Seven Days Morgan (1 episode, 2000) Spooky House (2000) 2nd Audience Child Living with the Dead (2002) (TV) Dennis Branston Tribe of Joseph (2002) Phillipe X-Men: Evolution Evan Daniels/Spyke (52 episodes, 2000–2003) and Paul Haits (6 episodes, 2000–2001, 2003) 2030 CE Robby Drake (7 episodes, 2002–2003) The Life (2004) (TV) Student #2 Zolar (2004) (TV) Hanson Romeo! Stash (1 episode, 2004) Fetching Cody (2005) Sudden Alice, I Think Abelard (2 episodes, 2006) The Dead Zone Teenage Clerk (1 episode, 2006) A Girl Like Me: The Gwen Araujo Story (2006) (TV) Jose Merel Beyond Loch Ness (2008) (TV) Chad Wolverine and The X-Men Spyke and Cable/Evan Daniels (26 episodes, 2009) External links Canadian male child actors Canadian male film actors Canadian male television actors Canadian male voice actors Living people Black Canadian male actors Year of birth missing (living people)
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Neil Denis", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Neil Denis is a Canadian actor best known for his role as Rya'c, son of Teal'c, a Jaffa in Stargate SG-1. His first appearance was in University Hospital in 1995 at the age of 8. He also appeared in the Canadian television series 2030 CE. He has provided the voice for Spyke in X-Men: Evolution. He is known for his portrayal of Jose Merel in A Girl Like Me: The Gwen Araujo Story.\n\nFilmography\nUniversity Hospital Danny (1 episode, 1995)\nThe X-Files The Catcher (1 episode, 1996)\nThe Sentinel Carjacker Kid #1 (1 episode, 1997)\nA Call to Remember (1997) (TV) George Hicks\nZenon: Girl of the 21st Century (1999) (TV) Leo\nStargate SG-1 Rya'c (6 episodes, 1997–2004)\nBig and Hairy (1998) (TV) Kid\nMax Q (1998) (TV) Michael Daniels\nThe Inspectors (1998) (TV) Will\nGolf Punks (1998) Thork\nDead Man's Gun Arthur John (1 episode, 1998)\nGoosebumps Todd Erikson (3 episodes, 1998)\nRoboCop: Alpha Commando (1998) Additional Voices (unknown episodes)\nFreedom (1 episode, 2000)\nFrankie & Hazel (2000) (TV) Abdul, Pup\nFirst Wave (2000) Skater (1 episode, 2000)\nOut of Time (2000) (TV) Sean\nSeven Days Morgan (1 episode, 2000)\nSpooky House (2000) 2nd Audience Child\nLiving with the Dead (2002) (TV) Dennis Branston\nTribe of Joseph (2002) Phillipe\nX-Men: Evolution Evan Daniels/Spyke (52 episodes, 2000–2003) and Paul Haits (6 episodes, 2000–2001, 2003)\n2030 CE Robby Drake (7 episodes, 2002–2003)\nThe Life (2004) (TV) Student #2\nZolar (2004) (TV) Hanson\nRomeo! Stash (1 episode, 2004)\nFetching Cody (2005) Sudden\nAlice, I Think Abelard (2 episodes, 2006)\nThe Dead Zone Teenage Clerk (1 episode, 2006)\nA Girl Like Me: The Gwen Araujo Story (2006) (TV) Jose Merel\nBeyond Loch Ness (2008) (TV) Chad\nWolverine and The X-Men Spyke and Cable/Evan Daniels (26 episodes, 2009)\n\nExternal links\n\nCanadian male child actors\nCanadian male film actors\nCanadian male television actors\nCanadian male voice actors\nLiving people\nBlack Canadian male actors\nYear of birth missing (living people)", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20national%20baseball%20team
The United States national baseball team, also known as Team USA represents the United States in international-level baseball competitions. The team is currently ranked 2nd in the world by the World Baseball Softball Confederation. The United States has won many international tournaments, many of which are now discontinued. Most notably the team won the Olympic baseball tournament in 2000, and the World Baseball Classic (WBC) in 2017. The United States national team debuted in the Baseball World Cup in 1938. The tournament was discontinued in 2011 in favor of the best-on-best World Baseball Classic. The United States won the tournament four times. In the 2000 Baseball Olympic games, the United States won their first Olympic gold in baseball. The United States was an inaugural member of the World Baseball Classic, making its debut in the first edition. In their first three appearances in the WBC, the best finish for the Americans was fourth place in 2009. In 2017, the team won the WBC title for the first time by defeating Puerto Rico in the final game. Team USA qualified for the 2020 Summer Olympics by winning the eight-team Americas Qualifying Event in June 2021. In the Olympic competition, held in Tokyo in July and August 2021, the team won the silver medal, losing to hosts Japan in the gold medal game. The team is governed by USA Baseball, and its headquarters/training facilities are located in Cary, North Carolina. Along with the professional national team, USA Baseball also fields a Collegiate, 18U, 15U, and 12U National baseball team. All of the teams contribute to the WBSC ranking of the US National team through various tournaments hosted by the World Baseball Softball Confederation. Throughout the years, many high-level players have been developed by USA Baseball, and have played on the national team before becoming professional players. Many players who are currently playing in Major League Baseball have also joined the team for the World Baseball Classic and Olympic baseball tournaments. Current roster The roster for the 2023 World Baseball Classic: Results and fixtures The following is a list of professional baseball game results currently active in the latest version of the WBSC World Rankings, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled. Legend 2019 2021 2022 2023 Primary national team tournament records World Baseball Classic In , Major League Baseball announced the formation of the World Baseball Classic, a 16-nation international competition to be held in March of for the first time. The tournament was the first of its kind to have the national teams of IBAF's member federations feature professional players from the major leagues around the world, including Major League Baseball. Record by team 2006: Inaugural Classic On January 17, , the United States announced its provisional 60-man roster (52 players in all), and whittled down the squad mixed with youth and experience to 30 players on February 14, 2006. Sixteen of the 30 Major League clubs were represented on the 2006 squad, including multiple representatives from the New York Yankees (4), Houston Astros (3), Washington Nationals (3), Atlanta Braves (2), Boston Red Sox (2), Chicago Cubs (2), Colorado Rockies (2), Houston Astros (2), and Texas Rangers (2). The fact that four Yankees were selected for the squad irked Yankees owner George Steinbrenner, who was opposed to the WBC being held in the middle of spring training to the point where at his team's complex in Tampa, Florida, he posted a sign apologizing for their absence and mocking the tournament in the process. Major League Baseball Commissioner Bud Selig promptly ordered him to take down the sign the next day. Manager Buck Martinez brought his 17 years of professional experience as a major league catcher, and 1+ seasons as Toronto Blue Jays' (–) skipper to the U.S. team. Former big league managers Davey Johnson and Marcel Lachemann served as hitting coach and pitching coach, respectively. Along with fellow North American rivals Canada and Mexico, the U.S. hosted the South Africa. Round One games were held at Chase Field in Phoenix, Arizona and Scottsdale Stadium in Scottsdale, Arizona. The top two teams advanced to Angel Stadium of Anaheim in Anaheim, California. Despite a surprising loss to Canada, the United States advanced to the second round via tiebreaker. However, second-round losses to South Korea and Mexico allowed Japan to advance over the Americans via tiebreak. 2009: America's second-best finish The United States competed in Pool C of the 2009 World Baseball Classic along with Italy, Venezuela, and host Canada. The U.S. won the pool opener against Canada by a score of 6-, and secured advancement into Round 2 by defeating Venezuela in a 15–6 slugfest. Venezuela, however, came back to defeat the U.S. in the championship game of Pool C, 5–3. On March 14, in their first match of round 2 against Puerto Rico, in Miami, Florida's Dolphin Stadium, the United States was mercy ruled for the first time in international competition, losing 11–1 in seven innings. Adam Dunn and Captain Derek Jeter were among the ones to voice their distaste with the severe beating. Manager Davey Johnson even stated "I should have stayed there", referencing a wedding he was at earlier in the day. The United States came on strong the following day against the surprising Netherlands (who had already eliminated a tournament super power: The Dominican Republic), jumping out to a 6–0 lead in the fourth inning, and winning 9–3. With Puerto Rico losing to Venezuela 2–0 the following day, the U.S. would face Puerto Rico once again in the qualifying round. The loser would be eliminated from the tournament. With Puerto Rico leading 5–3 in the 9th inning, singles by Shane Victorino and Brian Roberts and walks by Jimmy Rollins and Kevin Youkilis cut the lead to 5–4 for New York Mets third baseman David Wright, who looped a barely-fair single into right that brought in Roberts and Rollins to win the game, 6–5, advancing to the semifinals while eliminating Puerto Rico. The United States would go on to lose to Japan 9–4 in the second semifinal. 2013: Stiffer competition; America misses the finals again The United States team competed in Pool D of the 2013 World Baseball Classic along with Italy, Canada, and Mexico. The U.S. team lost to Mexico in the first round 5–2, but later won two games against Canada and Italy, securing their place for the second round, along with Italy, on Pool 2. On March 12, they beat Puerto Rico 7–1, which then proceeded to face off against the Dominican Republic on March 14, losing 3–1 where they face off Puerto Rico once again the next day, as Puerto Rico beat the American team 4–3 (as revenge for being eliminated from the 2009 World Baseball Classic), thus eliminating them from the tournament. 2017: First championship The Americans won their first game over Colombia, 3–2, in 10 innings on a walk-off single by Adam Jones. After losing to the Dominican Republic after having a 5-run lead, the U.S. defeated Canada to reach the Second Round. In the Second Round the Americans won the first game of the round defeating Venezuela 4–2. In the second game the U.S. was defeated by Puerto Rico 6–5 after giving up 4 runs in the 1st inning. The U.S. then defeated the Dominican Republic to advance to the Championship Round. In the Championship Round Semifinals on March 21, the Americans defeated Japan 2–1 to advance to their first-ever appearance in the Final. In the Final on March 22, the U.S. once again faced Puerto Rico; the U.S. however, ended up winning 8–0 capturing the first ever World Baseball Classic Title for the United States. Following the conclusion of the tournament, Eric Hosmer, Christian Yelich, and Marcus Stroman were named to the 2017 All-World Baseball Classic team. 2023: the Americans fail to repeat Team USA won their first game in pool play against Great Britain 6–2. They lost their next game against Mexico 11–5 in which would ultimately be their only pool play loss. The United States won their final two games against Canada and Columbia and advanced to the knockout stage. In their quarterfinal matchup against Venezuela, the Americans were trailing 7–5 in the 8th when Trea Turner hit a go-ahead Grand Slam to win the game 9–7 for Team USA to advance to the semi-finals. There, the U.S. blew out Cuba 14–2 and advanced to the Championship round for the second time in a row. Their Championship round opponent was a championship much anticipated for the WBC, which was Japan. The Americans took an early 1–0 lead on a Trea Turner homerun but could not close the door and lost to Japan, with the final score being 3–2. Trea Turner and Mike Trout were named to the 2023 All-World Baseball Classic team. Olympic Games Background Baseball unofficially debuted at the Summer Olympics of 1904 in St. Louis. Single exhibition games were played in conjunction with five Olympics: 1912 in Stockholm, 1936 in Berlin, 1952 in Helsinki, 1956 in Melbourne, and 1964 in Tokyo. The 1952 exhibition was of a Finnish variant of baseball known as pesäpallo. The 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles was the first to feature a tournament in the program. Eight teams competed in the tournament held at Dodger Stadium. Cuba, after winning the gold medal at the 1983 Pan American Games, was to participate, but did not as a result of the Soviet-led boycott. The United States national team (Team USA) finished second, falling to Japan in the final game, 6–3. No official medals were awarded as baseball was a demonstration sport. Baseball returned as a demonstration sport at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. Again an eight-team tournament, the United States finished first in the tournament, defeating Japan, 5–3, in the final game. Baseball became an official medal sport beginning with the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. Competition was open only to male amateurs in 1992 and 1996. As a result, Team USA and other nations where professional baseball is developed relied on college baseball players, while Cuba used their most experienced veterans, who technically were considered amateurs as they nominally held other jobs. Professional baseball players were introduced in 2000, but the situation remained largely the same. No active players from Major League Baseball (MLB) competed—as MLB declined to release its players—so Team USA utilized minor-league players and free agents, while Cuba and some other nations were still able to use their best players, as they had no commitments with MLB. At the International Olympic Committee (IOC) meeting on July 8, 2005, baseball and softball were voted out of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, becoming the first sports voted out of the Olympics since polo was eliminated from the 1936 Summer Olympics. The IOC cited the absence of the best players as the main reason for baseball being dropped from the Olympic program following the 2008 games. Baseball returned to the Olympic program for the 2020 games, held in 2021 in Tokyo. It will not be part of the 2024 games in Paris, but is scheduled for the 2028 games in Los Angeles. 1992: Fourth in Barcelona Team USA had a 5–2 record in pool play, then lost to Cuba in the semifinals, followed by a loss to Japan in the bronze-medal match. Pitchers (8): Willie Adams, Stanford Jeff Alkire (L), Miami Darren Dreifort, Wichita State Rick Greene, LSU Rick Helling, Stanford Daron Kirkreit, UC Riverside Ron Villone (L), UMass B. J. Wallace (L), Mississippi State Pitcher / Outfielder (1): Chris Roberts (L), Florida State Catchers (2): Charles Johnson, Miami Jason Varitek, Georgia Tech Infielders (6): Nomar Garciaparra, Georgia Tech Jason Giambi, Long Beach State Phil Nevin, Cal State Fullerton Michael Tucker, Longwood Craig Wilson, Kansas State Chris Wimmer, Wichita State Outfielders (3): Jeffrey Hammonds, Stanford Chad McConnell, Creighton Calvin Murray, Texas Manager: Ron Fraser, Miami Note: Jason Moler of Cal State Fullerton was initially named to the squad as one of the catchers, but was replaced by Varitek due to injury prior to the start of the competition. Source: 1996: Bronze in Atlanta Team USA had a 6–1 record in pool play, then lost to Japan in the semifinals, followed by a win over Nicaragua in the bronze-medal match. Chad Allen Kris Benson R. A. Dickey Troy Glaus Chad Green Seth Greisinger Kip Harkrider A. J. Hinch Jacque Jones Billy Koch Mark Kotsay Matt LeCroy Travis Lee Brian Loyd Braden Looper Warren Morris Augie Ojeda Jim Parque Jeff Weaver Jason Williams Manager: Skip Bertman Source: 2000: Gold in Sydney Team USA had a 6–1 record in pool play, then defeated South Korea in the semifinals, followed by a win over Cuba in the gold-medal game. Brent Abernathy Kurt Ainsworth Pat Borders Sean Burroughs John Cotton Travis Dawkins Adam Everett Ryan Franklin Chris George Shane Heams Marcus Jensen Mike Kinkade Rick Krivda Doug Mientkiewicz Mike Neill Roy Oswalt Jon Rauch Anthony Sanders Bobby Seay Ben Sheets Brad Wilkerson Todd Williams Ernie Young Tim Young Manager: Tommy Lasorda Source: 2004: Did not qualify for Athens 2008: Bronze in Beijing Team USA qualified for the 2008 Summer Olympics by winning the American Qualifying Tournament. In Beijing, Team USA had a 5–2 record in pool play, then lost to Cuba in the semifinals, followed by a win over Japan in the bronze-medal match. 2020: Silver in Tokyo In November 2019, with Scott Brosius as manager, the team initially failed to qualify at the 2019 WBSC Premier12 Tournament. The team subsequently qualified, with Mike Scioscia as manager, by winning the Americas Qualifying Event held from May 31 to June 5, 2021, in Florida. Luke Williams led the team in batting average (.444), runs (6), hits (8), and RBIs (6), Todd Frazier and Mark Kolozsvary led in home runs (2), and David Robertson led the team in saves (2). At the Olympics, the team first won its three-team pool, via victories over South Korea and Israel. In the modified double-elimination bracket, the team lost to Japan in the second round, then defeated the Dominican Republic in the repechage and South Korea in the semi-finals and advanced to the gold medal game where the team lost to Japan for the second time. Team Japan was made up of players from Nippon Professional Baseball, which paused its season for the Olympics, while Team USA fielded minor-league players and free agents with major-league experience. The team's roster for the Olympics was released on July 2, 2021. Premier12 Tournament 2015 Team USA came in second in the 2015 WBSC Premier12 Tournament. 2019 Team USA came in fourth in the 12-team 2019 WBSC Premier12 Tournament in November 2019. Two quota spots were allocated from the Tournament, of the spots for six baseball teams at the 2020 Olympic Games, with third-place Mexico as the top finisher from the Americas earning one spot and Team USA not earning a spot. Team USA did not include players who were on their teams' 40-man MLB rosters, being made up of minor league players, including former First Round MLB draft picks Jo Adell, Tanner Houck, and Brent Rooker (2017 MLB draft), Alec Bohm and Xavier Edwards (2018 MLB draft), and Andrew Vaughn (2019 MLB draft). Other teams used their top-level players. Amateur World Series and Baseball World Cup The U.S. lost the inaugural Amateur World Series in 1938. The U.S. won its first Amateur World Series in , and repeated a year later. In , the Amateur World Series became the International Baseball Federation's (IBAF) World Cup. Since 1938, the U.S. has won 15 medals at the Baseball World Cup: four gold (1973, 1974, 2007, 2009), seven silver (1938, 1969, 1970, 1972, 1978, 1988, 2001), and four bronze (1939, 1940, 1982, 1984). The U.S. was usually represented by college players in these tournaments, while Cuba used its best players. 2007 The U.S. was in group A of the IBAF World Cup, along with Republic of China, Japan, Mexico, Panama, Italy, Spain and South Africa. The U.S. went 6–1 to win their group, with their only loss coming on November 9, against Italy. It was the U.S.'s first loss to Italy in 21 years and the first time it ever lost to Italy with professional players, as the team consisted of minor league prospects. This one loss, however, would be their only. The U.S. went on to beat Korea, Netherlands, and Cuba to capture the gold. 2009 In Round 1 of the 2009 Baseball World Cup, the U.S. (2–1) finished second in Group E and advanced with first-place Venezuela (3–0). In Round 2, the U.S. was joined by the nine other first- and second-place teams from Round 1, four wild-card teams, and the two principal host teams (Italy and the Netherlands). The 16 teams were divided into Groups F and G. The U.S. (7–0) defeated each of the other seven teams in Group G. In Round 3, the first four teams in Group F were renamed Group 1 and the first four teams in Group G were renamed Group 2. The U.S. finished first in Group 2 with a record of 7–0; Cuba finished first in Group 1, with a 5–2 record. In the Final Round, Group 1 and 2's fourth-place teams competed for overall seventh place; the two third-place teams competed for overall fifth place; and the two second-place teams competed for the bronze medal. In the gold-medal game, the U.S. defeated Cuba, 10–5. Tournament awards were given to Justin Smoak (MVP) and Todd Redmond (best won/loss average (pitcher)). Smoak (first base) was also named to the tournament All-Star Team, along with Jon Weber (outfield) and Terry Tiffee (designated hitter). Intercontinental Cup The Intercontinental Cup is a tournament between the members of the IBAF. It was first held in in Italy, and was held every other year following until . Since, there has been a competition in & , both of which, the U.S. has chosen to sit out. The tournament has been dominated by Cuba, who has won ten gold & three silver in the 16 tournaments. Japan is second in medal ranking, with two gold, five silver & five bronze, and the U.S. is third, with two gold, four silver & two bronze. The United States use college players in this tournament, while Cuba sends its best players. Future big leaguers have competed in the Intercontinental Cup for the U.S. including Joe Carter, Terry Francona, Mickey Morandini, John Olerud, and Robin Ventura. Pan American Games The U.S. and Cuba have been archrivals at the Pan American Games ever since the event began in . The U.S. has finished second behind Cuba eight of the 12 times they have brought home the gold. Likewise, when the U.S. won the gold medal at the 1967 Pan American Games, Cuba finished second. The U.S. roster is usually composed of promising college players, while Cuba is able to send its best players. In total, the U.S. has won one gold medal, ten silver medals, and three bronze. The only games the U.S. failed to medal in were and . For the 1995 games, the U.S. did not send their national team, but instead the St. John's University baseball team, who finished 0–4 against the international all-star teams. Haarlem Baseball Week World Port Tournament Collegiate National Team USA Baseball also fields a Collegiate National Team which has 22 members of top collegiate baseball players in the country, consisting of five infielders, four outfielders, two catchers, nine pitchers, and a pair of two-way players. The team competes in exhibition games across the U.S. and overseas against teams from across the world, including teams from Canada, Chinese Taipei (Taiwan) and the Netherlands. The 2009 team won the World Baseball Challenge in Canada. Players who took the field for the Collegiate National Team and have gone on to Major League Baseball success include such notables as Jim Abbott, Kris Bryant, Troy Glaus, Todd Helton, Ryan Howard, Barry Larkin, Tino Martinez, Dustin Pedroia, David Price, Huston Street, Mark Teixeira, Troy Tulowitzki, Trea Turner, Jason Varitek, Carlos Rodon, Gerrit Cole, Will Clark and Ryan Zimmerman. Before 2000, the CNT was also the Olympic National Team for Team USA as it won the country's first Olympics medals in 1984 (silver), 1988 (gold) and 1996 (bronze). Established 1951 for the first ever Panamerican Games it is the oldest constituent of the program. Other national teams The USA won the gold medal in the first ever World Games in 1981 with a roster of college players. Franklin Stubbs, Oddibe McDowell, Spike Owen, and some others went on to play in MLB. USA Baseball also fields 18U, 15U, and 12U national baseball teams. Former national teams included 16U and 14U national teams. USA Baseball also hosts two national team development programs in the age divisions of 17U and 14U. The selection processes for these programs can be found on the official website of USA Baseball and these team programs also have their respective Twitter pages. See also United States women's national baseball team USA Baseball USA Baseball National Training Complex Major League Baseball Puerto Rico national baseball team Baseball at the 1981 World Games Notes External links National baseball teams
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20national%20baseball%20team", "role": "user" }, { "content": "The United States national baseball team, also known as Team USA represents the United States in international-level baseball competitions. The team is currently ranked 2nd in the world by the World Baseball Softball Confederation. The United States has won many international tournaments, many of which are now discontinued. Most notably the team won the Olympic baseball tournament in 2000, and the World Baseball Classic (WBC) in 2017.\n\nThe United States national team debuted in the Baseball World Cup in 1938. The tournament was discontinued in 2011 in favor of the best-on-best World Baseball Classic. The United States won the tournament four times. In the 2000 Baseball Olympic games, the United States won their first Olympic gold in baseball.\n\nThe United States was an inaugural member of the World Baseball Classic, making its debut in the first edition. In their first three appearances in the WBC, the best finish for the Americans was fourth place in 2009. In 2017, the team won the WBC title for the first time by defeating Puerto Rico in the final game.\n\nTeam USA qualified for the 2020 Summer Olympics by winning the eight-team Americas Qualifying Event in June 2021. In the Olympic competition, held in Tokyo in July and August 2021, the team won the silver medal, losing to hosts Japan in the gold medal game.\n\nThe team is governed by USA Baseball, and its headquarters/training facilities are located in Cary, North Carolina. Along with the professional national team, USA Baseball also fields a Collegiate, 18U, 15U, and 12U National baseball team. All of the teams contribute to the WBSC ranking of the US National team through various tournaments hosted by the World Baseball Softball Confederation.\n\nThroughout the years, many high-level players have been developed by USA Baseball, and have played on the national team before becoming professional players. Many players who are currently playing in Major League Baseball have also joined the team for the World Baseball Classic and Olympic baseball tournaments.\n\nCurrent roster\n\nThe roster for the 2023 World Baseball Classic:\n\nResults and fixtures\nThe following is a list of professional baseball game results currently active in the latest version of the WBSC World Rankings, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.\n\nLegend\n\n2019\n\n2021\n\n2022\n\n2023\n\nPrimary national team tournament records\n\nWorld Baseball Classic\n\nIn , Major League Baseball announced the formation of the World Baseball Classic, a 16-nation international competition to be held in March of for the first time. The tournament was the first of its kind to have the national teams of IBAF's member federations feature professional players from the major leagues around the world, including Major League Baseball.\n\nRecord by team\n\n2006: Inaugural Classic\n\nOn January 17, , the United States announced its provisional 60-man roster (52 players in all), and whittled down the squad mixed with youth and experience to 30 players on February 14, 2006. Sixteen of the 30 Major League clubs were represented on the 2006 squad, including multiple representatives from the New York Yankees (4), Houston Astros (3), Washington Nationals (3), Atlanta Braves (2), Boston Red Sox (2), Chicago Cubs (2), Colorado Rockies (2), Houston Astros (2), and Texas Rangers (2). The fact that four Yankees were selected for the squad irked Yankees owner George Steinbrenner, who was opposed to the WBC being held in the middle of spring training to the point where at his team's complex in Tampa, Florida, he posted a sign apologizing for their absence and mocking the tournament in the process. Major League Baseball Commissioner Bud Selig promptly ordered him to take down the sign the next day.\n\nManager Buck Martinez brought his 17 years of professional experience as a major league catcher, and 1+ seasons as Toronto Blue Jays' (–) skipper to the U.S. team. Former big league managers Davey Johnson and Marcel Lachemann served as hitting coach and pitching coach, respectively.\n\nAlong with fellow North American rivals Canada and Mexico, the U.S. hosted the South Africa. Round One games were held at Chase Field in Phoenix, Arizona and Scottsdale Stadium in Scottsdale, Arizona. The top two teams advanced to Angel Stadium of Anaheim in Anaheim, California.\nDespite a surprising loss to Canada, the United States advanced to the second round via tiebreaker. However, second-round losses to South Korea and Mexico allowed Japan to advance over the Americans via tiebreak.\n\n2009: America's second-best finish\n\nThe United States competed in Pool C of the 2009 World Baseball Classic along with Italy, Venezuela, and host Canada. The U.S. won the pool opener against Canada by a score of 6-, and secured advancement into Round 2 by defeating Venezuela in a 15–6 slugfest. Venezuela, however, came back to defeat the U.S. in the championship game of Pool C, 5–3.\n\nOn March 14, in their first match of round 2 against Puerto Rico, in Miami, Florida's Dolphin Stadium, the United States was mercy ruled for the first time in international competition, losing 11–1 in seven innings. Adam Dunn and Captain Derek Jeter were among the ones to voice their distaste with the severe beating. Manager Davey Johnson even stated \"I should have stayed there\", referencing a wedding he was at earlier in the day.\n\nThe United States came on strong the following day against the surprising Netherlands (who had already eliminated a tournament super power: The Dominican Republic), jumping out to a 6–0 lead in the fourth inning, and winning 9–3. With Puerto Rico losing to Venezuela 2–0 the following day, the U.S. would face Puerto Rico once again in the qualifying round. The loser would be eliminated from the tournament. With Puerto Rico leading 5–3 in the 9th inning, singles by Shane Victorino and Brian Roberts and walks by Jimmy Rollins and Kevin Youkilis cut the lead to 5–4 for New York Mets third baseman David Wright, who looped a barely-fair single into right that brought in Roberts and Rollins to win the game, 6–5, advancing to the semifinals while eliminating Puerto Rico. The United States would go on to lose to Japan 9–4 in the second semifinal.\n\n2013: Stiffer competition; America misses the finals again\n\nThe United States team competed in Pool D of the 2013 World Baseball Classic along with Italy, Canada, and Mexico. The U.S. team lost to Mexico in the first round 5–2, but later won two games against Canada and Italy, securing their place for the second round, along with Italy, on Pool 2.\n\nOn March 12, they beat Puerto Rico 7–1, which then proceeded to face off against the Dominican Republic on March 14, losing 3–1 where they face off Puerto Rico once again the next day, as Puerto Rico beat the American team 4–3 (as revenge for being eliminated from the 2009 World Baseball Classic), thus eliminating them from the tournament.\n\n2017: First championship\nThe Americans won their first game over Colombia, 3–2, in 10 innings on a walk-off single by Adam Jones. After losing to the Dominican Republic after having a 5-run lead, the U.S. defeated Canada to reach the Second Round.\n\nIn the Second Round the Americans won the first game of the round defeating Venezuela 4–2. In the second game the U.S. was defeated by Puerto Rico 6–5 after giving up 4 runs in the 1st inning. The U.S. then defeated the Dominican Republic to advance to the Championship Round.\n\nIn the Championship Round Semifinals on March 21, the Americans defeated Japan 2–1 to advance to their first-ever appearance in the Final. In the Final on March 22, the U.S. once again faced Puerto Rico; the U.S. however, ended up winning 8–0 capturing the first ever World Baseball Classic Title for the United States. Following the conclusion of the tournament, Eric Hosmer, Christian Yelich, and Marcus Stroman were named to the 2017 All-World Baseball Classic team.\n\n2023: the Americans fail to repeat\nTeam USA won their first game in pool play against Great Britain 6–2. They lost their next game against Mexico 11–5 in which would ultimately be their only pool play loss. The United States won their final two games against Canada and Columbia and advanced to the knockout stage.\n\nIn their quarterfinal matchup against Venezuela, the Americans were trailing 7–5 in the 8th when Trea Turner hit a go-ahead Grand Slam to win the game 9–7 for Team USA to advance to the semi-finals. There, the U.S. blew out Cuba 14–2 and advanced to the Championship round for the second time in a row.\n\nTheir Championship round opponent was a championship much anticipated for the WBC, which was Japan. The Americans took an early 1–0 lead on a Trea Turner homerun but could not close the door and lost to Japan, with the final score being 3–2. Trea Turner and Mike Trout were named to the 2023 All-World Baseball Classic team.\n\nOlympic Games\n\nBackground\nBaseball unofficially debuted at the Summer Olympics of 1904 in St. Louis. Single exhibition games were played in conjunction with five Olympics: 1912 in Stockholm, 1936 in Berlin, 1952 in Helsinki, 1956 in Melbourne, and 1964 in Tokyo. The 1952 exhibition was of a Finnish variant of baseball known as pesäpallo.\n\nThe 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles was the first to feature a tournament in the program. Eight teams competed in the tournament held at Dodger Stadium. Cuba, after winning the gold medal at the 1983 Pan American Games, was to participate, but did not as a result of the Soviet-led boycott. The United States national team (Team USA) finished second, falling to Japan in the final game, 6–3. No official medals were awarded as baseball was a demonstration sport.\n\nBaseball returned as a demonstration sport at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. Again an eight-team tournament, the United States finished first in the tournament, defeating Japan, 5–3, in the final game.\n\nBaseball became an official medal sport beginning with the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. Competition was open only to male amateurs in 1992 and 1996. As a result, Team USA and other nations where professional baseball is developed relied on college baseball players, while Cuba used their most experienced veterans, who technically were considered amateurs as they nominally held other jobs. Professional baseball players were introduced in 2000, but the situation remained largely the same. No active players from Major League Baseball (MLB) competed—as MLB declined to release its players—so Team USA utilized minor-league players and free agents, while Cuba and some other nations were still able to use their best players, as they had no commitments with MLB.\n\nAt the International Olympic Committee (IOC) meeting on July 8, 2005, baseball and softball were voted out of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, becoming the first sports voted out of the Olympics since polo was eliminated from the 1936 Summer Olympics. The IOC cited the absence of the best players as the main reason for baseball being dropped from the Olympic program following the 2008 games. Baseball returned to the Olympic program for the 2020 games, held in 2021 in Tokyo. It will not be part of the 2024 games in Paris, but is scheduled for the 2028 games in Los Angeles.\n\n1992: Fourth in Barcelona\n\nTeam USA had a 5–2 record in pool play, then lost to Cuba in the semifinals, followed by a loss to Japan in the bronze-medal match.\n\nPitchers (8):\n Willie Adams, Stanford\n Jeff Alkire (L), Miami\n Darren Dreifort, Wichita State\n Rick Greene, LSU\n Rick Helling, Stanford\n Daron Kirkreit, UC Riverside\n Ron Villone (L), UMass\n B. J. Wallace (L), Mississippi State\n\nPitcher / Outfielder (1):\n Chris Roberts (L), Florida State\n\nCatchers (2):\n Charles Johnson, Miami\n Jason Varitek, Georgia Tech\n\nInfielders (6):\n Nomar Garciaparra, Georgia Tech\n Jason Giambi, Long Beach State\n Phil Nevin, Cal State Fullerton\n Michael Tucker, Longwood\n Craig Wilson, Kansas State\n Chris Wimmer, Wichita State\n\nOutfielders (3):\n Jeffrey Hammonds, Stanford\n Chad McConnell, Creighton\n Calvin Murray, Texas\n\nManager: Ron Fraser, Miami\n\nNote: Jason Moler of Cal State Fullerton was initially named to the squad as one of the catchers, but was replaced by Varitek due to injury prior to the start of the competition.\n\nSource:\n\n1996: Bronze in Atlanta\n\nTeam USA had a 6–1 record in pool play, then lost to Japan in the semifinals, followed by a win over Nicaragua in the bronze-medal match.\n\n Chad Allen\n Kris Benson\n R. A. Dickey\n Troy Glaus\n Chad Green\n Seth Greisinger\n Kip Harkrider\n A. J. Hinch\n Jacque Jones\n Billy Koch\n Mark Kotsay\n Matt LeCroy\n Travis Lee\n Brian Loyd\n Braden Looper\n Warren Morris\n Augie Ojeda\n Jim Parque\n Jeff Weaver\n Jason Williams\n\nManager: Skip Bertman\n\nSource:\n\n2000: Gold in Sydney\n\nTeam USA had a 6–1 record in pool play, then defeated South Korea in the semifinals, followed by a win over Cuba in the gold-medal game.\n\n Brent Abernathy\n Kurt Ainsworth\n Pat Borders\n Sean Burroughs\n John Cotton\n Travis Dawkins\n Adam Everett\n Ryan Franklin\n Chris George\n Shane Heams\n Marcus Jensen\n Mike Kinkade\n Rick Krivda\n Doug Mientkiewicz\n Mike Neill\n Roy Oswalt\n Jon Rauch\n Anthony Sanders\n Bobby Seay\n Ben Sheets\n Brad Wilkerson\n Todd Williams\n Ernie Young\n Tim Young\n\nManager: Tommy Lasorda\n\nSource:\n\n2004: Did not qualify for Athens\n\n2008: Bronze in Beijing\n\nTeam USA qualified for the 2008 Summer Olympics by winning the American Qualifying Tournament. In Beijing, Team USA had a 5–2 record in pool play, then lost to Cuba in the semifinals, followed by a win over Japan in the bronze-medal match.\n\n2020: Silver in Tokyo\n\nIn November 2019, with Scott Brosius as manager, the team initially failed to qualify at the 2019 WBSC Premier12 Tournament. The team subsequently qualified, with Mike Scioscia as manager, by winning the Americas Qualifying Event held from May 31 to June 5, 2021, in Florida. Luke Williams led the team in batting average (.444), runs (6), hits (8), and RBIs (6), Todd Frazier and Mark Kolozsvary led in home runs (2), and David Robertson led the team in saves (2).\n\nAt the Olympics, the team first won its three-team pool, via victories over South Korea and Israel. In the modified double-elimination bracket, the team lost to Japan in the second round, then defeated the Dominican Republic in the repechage and South Korea in the semi-finals and advanced to the gold medal game where the team lost to Japan for the second time. Team Japan was made up of players from Nippon Professional Baseball, which paused its season for the Olympics, while Team USA fielded minor-league players and free agents with major-league experience.\n\nThe team's roster for the Olympics was released on July 2, 2021.\n\nPremier12 Tournament\n\n2015\nTeam USA came in second in the 2015 WBSC Premier12 Tournament.\n\n2019\nTeam USA came in fourth in the 12-team 2019 WBSC Premier12 Tournament in November 2019. Two quota spots were allocated from the Tournament, of the spots for six baseball teams at the 2020 Olympic Games, with third-place Mexico as the top finisher from the Americas earning one spot and Team USA not earning a spot. Team USA did not include players who were on their teams' 40-man MLB rosters, being made up of minor league players, including former First Round MLB draft picks Jo Adell, Tanner Houck, and Brent Rooker (2017 MLB draft), Alec Bohm and Xavier Edwards (2018 MLB draft), and Andrew Vaughn (2019 MLB draft). Other teams used their top-level players.\n\nAmateur World Series and Baseball World Cup\nThe U.S. lost the inaugural Amateur World Series in 1938. The U.S. won its first Amateur World Series in , and repeated a year later.\n\nIn , the Amateur World Series became the International Baseball Federation's (IBAF) World Cup.\n\nSince 1938, the U.S. has won 15 medals at the Baseball World Cup: four gold (1973, 1974, 2007, 2009), seven silver (1938, 1969, 1970, 1972, 1978, 1988, 2001), and four bronze (1939, 1940, 1982, 1984).\n\nThe U.S. was usually represented by college players in these tournaments, while Cuba used its best players.\n\n2007\nThe U.S. was in group A of the IBAF World Cup, along with Republic of China, Japan, Mexico, Panama, Italy, Spain and South Africa. The U.S. went 6–1 to win their group, with their only loss coming on November 9, against Italy. It was the U.S.'s first loss to Italy in 21 years and the first time it ever lost to Italy with professional players, as the team consisted of minor league prospects.\n\nThis one loss, however, would be their only. The U.S. went on to beat Korea, Netherlands, and Cuba to capture the gold.\n\n2009\nIn Round 1 of the 2009 Baseball World Cup, the U.S. (2–1) finished second in Group E and advanced with first-place Venezuela (3–0). In Round 2, the U.S. was joined by the nine other first- and second-place teams from Round 1, four wild-card teams, and the two principal host teams (Italy and the Netherlands). The 16 teams were divided into Groups F and G. The U.S. (7–0) defeated each of the other seven teams in Group G. In Round 3, the first four teams in Group F were renamed Group 1 and the first four teams in Group G were renamed Group 2. The U.S. finished first in Group 2 with a record of 7–0; Cuba finished first in Group 1, with a 5–2 record. In the Final Round, Group 1 and 2's fourth-place teams competed for overall seventh place; the two third-place teams competed for overall fifth place; and the two second-place teams competed for the bronze medal. In the gold-medal game, the U.S. defeated Cuba, 10–5.\n\nTournament awards were given to Justin Smoak (MVP) and Todd Redmond (best won/loss average (pitcher)). Smoak (first base) was also named to the tournament All-Star Team, along with Jon Weber (outfield) and Terry Tiffee (designated hitter).\n\nIntercontinental Cup\nThe Intercontinental Cup is a tournament between the members of the IBAF. It was first held in in Italy, and was held every other year following until . Since, there has been a competition in & , both of which, the U.S. has chosen to sit out. The tournament has been dominated by Cuba, who has won ten gold & three silver in the 16 tournaments. Japan is second in medal ranking, with two gold, five silver & five bronze, and the U.S. is third, with two gold, four silver & two bronze. The United States use college players in this tournament, while Cuba sends its best players.\n\nFuture big leaguers have competed in the Intercontinental Cup for the U.S. including Joe Carter, Terry Francona, Mickey Morandini, John Olerud, and Robin Ventura.\n\nPan American Games\nThe U.S. and Cuba have been archrivals at the Pan American Games ever since the event began in . The U.S. has finished second behind Cuba eight of the 12 times they have brought home the gold. Likewise, when the U.S. won the gold medal at the 1967 Pan American Games, Cuba finished second. The U.S. roster is usually composed of promising college players, while Cuba is able to send its best players.\n\nIn total, the U.S. has won one gold medal, ten silver medals, and three bronze. The only games the U.S. failed to medal in were and . For the 1995 games, the U.S. did not send their national team, but instead the St. John's University baseball team, who finished 0–4 against the international all-star teams.\n\nHaarlem Baseball Week\n\nWorld Port Tournament\n\nCollegiate National Team\n\nUSA Baseball also fields a Collegiate National Team which has 22 members of top collegiate baseball players in the country, consisting of five infielders, four outfielders, two catchers, nine pitchers, and a pair of two-way players. The team competes in exhibition games across the U.S. and overseas against teams from across the world, including teams from Canada, Chinese Taipei (Taiwan) and the Netherlands. The 2009 team won the World Baseball Challenge in Canada.\n\nPlayers who took the field for the Collegiate National Team and have gone on to Major League Baseball success include such notables as Jim Abbott, Kris Bryant, Troy Glaus, Todd Helton, Ryan Howard, Barry Larkin, Tino Martinez, Dustin Pedroia, David Price, Huston Street, Mark Teixeira, Troy Tulowitzki, Trea Turner, Jason Varitek, Carlos Rodon, Gerrit Cole, Will Clark and Ryan Zimmerman.\n\nBefore 2000, the CNT was also the Olympic National Team for Team USA as it won the country's first Olympics medals in 1984 (silver), 1988 (gold) and 1996 (bronze). Established 1951 for the first ever Panamerican Games it is the oldest constituent of the program.\n\nOther national teams\n\nThe USA won the gold medal in the first ever World Games in 1981 with a roster of college players. Franklin Stubbs, Oddibe McDowell, Spike Owen, and some others went on to play in MLB.\n\nUSA Baseball also fields 18U, 15U, and 12U national baseball teams. Former national teams included 16U and 14U national teams. USA Baseball also hosts two national team development programs in the age divisions of 17U and 14U. The selection processes for these programs can be found on the official website of USA Baseball and these team programs also have their respective Twitter pages.\n\nSee also\n\n United States women's national baseball team\n USA Baseball\n USA Baseball National Training Complex\n Major League Baseball\n Puerto Rico national baseball team\n Baseball at the 1981 World Games\n\nNotes\n\nExternal links\n\n \nNational baseball teams", "role": "assistant" } ]
Aramaic
Aramaic (; ; ; ; Western Neo-Aramaic ) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria, and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the Southern Levant and eastern Anatolia where it has been continually written and spoken, in different varieties, for over three thousand years, today largely by Assyrians, Mandeans and Mizrahi Jews. Aramaic served as a language of public life and administration of ancient kingdoms and empires, and also as a language of divine worship and religious study. Several modern varieties, the Neo-Aramaic languages, are still spoken by Assyrians (whose dialects are influenced by Akkadian), and Mandeans and Mizrahi Jews and is used as the liturgical language of a number of West Asian churches. Aramaic belongs to the Northwest group of the Semitic language family, which also includes the mutually intelligable Canaanite languages such as Hebrew, Edomite, Moabite, Ekronite, Sutean and Phoenician, as well as Amorite and Ugaritic. Aramaic languages are written in the Aramaic alphabet, a descendant of the Phoenician alphabet, and the most prominent alphabet variant is the Syriac alphabet. The Aramaic alphabet also became a base for the creation and adaptation of specific writing systems in some other Semitic languages of West Asia, such as the Hebrew alphabet and the Arabic alphabet. The Aramaic languages are now considered endangered, since several varieties are used mainly by the older generations. Researchers are working to record and analyze all of the remaining varieties of Neo-Aramaic languages before they or in case they become extinct. Aramaic dialects today form the mother tongues of the Assyrians and Mandaeans, as well as some Mizrahi Jews. Early Aramaic inscriptions date from 11th century BC, placing it among the earliest languages to be written down. Aramaicist Holger Gzella notes, "The linguistic history of Aramaic prior to the appearance of the first textual sources in the ninth century BC remains unknown." History Historically and originally, Aramaic was the language of the Arameans, a Semitic-speaking people of the region between the northern Levant and the northern Tigris valley. By around 1000 BC, the Arameans had a string of kingdoms in what is now part of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Turkey and the fringes of southern Mesopotamia (Iraq). Aramaic rose to prominence under the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC), under whose influence Aramaic became a prestige language after being adopted as a lingua franca of the empire by Assyrian kings, and its use was spread throughout Mesopotamia, the Levant and parts of Asia Minor, Arabian Peninsula and Ancient Iran under Assyrian rule. At its height, Aramaic was spoken in what is now Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine/Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, parts of southeast and south central Turkey, Northern parts of the Arabian Peninsula and parts of northwest Iran as well as the southern Caucasus, having gradually replaced several other related Semitic languages. According to the Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 38b), the language spoken by the Bible's first was Aramaic. Aramaic was the language of Jesus ("Yeshua Mkheetha", Yeshu, Eshu, Esho, Isho in Aramaic dialects), who spoke the Galilean dialect during his public ministry, as well as the language of several sections of the Hebrew Bible, including parts of the books of Daniel and Ezra, and also the language of the Targum, the Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible. It is also the language of the Jerusalem Talmud, Babylonian Talmud and Zohar. The scribes of the Neo-Assyrian bureaucracy had also used Aramaic, and this practice was subsequently inherited by the succeeding Neo-Babylonian Empire (605–539 BC), and later by the Achaemenid Empire (539–330 BC). Mediated by scribes that had been trained in the language, highly standardized written Aramaic (named by scholars as Imperial Aramaic) progressively also became the lingua franca of public life, trade and commerce throughout the Achaemenid territories. Wide use of written Aramaic subsequently led to the adoption of the Aramaic alphabet and (as logograms) some Aramaic vocabulary in the Pahlavi scripts, which were used by several Middle Iranian languages (including Parthian, Middle Persian, Sogdian, and Khwarazmian). Aramaic was slowly phased out of public life starting from after the conquest of Arabia in the 7th century AD, but never fully died out. Some variants of Aramaic are also retained as sacred languages by certain religious communities. Most notable among them is Classical Syriac, the liturgical language of Syriac Christianity. It is used by several communities, including the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, the Maronite Church, and also the Saint Thomas Christians (Native Christians) and Syrian Christians (K[Q]naya) of Kerala, India. One of Aramaic liturgical dialects was Mandaic, which besides becoming a vernacular (Neo-Mandaic) also remained the liturgical language of Mandaeism. Syriac was also the liturgical language of several now-extinct gnostic faiths, such as Manichaeism. Neo-Aramaic languages are still spoken in the 21st century as a first language by many communities of Assyrian Christians, Jews (in particular, the Jews of Kurdistan/Iraqi Jews), and Mandaeans of the Near East, and with numbers of fluent speakers ranging approximately from 1 million to 2 million, with the main Akkadian influenced languages among Assyrians being Suret (240,000 speakers) and Turoyo (100,000 speakers); in addition to Western Neo-Aramaic (21,700) which persists in only three villages in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains region in western Syria. They have retained use of the once dominant lingua franca despite subsequent language shifts experienced throughout the Middle East. Name The connection between Chaldean, Syriac, and Samaritan as "Aramaic" was first identified in 1679 by German theologian Johann Wilhelm Hilliger. In 1819–21 Ulrich Friedrich Kopp published his Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit ("Images and Inscriptions of the Past"), in which he established the basis of the paleographical development of the Northwest Semitic scripts. Kopp criticised Jean-Jacques Barthélemy and other scholars who had characterized all the then-known inscriptions and coins as Phoenician, with "everything left to the Phoenicians and nothing to the Arameans, as if they could not have written at all". Kopp noted that some of the words on the Carpentras Stele corresponded to the Aramaic in the Book of Daniel, and in the Book of Ruth. Josephus and Strabo (the latter citing Posidonius) both stated that the "Syrians" called themselves "Arameans". The Septuagint, the earliest extant full copy of the Hebrew Bible, a Greek translation, used the terms Syria and Syrian where the Masoretic Text, the earliest extant Hebrew copy of the Bible, uses the terms Aramean and Aramaic; numerous later bibles followed the Septuagint's usage, including the King James Version. This connection between the names Syrian and Aramaic was discussed in 1835 by Étienne Marc Quatremère. In historical sources, Aramaic language is designated by two distinctive groups of terms, first of them represented by endonymic (native) names, and the other one represented by various exonymic (foreign in origin) names. Native (endonymic) terms for Aramaic language were derived from the same word root as the name of its original speakers, the ancient Arameans. Endonymic forms were also adopted in some other languages, like ancient Hebrew. In the Torah (Hebrew Bible), "Aram" is used as a proper name of several people including descendants of Shem, Nahor, and Jacob. Ancient Aram, bordering northern Israel and what is now called Syria, is considered the linguistic center of Aramaic, the language of the Arameans who settled the area during the Bronze Age . The language is often mistakenly considered to have originated within Assyria (Iraq). In fact, Arameans carried their language and writing into Mesopotamia by voluntary migration, by forced exile of conquering armies, and by nomadic Chaldean invasions of Babylonia during the period from 1200 to 1000 BC. Unlike in Hebrew, designations for Aramaic language in some other ancient languages were mostly exonymic. In ancient Greek, Aramaic language was most commonly known as the "Syrian language", in relation to the native (non-Greek) inhabitants of the historical region of Syria. Since the name of Syria itself emerged as a variant of Assyria, the biblical Ashur, and Akkadian Ashuru, a complex set of semantic phenomena was created, becoming a subject of interest both among ancient writers and modern scholars. The Koine Greek word (Hebraïstí) has been translated as "Aramaic" in some versions of the Christian New Testament, as Aramaic was at that time the language commonly spoken by the Jews. However, is consistently used in Koine Greek at this time to mean Hebrew and (Syristi) is used to mean Aramaic. In Biblical scholarship, the term "Chaldean" was for many years used as a synonym of Aramaic, due to its use in the book of Daniel and subsequent interpretation by Jerome. Geographic distribution During the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires, Arameans, the native speakers of Aramaic, began to settle in greater numbers, at first in Babylonia, and later in Assyria (Upper Mesopotamia, modern-day northern Iraq, northeast Syria, southwest Iran, and southeastern Turkey (what was Armenia at the time). The influx eventually resulted in the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) adopting an Akkadian-influenced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of its empire. This policy was continued by the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire and Medes, and all three empires became operationally bilingual in written sources, with Aramaic used alongside Akkadian. The Achaemenid Empire (539–323 BC) continued this tradition, and the extensive influence of these empires led to Aramaic gradually becoming the lingua franca of most of western Asia, Anatolia, the Caucasus, and Egypt. Beginning with the rise of the Rashidun Caliphate in the late 7th century, Arabic gradually replaced Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Near East. However, Aramaic remains a spoken, literary, and liturgical language for local Christians and also some Jews. Aramaic also continues to be spoken by the Assyrians of Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and northwest Iran, with diaspora communities in Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and southern Russia. The Mandaeans also continue to use Mandaic Aramaic as a liturgical language, although most now speak Arabic as their first language. There are still also a small number of first-language speakers of Western Aramaic varieties in isolated villages in western Syria. Being in contact with other regional languages, some Aramaic dialects were often engaged in mutual exchange of influences, particularly with Arabic, Iranian, and Kurdish. The turbulence of the last two centuries (particularly the Assyrian genocide) has seen speakers of first-language and literary Aramaic dispersed throughout the world. However, there are a number of sizable Assyrian towns in northern Iraq such as Alqosh, Bakhdida, Bartella, Tesqopa, and Tel Keppe, and numerous small villages, where Aramaic is still the main spoken language, and many large cities in this region also have Assyrian Aramaic-speaking communities, particularly Mosul, Erbil, Kirkuk, Dohuk, and al-Hasakah. In Modern Israel, the only native Aramaic speaking population are the Jews of Kurdistan, although the language is dying out. However, Aramaic is also experiencing a revival among Maronites in Israel in Jish. Aramaic languages and dialects Aramaic is often spoken of as a single language, but is in reality a group of related languages. Some Aramaic languages differ more from each other than the Romance languages do among themselves. Its long history, extensive literature, and use by different religious communities are all factors in the diversification of the language. Some Aramaic dialects are mutually intelligible, whereas others are not, not unlike the situation with modern varieties of Arabic. Some Aramaic languages are known under different names; for example, Syriac is particularly used to describe the Eastern Aramaic variety used in Christian ethnic communities in Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria, and northwestern Iran, and Saint Thomas Christians in India. Most dialects can be described as either "Eastern" or "Western", the dividing line being roughly the Euphrates, or slightly west of it. It is also helpful to draw a distinction between those Aramaic languages that are modern living languages (often called "Neo-Aramaic"), those that are still in use as literary languages, and those that are extinct and are only of interest to scholars. Although there are some exceptions to this rule, this classification gives "Modern", "Middle", and "Old" periods, alongside "Eastern" and "Western" areas, to distinguish between the various languages and dialects that are Aramaic. Writing system The earliest Aramaic alphabet was based on the Phoenician alphabet. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive "square" style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of Canaan adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the Hebrew alphabet. This is the writing system used in Biblical Aramaic and other Jewish writing in Aramaic. The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the Syriac alphabet. A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the Mandaic alphabet, is used by the Mandaeans. In addition to these writing systems, certain derivatives of the Aramaic alphabet were used in ancient times by particular groups: the Nabataean alphabet in Petra and the Palmyrene alphabet in Palmyra. In modern times, Turoyo (see below) has sometimes been written in a Latin script. Periodization Periodization of historical development of Aramaic language has been the subject of particular interest for scholars, who proposed several types of periodization, based on linguistic, chronological and territorial criteria. Overlapping terminology, used in different periodizations, led to the creation of several polysemic terms, that are used differently among scholars. Terms like: Old Aramaic, Ancient Aramaic, Early Aramaic, Middle Aramaic, Late Aramaic (and some others, like Paleo-Aramaic), were used in various meanings, thus referring (in scope or substance) to different stages in historical development of Aramaic language. Most commonly used types of periodization are those of Klaus Beyer and Joseph Fitzmyer. Periodization of Klaus Beyer (1929–2014): Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to 200 AD Middle Aramaic, from 200 AD, to 1200 AD Modern Aramaic, from 1200 AD, up to the modern times Periodization of Joseph Fitzmyer (1920–2016): Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to regional prominence 700 BC Official Aramaic, from 700 BC, to 200 BC Middle Aramaic, from 200 BC, to 200 AD Late Aramaic, from 200 AD, to 700 AD Modern Aramaic, from 700 AD, up to the modern times Recent periodization of Aaron Butts: Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to 538 BC Achaemenid Aramaic, from 538 BC, to 333 BC Middle Aramaic, from 333 BC, to 200 AD Late Aramaic, from 200 AD, to 1200 AD Neo-Aramaic, from 1200 AD, up to the modern times Old Aramaic Aramaic's long history and diverse and widespread use has led to the development of many divergent varieties, which are sometimes considered dialects, though they have become distinct enough over time that they are now sometimes considered separate languages. Therefore, there is not one singular, static Aramaic language; each time and place rather has had its own variation. The more widely spoken Eastern Aramaic and Mandaic forms are largely restricted to Assyrian Christian and Mandean gnostic communities in Iraq, northeastern Syria, northwestern Iran and southeastern Turkey, whilst the severely endangered Western Neo-Aramaic is spoken by small communities of Arameans in western Syria, and persisted in Mount Lebanon until as late as the 17th century. The term "Old Aramaic" is used to describe the varieties of the language from its first known use, until the point roughly marked by the rise of the Sasanian Empire (224 AD), dominating the influential, eastern dialect region. As such, the term covers over thirteen centuries of the development of Aramaic. This vast time span includes all Aramaic that is now effectively extinct. Regarding the earliest forms, Beyer suggests that written Aramaic probably dates from the 11th century BCE, as it is established by the 10th century, to which he dates the oldest inscriptions of northern Syria. Heinrichs uses the less controversial date of the 9th century, for which there is clear and widespread attestation. The central phase in the development of Old Aramaic was its official use by the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–608 BC), Neo-Babylonian Empire (620–539 BC) and Achaemenid Empire (500–330 BC). The period before this, dubbed "Ancient Aramaic", saw the development of the language from being spoken in Aramaean city-states to become a major means of communication in diplomacy and trade throughout Mesopotamia, the Levant and Egypt. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, local vernaculars became increasingly prominent, fanning the divergence of an Aramaic dialect continuum and the development of differing written standards. Ancient Aramaic "Ancient Aramaic" refers to the earliest known period of the language, from its origin until it becomes the lingua franca of the Fertile Crescent. It was the language of the Aramean city-states of Damascus, Hamath and Arpad. There are inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the 10th century BC. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The alphabet of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on the Phoenician alphabet, and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined alphabet, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop from this in the eastern regions of Aram. Due to increasing Aramean migration eastward, the Western periphery of Assyria became bilingual in Akkadian and Aramean at least as early as the mid-9th century BC. As the Neo-Assyrian Empire conquered Aramean lands west of the Euphrates, Tiglath-Pileser III made Aramaic the Empire's second official language, and it eventually supplanted Akkadian completely. From 700 BC, the language began to spread in all directions, but lost much of its unity. Different dialects emerged in Assyria, Babylonia, the Levant and Egypt. Around 600 BC, Adon, a Canaanite king, used Aramaic to write to an Egyptian Pharaoh. Imperial Aramaic Around 500 BC, following the Achaemenid (Persian) conquest of Mesopotamia under Darius I, Aramaic (as had been used in that region) was adopted by the conquerors as the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed Official Aramaic or Imperial Aramaic, can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did". In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an "official language", noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language. Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Achaemenid territories, suggesting then that the Achaemenid-era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than generally thought. Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect, and the inevitable influence of Persian gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility. For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire (in 330 BC), Imperial Aramaic – or a version thereof near enough for it to be recognisable – would remain an influence on the various native Iranian languages. Aramaic script and – as ideograms – Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of the Pahlavi scripts. One of the largest collections of Imperial Aramaic texts is that of the Persepolis Administrative Archives, found at Persepolis, which number about five hundred. Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from Egypt, and Elephantine in particular (see Elephantine papyri). Of them, the best known is the Story of Ahikar, a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical Book of Proverbs. Consensus regards the Aramaic portion of the Biblical book of Daniel (i.e., 2:4b–7:28) as an example of Imperial (Official) Aramaic. Achaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written. Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language. A group of thirty Aramaic documents from Bactria have been discovered, and an analysis was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC Achaemenid administration of Bactria and Sogdia. Biblical Aramaic Biblical Aramaic is the Aramaic found in four discrete sections of the Bible: Ezra – documents from the Achaemenid period (5th century BC) concerning the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem. Daniel – five tales and an apocalyptic vision. Jeremiah 10:11 – a single sentence in the middle of a Hebrew text denouncing idolatry. Genesis – translation of a Hebrew place-name. Biblical Aramaic is a somewhat hybrid dialect. It is theorized that some Biblical Aramaic material originated in both Babylonia and Judaea before the fall of the Achaemenid dynasty. Biblical Aramaic presented various challenges for writers who were engaged in early Biblical studies. Since the time of Jerome of Stridon (d. 420), Aramaic of the Bible was named as "Chaldean" (Chaldaic, Chaldee). That label remained common in early Aramaic studies, and persisted up into the nineteenth century. The "Chaldean misnomer" was eventually abandoned, when modern scholarly analyses showed that Aramaic dialect used in Hebrew Bible was not related to ancient Chaldeans and their language. Post-Achaemenid Aramaic The fall of the Achaemenid Empire ( 334–330 BC), and its replacement with the newly created political order, imposed by Alexander the Great (d. 323 BC) and his Hellenistic successors, marked an important turning point in the history of Aramaic language. During the early stages of the post-Achaemenid era, public use of Aramaic language was continued, but shared with the newly introduced Greek language. By the year 300 BC, all of the main Aramaic-speaking regions came under political rule of the newly created Seleucid Empire that promoted Hellenistic culture, and favored Greek language as the main language of public life and administration. During the 3rd century BCE, Greek overtook Aramaic in many spheres of public communication, particularly in highly Hellenized cities throughout the Seleucid domains. However, Aramaic continued to be used, in its post-Achaemenid form, among upper and literate classes of native Aramaic-speaking communities, and also by local authorities (along with the newly introduced Greek). Post-Achaemenid Aramaic, that bears a relatively close resemblance to that of the Achaemenid period, continued to be used up to the 2nd century BCE. By the end of the 2nd century BC, several variants of Post-Achaemenid Aramaic emerged, bearing regional characteristics. One of them was Hasmonaean Aramaic, the official administrative language of Hasmonaean Judaea (142–37 BC), alongside Hebrew which was the language preferred in religious and some other public uses (coinage). It influenced the Biblical Aramaic of the Qumran texts, and was the main language of non-biblical theological texts of that community. The major Targums, translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, were originally composed in Hasmonaean Aramaic. It also appears in quotations in the Mishnah and Tosefta, although smoothed into its later context. It is written quite differently from Achaemenid Aramaic; there is an emphasis on writing as words are pronounced rather than using etymological forms. The use of written Aramaic in the Achaemenid bureaucracy also precipitated the adoption of Aramaic(-derived) scripts to render a number of Middle Iranian languages. Moreover, many common words, including even pronouns, particles, numerals, and auxiliaries, continued to written as Aramaic "words" even when writing Middle Iranian languages. In time, in Iranian usage, these Aramaic "words" became disassociated from the Aramaic language and came to be understood as signs (i.e. logograms), much like the symbol '&' is read as "and" in English and the original Latin et is now no longer obvious. Under the early 3rd-century BC Parthian Arsacids, whose government used Greek but whose native language was Parthian, the Parthian language and its Aramaic-derived writing system both gained prestige. This in turn also led to the adoption of the name 'pahlavi' (< parthawi, "of the Parthians") for that writing system. The Persian Sassanids, who succeeded the Parthian Arsacids in the mid-3rd century AD, subsequently inherited/adopted the Parthian-mediated Aramaic-derived writing system for their own Middle Iranian ethnolect as well. That particular Middle Iranian dialect, Middle Persian, i.e. the language of Persia proper, subsequently also became a prestige language. Following the conquest of the Sassanids by the Arabs in the 7th-century, the Aramaic-derived writing system was replaced by the Arabic alphabet in all but Zoroastrian usage, which continued to use the name 'pahlavi' for the Aramaic-derived writing system and went on to create the bulk of all Middle Iranian literature in that writing system. Other regional dialects continued to exist alongside these, often as simple, spoken variants of Aramaic. Early evidence for these vernacular dialects is known only through their influence on words and names in a more standard dialect. However, some of those regional dialects became written languages by the 2nd century BC. These dialects reflect a stream of Aramaic that is not directly dependent on Achaemenid Aramaic, and they also show a clear linguistic diversity between eastern and western regions. Targumic Babylonian Targumic is the later post-Achaemenid dialect found in the Targum Onqelos and Targum Jonathan, the "official" targums. The original, Hasmonaean targums had reached Babylon sometime in the 2nd or 3rd century AD. They were then reworked according to the contemporary dialect of Babylon to create the language of the standard targums. This combination formed the basis of Babylonian Jewish literature for centuries to follow. Galilean Targumic is similar to Babylonian Targumic. It is the mixing of literary Hasmonaean with the dialect of Galilee. The Hasmonaean targums reached Galilee in the 2nd century AD, and were reworked into this Galilean dialect for local use. The Galilean Targum was not considered an authoritative work by other communities, and documentary evidence shows that its text was amended. From the 11th century AD onwards, once the Babylonian Targum had become normative, the Galilean version became heavily influenced by it. Babylonian Documentary Aramaic Babylonian Documentary Aramaic is a dialect in use from the 3rd century AD onwards. It is the dialect of Babylonian private documents, and, from the 12th century, all Jewish private documents are in Aramaic. It is based on Hasmonaean with very few changes. This was perhaps because many of the documents in BDA are legal documents, the language in them had to be sensible throughout the Jewish community from the start, and Hasmonaean was the old standard. Nabataean Nabataean Aramaic was the written language of the Arab kingdom of Nabataea, whose capital was Petra. The kingdom (c. 200 BC – 106 AD) controlled the region to the east of the Jordan River, the Negev, the Sinai Peninsula and the northern Hijaz, and supported a wide-ranging trade network. The Nabataeans used imperial Aramaic for written communications, rather than their native Arabic. Nabataean Aramaic developed from Imperial Aramaic, with some influence from Arabic: "l" is often turned into "n", and there are some Arabic loanwords. Arabic influence on Nabataean Aramaic increased over time. Some Nabataean Aramaic inscriptions date from the early days of the kingdom, but most datable inscriptions are from the first four centuries AD. The language is written in a cursive script which was the precursor to the Arabic alphabet. After annexation by the Romans in 106 AD, most of Nabataea was subsumed into the province of Arabia Petraea, the Nabataeans turned to Greek for written communications, and the use of Aramaic declined. Palmyrene Palmyrene Aramaic is the dialect that was in use in the Syriac city state of Palmyra in the Syrian Desert from 44 BC to 274 AD. It was written in a rounded script, which later gave way to cursive Estrangela. Like Nabataean, Palmyrene was influenced by Arabic, but to a much lesser degree. Eastern dialects In the eastern regions (from Mesopotamia to Persia), dialects like Palmyrene Aramaic and Arsacid Aramaic gradually merged with the regional vernacular dialects, thus creating languages with a foot in Achaemenid and a foot in regional Aramaic. In the Kingdom of Osroene, founded in 132 BCE and centred in Edessa (Urhay), the regional dialect became the official language: Edessan Aramaic (Urhaya), that later came to be known as Classical Syriac. On the upper reaches of the Tigris, East Mesopotamian Aramaic flourished, with evidence from the regions of Hatra (Hatran Aramaic) and Assur (Assurian Aramaic). Tatian, the author of the gospel harmony the Diatessaron came from Assyria, and perhaps wrote his work (172 AD) in East Mesopotamian rather than Syriac or Greek. In Babylonia, the regional dialect was used by the Jewish community, Jewish Old Babylonian (from c. 70 AD). This everyday language increasingly came under the influence of Biblical Aramaic and Babylonian Targumic. The written form of Mandaic, the language of the Mandaean religion, was descended from the Arsacid chancery script. Western dialects The western regional dialects of Aramaic followed a similar course to those of the east. They are quite distinct from the eastern dialects and Imperial Aramaic. Aramaic came to coexist with Canaanite dialects, eventually completely displacing Phoenician in the first century BC and Hebrew around the turn of the fourth century AD. The form of Late Old Western Aramaic used by the Jewish community is best attested, and is usually referred to as Jewish Old Palestinian. Its oldest form is Old East Jordanian, which probably comes from the region of Caesarea Philippi. This is the dialect of the oldest manuscript of the Book of Enoch (c. 170 BC). The next distinct phase of the language is called Old Judaean lasting into the second century AD. Old Judean literature can be found in various inscriptions and personal letters, preserved quotations in the Talmud and receipts from Qumran. Josephus' first, non-extant edition of his The Jewish War was written in Old Judean. The Old East Jordanian dialect continued to be used into the first century AD by pagan communities living to the east of the Jordan. Their dialect is often then called Pagan Old Palestinian, and it was written in a cursive script somewhat similar to that used for Old Syriac. A Christian Old Palestinian dialect may have arisen from the pagan one, and this dialect may be behind some of the Western Aramaic tendencies found in the otherwise eastern Old Syriac gospels (see Peshitta). Languages during Jesus' lifetime It is generally believed by Christian scholars that in the first century, Jews in Judea primarily spoke Aramaic with a decreasing number using Hebrew as their first language, though many learned Hebrew as a liturgical language. Additionally, Koine Greek was the lingua franca of the Near East in trade, among the Hellenized classes (much like French in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries in Europe), and in the Roman administration. Latin, the language of the Roman army and higher levels of administration, had almost no impact on the linguistic landscape. In addition to the formal, literary dialects of Aramaic based on Hasmonean and Babylonian, there were a number of colloquial Aramaic dialects. Seven Western Aramaic varieties were spoken in the vicinity of Judea in Jesus' time. They were probably distinctive yet mutually intelligible. Old Judean was the prominent dialect of Jerusalem and Judaea. The region of Ein Gedi spoke the Southeast Judaean dialect. Samaria had its distinctive Samaritan Aramaic, where the consonants "he", "" and "'ayin" all became pronounced as "aleph". Galilean Aramaic, the dialect of Jesus' home region, is only known from a few place names, the influences on Galilean Targumic, some rabbinic literature and a few private letters. It seems to have a number of distinctive features: diphthongs are never simplified into monophthongs. East of the Jordan, the various dialects of East Jordanian were spoken. In the region of Damascus and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, Damascene Aramaic was spoken (deduced mostly from Modern Western Aramaic). Finally, as far north as Aleppo, the western dialect of Orontes Aramaic was spoken. The three languages, especially Hebrew and Aramaic, influenced one another through loanwords and semantic loans. Hebrew words entered Jewish Aramaic. Most were mostly technical religious words, but a few were everyday words like עץ "wood". Conversely, Aramaic words, such as māmmôn "wealth", were borrowed into Hebrew, and Hebrew words acquired additional senses from Aramaic. For instance, Hebrew ראוי rā'ûi "seen" borrowed the sense "worthy, seemly" from the Aramaic meaning "seen" and "worthy". The Greek of the New Testament preserves some semiticisms, including transliterations of Semitic words. Some are Aramaic, like talitha (ταλιθα), which represents the noun טליתא , and others may be either Hebrew or Aramaic like רבוני Rabbounei (Ραββουνει), which means "my master/great one/teacher" in both languages. Other examples: "Talitha kumi" (טליתא קומי) "Ephphatha" (אתפתח) "Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?" (?אלי, אלי, למה שבקתני) The 2004 film The Passion of the Christ used Aramaic for much of its dialogue, specially reconstructed by a scholar, William Fulco, S.J. Where the appropriate words (in first-century Aramaic) were no longer known, he used the Aramaic of Daniel and fourth-century Syriac and Hebrew as the basis for his work. Middle Aramaic The 3rd century AD is taken as the threshold between Old and Middle Aramaic. During that century, the nature of the various Aramaic languages and dialects began to change. The descendants of Imperial Aramaic ceased to be living languages, and the eastern and western regional languages began to develop vital new literatures. Unlike many of the dialects of Old Aramaic, much is known about the vocabulary and grammar of Middle Aramaic. Eastern Middle Aramaic The dialects of Old Eastern Aramaic continued in Assyria, Mesopotamia, Armenia and Iran as a written language using the Estrangela script from Edessa. Eastern Aramaic comprises Mandean, Assyrian, Babylonian Jewish Aramaic dialects, and Syriac (what emerged as the classical literary dialect of Syriac differs in some small details from the Syriac of the earlier pagan inscriptions from the Edessa area). Syriac Aramaic Syriac Aramaic (also "Classical Syriac") is the literary, liturgical and often spoken language of Syriac Christianity. It originated by the first century AD in the region of Osroene, centered in Edessa, but its golden age was the fourth to eight centuries. This period began with the translation of the Bible into the language: the Peshitta, and the masterful prose and poetry of Ephrem the Syrian. Classical Syriac became the language of the Assyrian Church of the East, and the Syriac Orthodox Church and later the Nestorian Church. Missionary activity led to the spread of Syriac from Mesopotamia and Persia, into Central Asia, India and China. Jewish Babylonian Aramaic Jewish Middle Babylonian is the language employed by Jewish writers in Babylonia between the fourth and the eleventh century. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian Talmud (which was completed in the seventh century) and of post-Talmudic Geonic literature, which are the most important cultural products of Babylonian Judaism. The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of incantation bowls written in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic. Mandaic Aramaic The Mandaic language, spoken by the Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran, is a sister dialect to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, though it is both linguistically and culturally distinct. Classical Mandaic is the language in which the Mandaeans' gnostic religious literature was composed. It is characterized by a highly phonetic orthography and does not make use of vowel diacritics. Western Middle Aramaic The dialects of Old Western Aramaic continued with Jewish Middle Palestinian (in Hebrew "square script"), Samaritan Aramaic (in the old Hebrew script) and Christian Palestinian (in cursive Syriac script). Of these three, only Jewish Middle Palestinian continued as a written language. Samaritan Aramaic The Samaritan Aramaic is earliest attested by the documentary tradition of the Samaritans that can be dated back to the fourth century. Its modern pronunciation is based on the form used in the tenth century. Jewish Palestinian Aramaic In 135, after the Bar Kokhba revolt, many Jewish leaders, expelled from Jerusalem, moved to Galilee. The Galilean dialect thus rose from obscurity to become the standard among Jews in the west. This dialect was spoken not only in Galilee, but also in the surrounding parts. It is the linguistic setting for the Jerusalem Talmud (completed in the 5th century), Palestinian targumim (Jewish Aramaic versions of scripture), and midrashim (biblical commentaries and teaching). The standard vowel pointing for the Hebrew Bible, the Tiberian system (7th century), was developed by speakers of the Galilean dialect of Jewish Middle Palestinian. Classical Hebrew vocalisation, therefore, in representing the Hebrew of this period, probably reflects the contemporary pronunciation of this Aramaic dialect. Middle Judaean Aramaic, the descendant of Old Judaean Aramaic, was no longer the dominant dialect, and was used only in southern Judaea (the variant Engedi dialect continued throughout this period). Likewise, Middle East Jordanian Aramaic continued as a minor dialect from Old East Jordanian Aramaic. The inscriptions in the synagogue at Dura-Europos are either in Middle East Jordanian or Middle Judaean. Christian Palestinian Aramaic This was the language of the Christian Melkite (Chalcedonian) community from the 5th to the 8th century. As a liturgical language, it was used up to the 13th century. It is also been called "Melkite Aramaic" and "Palestinian Syriac". The language itself comes from Old Christian Palestinian Aramaic, but its writing conventions were based on early Middle Syriac, and it was heavily influenced by Greek. For example, the name Jesus, Syriac īšū‘, is written īsūs, a transliteration of the Greek form, in Christian Palestinian. Modern Aramaic As the Western Aramaic languages of the Levant and Lebanon have become nearly extinct in non-liturgical usage, the most prolific speakers of Aramaic dialects in the 21st century are Sureth Eastern Neo-Aramaic speakers, the most numerous being the Northeastern Neo-Aramaic speakers of Mesopotamia. This includes speakers of the Assyrian (235,000 speakers) and Chaldean (216,000 speakers) varieties of Suret and Turoyo (112,000 to 450,000 speakers). Having largely lived in remote areas as insulated communities for over a millennium, the remaining speakers of modern Aramaic dialects, such as the Assyrians and the Arameans, escaped the linguistic pressures experienced by others during the large-scale language shifts that saw the proliferation of other tongues among those who previously did not speak them, most recently the Arabization of the Middle East and North Africa by Arabs beginning with the early Muslim conquests of the seventh century. Modern Eastern Aramaic Modern Eastern Aramaic exists in a wide variety of dialects and languages. There is significant difference between the Aramaic spoken by Assyrian Syriac Christians, Jews, and Mandaeans. The Christian varieties are often called Modern Syriac, Neo-Assyrian or Neo-Syriac, particularly when referring to their literature, being deeply influenced by the old literary and liturgical language, the Syriac language. However, they also have roots in numerous, previously unwritten, local Aramaic varieties and some contain Akkadian language influences, and are not purely the direct descendants of the language of Ephrem the Syrian. The varieties are not all mutually intelligible. The principal Christian varieties are Suret, Assyrian Neo-Aramaic and Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, all belonging to the Northeastern Neo-Aramaic languages and spoken by ethnic Assyrians in Iraq, northeast Syria, southeast Turkey, northwest Iran and in the Assyrian diaspora. The Judeo-Aramaic languages are now mostly spoken in Israel, and most are facing extinction. The Jewish varieties that have come from communities that once lived between Lake Urmia and Mosul are not all mutually intelligible. In some places, for example Urmia, Assyrian Christians and Jews speak mutually unintelligible varieties of Modern Eastern Aramaic in the same place. In others, the Nineveh Plains around Mosul for example, the varieties of these two ethnic communities (Assyrians and Iraqi Jews) are similar enough to allow conversation. Modern Central Neo-Aramaic, being in between Western Neo-Aramaic and Eastern Neo-Aramaic) is generally represented by Turoyo, the language of the Assyrians of Tur Abdin. A related Assyrian language, Mlaḥsô, has recently become extinct. Mandaeans living in the Khuzestan province of Iran and scattered throughout Iraq, speak Neo-Mandaic. It is quite distinct from any other Aramaic variety. Mandaeans number some 50,000–75,000 people, but it is believed Neo-Mandaic may now be spoken fluently by as few as 5000 people, with other Mandaeans having varying degrees of knowledge. Modern Western Aramaic Very little remains of Western Aramaic. Its only remaining vernacular is the Western Neo-Aramaic, which is still spoken in the Aramean villages of Maaloula, al-Sarkha (Bakhah), and Jubb'adin on Syria's side of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, as well as by some people who migrated from these villages, to Damascus and other larger towns of Syria. All these speakers of Modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic as well. Other Western Aramaic languages, like Jewish Palestinian Aramaic and Samaritan Aramaic, are preserved only in liturgical and literary usage. Phonology Each dialect of Aramaic has its own distinctive pronunciation, and it would not be feasible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a phonological palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. Some modern Aramaic pronunciations lack the series of "emphatic" consonants, and some have borrowed from the inventories of surrounding languages, particularly Arabic, Azerbaijani, Kurdish, Persian and Turkish. Vowels As with most Semitic languages, Aramaic can be thought of as having three basic sets of vowels: Open a-vowels Close front i-vowels Close back u-vowels These vowel groups are relatively stable, but the exact articulation of any individual is most dependent on its consonantal setting. The open vowel is an open near-front unrounded vowel ("short" a, somewhat like the first vowel in the English "batter", ). It usually has a back counterpart ("long" a, like the a in "father", , or even tending to the vowel in "caught", ), and a front counterpart ("short" e, like the vowel in "head", ). There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects. There is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short a and short e. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long a became the o sound. The open e and back a are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters א "alaph" (a glottal stop) or ה "he" (like the English h). The close front vowel is the "long" i (like the vowel in "need", ). It has a slightly more open counterpart, the "long" e, as in the final vowel of "café" (). Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced slightly more open. Thus, the short close e corresponds with the open e in some dialects. The close front vowels usually use the consonant י y as a mater lectionis. The close back vowel is the "long" u (like the vowel in "school", ). It has a more open counterpart, the "long" o, like the vowel in "show" (). There are shorter, and thus more open, counterparts to each of these, with the short close o sometimes corresponding with the long open a. The close back vowels often use the consonant ו w to indicate their quality. Two basic diphthongs exist: an open vowel followed by י y (ay), and an open vowel followed by ו w (aw). These were originally full diphthongs, but many dialects have converted them to e and o respectively. The so-called "emphatic" consonants (see the next section) cause all vowels to become mid-centralised. Consonants The various alphabets used for writing Aramaic languages have twenty-two letters (all of which are consonants). Some of these letters, though, can stand for two or three different sounds (usually a stop and a fricative at the same point of articulation). Aramaic classically uses a series of lightly contrasted plosives and fricatives: Labial set: פּ\פ p/f and בּ\ב b/v, Dental set: תּ\ת t/θ and דּ\ד d/ð, Velar set: כּ\כ k/x and גּ\ג ɡ/ɣ. Each member of a certain pair is written with the same letter of the alphabet in most writing systems (that is, p and f are written with the same letter), and are near allophones. A distinguishing feature of Aramaic phonology (and that of Semitic languages in general) is the presence of "emphatic" consonants. These are consonants that are pronounced with the root of the tongue retracted, with varying degrees of pharyngealization and velarization. Using their alphabetic names, these emphatics are: ח Ḥêṯ, a voiceless pharyngeal fricative, , ט Ṭêṯ, a pharyngealized t, , ע ʽAyin (or ʽE in some dialects), a pharyngealized glottal stop (sometimes considered to be a voiced pharyngeal approximant), or , צ Ṣāḏê, a pharyngealized s, , ק Qôp, a voiceless uvular stop, . Ancient Aramaic may have had a larger series of emphatics, and some Neo-Aramaic languages definitely do. Not all dialects of Aramaic give these consonants their historic values. Overlapping with the set of emphatics are the "guttural" consonants. They include ח Ḥêṯ and ע ʽAyn from the emphatic set, and add א ʼĀlap̄ (a glottal stop) and ה Hê (as the English "h"). Aramaic classically has a set of four sibilants (ancient Aramaic may have had six): ס, שׂ (as in English "sea"), ז (as in English "zero"), שׁ (as in English "ship"), צ (the emphatic Ṣāḏê listed above). In addition to these sets, Aramaic has the nasal consonants מ m and נ n, and the approximants ר r (usually an alveolar trill), ל l, י y and ו w. Historical sound changes Six broad features of sound change can be seen as dialect differentials: Vowel change occurs almost too frequently to document fully, but is a major distinctive feature of different dialects. Plosive/fricative pair reduction. Originally, Aramaic, like Tiberian Hebrew, had fricatives as conditioned allophones for each plosive. In the wake of vowel changes, the distinction eventually became phonemic; still later, it was often lost in certain dialects. For example, Turoyo has mostly lost , using instead, like Arabic; other dialects (for instance, standard Assyrian Neo-Aramaic) have lost and and replaced them with and , as with Modern Hebrew. In most dialects of Modern Syriac, and are realized as after a vowel. Loss of emphatics. Some dialects have replaced emphatic consonants with non-emphatic counterparts, while those spoken in the Caucasus often have glottalized rather than pharyngealized emphatics. Guttural assimilation is the main distinctive feature of Samaritan pronunciation, also found in Samaritan Hebrew: all the gutturals are reduced to a simple glottal stop. Some Modern Aramaic dialects do not pronounce h in all words (the third person masculine pronoun hu becomes ow). Proto-Semitic */θ/ */ð/ are reflected in Aramaic as */t/, */d/, whereas they became sibilants in Hebrew (the number three is שלוש šālôš in Hebrew but תלת tlāṯ in Aramaic, the word gold is זהב zahav in Hebrew but דהב dehav in Aramaic). Dental/sibilant shifts are still happening in the modern dialects. New phonetic inventory. Modern dialects have borrowed sounds from the dominant surrounding languages. The most frequent borrowings are (as the first consonant in "azure"), (as in "jam") and (as in "church"). The Syriac alphabet has been adapted for writing these new sounds. Grammar As in other Semitic languages, Aramaic morphology (the way words are formed) is based on the consonantal root. The root generally consists of two or three consonants and has a basic meaning, for example, כת״ב k-t-b has the meaning of 'writing'. This is then modified by the addition of vowels and other consonants to create different nuances of the basic meaning: כתבה kṯāḇâ, handwriting, inscription, script, book. כתבי kṯāḇê, books, the Scriptures. כתובה kāṯûḇâ, secretary, scribe. כתבת kiṯḇeṯ, I wrote. אכתב eḵtûḇ, I shall write. Nouns and adjectives Aramaic nouns and adjectives are inflected to show gender, number and state. Aramaic has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. The feminine absolute singular is often marked by the ending ה- -â. Nouns can be either singular or plural, but an additional "dual" number exists for nouns that usually come in pairs. The dual number gradually disappeared from Aramaic over time and has little influence in Middle and Modern Aramaic. Aramaic nouns and adjectives can exist in one of three states. To a certain extent, these states correspond to the role of articles and cases in the Indo-European languages: The absolute state is the basic form of a noun. In early forms of Aramaic, the absolute state expresses indefiniteness, comparable to the English indefinite article a(n) (for example, כתבה kṯāḇâ, "a handwriting"), and can be used in most syntactic roles. However, by the Middle Aramaic period, its use for nouns (but not adjectives) had been widely replaced by the emphatic state. The construct state is a form of the noun used to make possessive constructions (for example, כתבת מלכתא kṯāḇat' malkṯâ, "the handwriting of the queen"). In the masculine singular, the form of the construct is often the same as the absolute, but it may undergo vowel reduction in longer words. The feminine construct and masculine construct plural are marked by suffixes. Unlike a genitive case, which marks the possessor, the construct state is marked on the possessed. This is mainly due to Aramaic word order: possessed[const.] possessor[abs./emph.] are treated as a speech unit, with the first unit (possessed) employing the construct state to link it to the following word. In Middle Aramaic, the use of the construct state for all but stock phrases (like בר נשא bar nāšâ, "son of man") begins to disappear. The emphatic or determined state is an extended form of the noun that functions similarly to the definite article. It is marked with a suffix (for example, כתבתא kṯāḇtâ, "the handwriting"). Although its original grammatical function seems to have been to mark definiteness, it is used already in Imperial Aramaic to mark all important nouns, even if they should be considered technically indefinite. This practice developed to the extent that the absolute state became extraordinarily rare in later varieties of Aramaic. Whereas other Northwest Semitic languages, like Hebrew, have the absolute and construct states, the emphatic/determined state is a unique feature to Aramaic. Case endings, as in Ugaritic, probably existed in a very early stage of the language, and glimpses of them can be seen in a few compound proper names. However, as most of those cases were expressed by short final vowels, they were never written, and the few characteristic long vowels of the masculine plural accusative and genitive are not clearly evidenced in inscriptions. Often, the direct object is marked by a prefixed -ל l- (the preposition "to") if it is definite. Adjectives agree with their nouns in number and gender but agree in state only if used attributively. Predicative adjectives are in the absolute state regardless of the state of their noun (a copula may or may not be written). Thus, an attributive adjective to an emphatic noun, as in the phrase "the good king", is written also in the emphatic state מלכא טבא malkâ ṭāḇâking[emph.] good[emph.]. In comparison, the predicative adjective, as in the phrase "the king is good", is written in the absolute state מלכא טב malkâ ṭāḇking[emph.] good[abs.]. The final א- -â in a number of these suffixes is written with the letter aleph. However, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the letter he for the feminine absolute singular. Likewise, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the Hebrew masculine absolute singular suffix ים- -îm instead of ין- -în. The masculine determined plural suffix, יא- -ayyâ, has an alternative version, -ê. The alternative is sometimes called the "gentilic plural" for its prominent use in ethnonyms (יהודיא yəhûḏāyê, 'the Jews', for example). This alternative plural is written with the letter aleph, and came to be the only plural for nouns and adjectives of this type in Syriac and some other varieties of Aramaic. The masculine construct plural, -ê, is written with yodh. In Syriac and some other variants this ending is diphthongized to -ai. Possessive phrases in Aramaic can either be made with the construct state or by linking two nouns with the relative particle -[ד[י d[î]-. As the use of the construct state almost disappears from the Middle Aramaic period on, the latter method became the main way of making possessive phrases. For example, the various forms of possessive phrases (for "the handwriting of the queen") are: כתבת מלכתא kṯāḇaṯ malkṯâ – the oldest construction, also known as סמיכות səmîḵûṯ : the possessed object (כתבה kṯābâ, "handwriting") is in the construct state (כתבת kṯāḇaṯ); the possessor (מלכה malkâ, "queen") is in the emphatic state (מלכתא malkṯâ) כתבתא דמלכתא kṯāḇtâ d(î)-malkṯâ – both words are in the emphatic state and the relative particle -[ד[י d[î]- is used to mark the relationship כתבתה דמלכתא kṯāḇtāh d(î)-malkṯâ – both words are in the emphatic state, and the relative particle is used, but the possessed is given an anticipatory, pronominal ending (כתבתה kṯāḇtā-h, "handwriting-her"; literally, "her writing, that (of) the queen"). In Modern Aramaic, the last form is by far the most common. In Biblical Aramaic, the last form is virtually absent. Verbs The Aramaic verb has gradually evolved in time and place, varying between varieties of the language. Verb forms are marked for person (first, second or third), number (singular or plural), gender (masculine or feminine), tense (perfect or imperfect), mood (indicative, imperative, jussive or infinitive) and voice (active, reflexive or passive). Aramaic also employs a system of conjugations, or verbal stems, to mark intensive and extensive developments in the lexical meaning of verbs. Aspectual tense Aramaic has two proper tenses: perfect and imperfect. These were originally aspectual, but developed into something more like a preterite and future. The perfect is unmarked, while the imperfect uses various preformatives that vary according to person, number and gender. In both tenses the third-person singular masculine is the unmarked form from which others are derived by addition of afformatives (and preformatives in the imperfect). In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is Classical Syriac. Conjugations or verbal stems Like other Semitic languages, Aramaic employs a number of derived verb stems, to extend the lexical coverage of verbs. The basic form of the verb is called the ground stem, or G-stem. Following the tradition of mediaeval Arabic grammarians, it is more often called the Pə‘al פעל (also written Pe‘al), using the form of the Semitic root פע״ל P-‘-L, meaning "to do". This stem carries the basic lexical meaning of the verb. By doubling of the second radical, or root letter, the D-stem or פעל Pa‘‘el is formed. This is often an intensive development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, qəṭal means "he killed", whereas qaṭṭel means "he slew". The precise relationship in meaning between the two stems differs for every verb. A preformative, which can be -ה ha-, -א a- or -ש ša-, creates the C-stem or variously the Hap̄‘el, Ap̄‘el or Šap̄‘el (also spelt הפעל Haph‘el, אפעל Aph‘el and שפעל Shaph‘el). This is often an extensive or causative development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, טעה ṭə‘â means "he went astray", whereas אטעי aṭ‘î means "he deceived". The Šap̄‘el שפעל is the least common variant of the C-stem. Because this variant is standard in Akkadian, it is possible that its use in Aramaic represents loanwords from that language. The difference between the variants הפעל Hap̄‘el and אפעל Ap̄‘el appears to be the gradual dropping of the initial ה h sound in later Old Aramaic. This is noted by the respelling of the older he preformative with א aleph. These three conjugations are supplemented with three further derived stems, produced by the preformative -הת hiṯ- or -את eṯ-. The loss of the initial ה h sound occurs similarly to that in the form above. These three derived stems are the Gt-stem, התפעל Hiṯpə‘el or אתפעל Eṯpə‘el (also written Hithpe‘el or Ethpe‘el), the Dt-stem, התפעּל Hiṯpa‘‘al or אתפעּל Eṯpa‘‘al (also written Hithpa‘‘al or Ethpa‘‘al), and the Ct-stem, התהפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al, אתּפעל Ettap̄‘al, השתפעל Hištap̄‘al or אשתפעל Eštap̄‘al (also written Hithhaph‘al, Ettaph‘al, Hishtaph‘al or Eshtaph‘al). Their meaning is usually reflexive, but later became passive. However, as with other stems, actual meaning differs from verb to verb. Not all verbs use all of these conjugations, and, in some, the G-stem is not used. In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is Classical Syriac. In Imperial Aramaic, the participle began to be used for a historical present. Perhaps under influence from other languages, Middle Aramaic developed a system of composite tenses (combinations of forms of the verb with pronouns or an auxiliary verb), allowing for narrative that is more vivid. Aramaic syntax usually follows the order verb–subject–object (VSO). Imperial (Persian) Aramaic, however, tended to follow a S-O-V pattern (similar to Akkadian), which was the result of Persian syntactic influence. See also References Sources . External links Ancient Aramaic Audio Files: Contains audio recordings of scripture. The Aramaic Language and Its Classification – Efrem Yildiz, Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon (including editions of Targums) at the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati Dictionary of Judeo-Aramaic Jewish Language Research Website: Jewish Aramaic Languages attested from the 10th century BC
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Aramaic", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Aramaic (; ; ; ; Western Neo-Aramaic ) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria, and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the Southern Levant and eastern Anatolia where it has been continually written and spoken, in different varieties, for over three thousand years, today largely by Assyrians, Mandeans and Mizrahi Jews. \n\nAramaic served as a language of public life and administration of ancient kingdoms and empires, and also as a language of divine worship and religious study. Several modern varieties, the Neo-Aramaic languages, are still spoken by Assyrians (whose dialects are influenced by Akkadian), and Mandeans and Mizrahi Jews and is used as the liturgical language of a number of West Asian churches.\n\nAramaic belongs to the Northwest group of the Semitic language family, which also includes the mutually intelligable Canaanite languages such as Hebrew, Edomite, Moabite, Ekronite, Sutean and Phoenician, as well as Amorite and Ugaritic. Aramaic languages are written in the Aramaic alphabet, a descendant of the Phoenician alphabet, and the most prominent alphabet variant is the Syriac alphabet. The Aramaic alphabet also became a base for the creation and adaptation of specific writing systems in some other Semitic languages of West Asia, such as the Hebrew alphabet and the Arabic alphabet.\n\nThe Aramaic languages are now considered endangered, since several varieties are used mainly by the older generations. Researchers are working to record and analyze all of the remaining varieties of Neo-Aramaic languages before they or in case they become extinct. Aramaic dialects today form the mother tongues of the Assyrians and Mandaeans, as well as some Mizrahi Jews.\n\nEarly Aramaic inscriptions date from 11th century BC, placing it among the earliest languages to be written down. Aramaicist Holger Gzella notes, \"The linguistic history of Aramaic prior to the appearance of the first textual sources in the ninth century BC remains unknown.\"\n\nHistory \n\nHistorically and originally, Aramaic was the language of the Arameans, a Semitic-speaking people of the region between the northern Levant and the northern Tigris valley. By around 1000 BC, the Arameans had a string of kingdoms in what is now part of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Turkey and the fringes of southern Mesopotamia (Iraq). Aramaic rose to prominence under the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC), under whose influence Aramaic became a prestige language after being adopted as a lingua franca of the empire by Assyrian kings, and its use was spread throughout Mesopotamia, the Levant and parts of Asia Minor, Arabian Peninsula and Ancient Iran under Assyrian rule. At its height, Aramaic was spoken in what is now Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine/Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, parts of southeast and south central Turkey, Northern parts of the Arabian Peninsula and parts of northwest Iran as well as the southern Caucasus, having gradually replaced several other related Semitic languages.\n\nAccording to the Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 38b), the language spoken by the Bible's first was Aramaic.\n\nAramaic was the language of Jesus (\"Yeshua Mkheetha\", Yeshu, Eshu, Esho, Isho in Aramaic dialects), who spoke the Galilean dialect during his public ministry, as well as the language of several sections of the Hebrew Bible, including parts of the books of Daniel and Ezra, and also the language of the Targum, the Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible. It is also the language of the Jerusalem Talmud, Babylonian Talmud and Zohar.\n\nThe scribes of the Neo-Assyrian bureaucracy had also used Aramaic, and this practice was subsequently inherited by the succeeding Neo-Babylonian Empire (605–539 BC), and later by the Achaemenid Empire (539–330 BC). Mediated by scribes that had been trained in the language, highly standardized written Aramaic (named by scholars as Imperial Aramaic) progressively also became the lingua franca of public life, trade and commerce throughout the Achaemenid territories. Wide use of written Aramaic subsequently led to the adoption of the Aramaic alphabet and (as logograms) some Aramaic vocabulary in the Pahlavi scripts, which were used by several Middle Iranian languages (including Parthian, Middle Persian, Sogdian, and Khwarazmian).\n\nAramaic was slowly phased out of public life starting from after the conquest of Arabia in the 7th century AD, but never fully died out.\n \nSome variants of Aramaic are also retained as sacred languages by certain religious communities. Most notable among them is Classical Syriac, the liturgical language of Syriac Christianity. It is used by several communities, including the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, the Maronite Church, and also the Saint Thomas Christians (Native Christians) and Syrian Christians (K[Q]naya) of Kerala, India. One of Aramaic liturgical dialects was Mandaic, which besides becoming a vernacular (Neo-Mandaic) also remained the liturgical language of Mandaeism. Syriac was also the liturgical language of several now-extinct gnostic faiths, such as Manichaeism. Neo-Aramaic languages are still spoken in the 21st century as a first language by many communities of Assyrian Christians, Jews (in particular, the Jews of Kurdistan/Iraqi Jews), and Mandaeans of the Near East, and with numbers of fluent speakers ranging approximately from 1 million to 2 million, with the main Akkadian influenced languages among Assyrians being Suret (240,000 speakers) and Turoyo (100,000 speakers); in addition to Western Neo-Aramaic (21,700) which persists in only three villages in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains region in western Syria. They have retained use of the once dominant lingua franca despite subsequent language shifts experienced throughout the Middle East.\n\nName\n\nThe connection between Chaldean, Syriac, and Samaritan as \"Aramaic\" was first identified in 1679 by German theologian Johann Wilhelm Hilliger. In 1819–21 Ulrich Friedrich Kopp published his Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit (\"Images and Inscriptions of the Past\"), in which he established the basis of the paleographical development of the Northwest Semitic scripts. Kopp criticised Jean-Jacques Barthélemy and other scholars who had characterized all the then-known inscriptions and coins as Phoenician, with \"everything left to the Phoenicians and nothing to the Arameans, as if they could not have written at all\". Kopp noted that some of the words on the Carpentras Stele corresponded to the Aramaic in the Book of Daniel, and in the Book of Ruth. \n\nJosephus and Strabo (the latter citing Posidonius) both stated that the \"Syrians\" called themselves \"Arameans\". The Septuagint, the earliest extant full copy of the Hebrew Bible, a Greek translation, used the terms Syria and Syrian where the Masoretic Text, the earliest extant Hebrew copy of the Bible, uses the terms Aramean and Aramaic; numerous later bibles followed the Septuagint's usage, including the King James Version. This connection between the names Syrian and Aramaic was discussed in 1835 by Étienne Marc Quatremère.\n\nIn historical sources, Aramaic language is designated by two distinctive groups of terms, first of them represented by endonymic (native) names, and the other one represented by various exonymic (foreign in origin) names. Native (endonymic) terms for Aramaic language were derived from the same word root as the name of its original speakers, the ancient Arameans. Endonymic forms were also adopted in some other languages, like ancient Hebrew. In the Torah (Hebrew Bible), \"Aram\" is used as a proper name of several people including descendants of Shem, Nahor, and Jacob. Ancient Aram, bordering northern Israel and what is now called Syria, is considered the linguistic center of Aramaic, the language of the Arameans who settled the area during the Bronze Age . The language is often mistakenly considered to have originated within Assyria (Iraq). In fact, Arameans carried their language and writing into Mesopotamia by voluntary migration, by forced exile of conquering armies, and by nomadic Chaldean invasions of Babylonia during the period from 1200 to 1000 BC.\n\nUnlike in Hebrew, designations for Aramaic language in some other ancient languages were mostly exonymic. In ancient Greek, Aramaic language was most commonly known as the \"Syrian language\", in relation to the native (non-Greek) inhabitants of the historical region of Syria. Since the name of Syria itself emerged as a variant of Assyria, the biblical Ashur, and Akkadian Ashuru, a complex set of semantic phenomena was created, becoming a subject of interest both among ancient writers and modern scholars.\n\nThe Koine Greek word (Hebraïstí) has been translated as \"Aramaic\" in some versions of the Christian New Testament, as Aramaic was at that time the language commonly spoken by the Jews. However, is consistently used in Koine Greek at this time to mean Hebrew and (Syristi) is used to mean Aramaic. In Biblical scholarship, the term \"Chaldean\" was for many years used as a synonym of Aramaic, due to its use in the book of Daniel and subsequent interpretation by Jerome.\n\nGeographic distribution\n\nDuring the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires, Arameans, the native speakers of Aramaic, began to settle in greater numbers, at first in Babylonia, and later in Assyria (Upper Mesopotamia, modern-day northern Iraq, northeast Syria, southwest Iran, and southeastern Turkey (what was Armenia at the time). The influx eventually resulted in the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) adopting an Akkadian-influenced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of its empire. This policy was continued by the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire and Medes, and all three empires became operationally bilingual in written sources, with Aramaic used alongside Akkadian. The Achaemenid Empire (539–323 BC) continued this tradition, and the extensive influence of these empires led to Aramaic gradually becoming the lingua franca of most of western Asia, Anatolia, the Caucasus, and Egypt.\n\nBeginning with the rise of the Rashidun Caliphate in the late 7th century, Arabic gradually replaced Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Near East. However, Aramaic remains a spoken, literary, and liturgical language for local Christians and also some Jews. Aramaic also continues to be spoken by the Assyrians of Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and northwest Iran, with diaspora communities in Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and southern Russia. The Mandaeans also continue to use Mandaic Aramaic as a liturgical language, although most now speak Arabic as their first language. There are still also a small number of first-language speakers of Western Aramaic varieties in isolated villages in western Syria.\n\nBeing in contact with other regional languages, some Aramaic dialects were often engaged in mutual exchange of influences, particularly with Arabic, Iranian, and Kurdish.\n\nThe turbulence of the last two centuries (particularly the Assyrian genocide) has seen speakers of first-language and literary Aramaic dispersed throughout the world. However, there are a number of sizable Assyrian towns in northern Iraq such as Alqosh, Bakhdida, Bartella, Tesqopa, and Tel Keppe, and numerous small villages, where Aramaic is still the main spoken language, and many large cities in this region also have Assyrian Aramaic-speaking communities, particularly Mosul, Erbil, Kirkuk, Dohuk, and al-Hasakah. In Modern Israel, the only native Aramaic speaking population are the Jews of Kurdistan, although the language is dying out. However, Aramaic is also experiencing a revival among Maronites in Israel in Jish.\n\nAramaic languages and dialects\nAramaic is often spoken of as a single language, but is in reality a group of related languages. Some Aramaic languages differ more from each other than the Romance languages do among themselves. Its long history, extensive literature, and use by different religious communities are all factors in the diversification of the language. Some Aramaic dialects are mutually intelligible, whereas others are not, not unlike the situation with modern varieties of Arabic. Some Aramaic languages are known under different names; for example, Syriac is particularly used to describe the Eastern Aramaic variety used in Christian ethnic communities in Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria, and northwestern Iran, and Saint Thomas Christians in India. Most dialects can be described as either \"Eastern\" or \"Western\", the dividing line being roughly the Euphrates, or slightly west of it. It is also helpful to draw a distinction between those Aramaic languages that are modern living languages (often called \"Neo-Aramaic\"), those that are still in use as literary languages, and those that are extinct and are only of interest to scholars. Although there are some exceptions to this rule, this classification gives \"Modern\", \"Middle\", and \"Old\" periods, alongside \"Eastern\" and \"Western\" areas, to distinguish between the various languages and dialects that are Aramaic.\n\nWriting system\n\nThe earliest Aramaic alphabet was based on the Phoenician alphabet. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive \"square\" style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of Canaan adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the Hebrew alphabet. This is the writing system used in Biblical Aramaic and other Jewish writing in Aramaic. The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the Syriac alphabet. A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the Mandaic alphabet, is used by the Mandaeans.\n\nIn addition to these writing systems, certain derivatives of the Aramaic alphabet were used in ancient times by particular groups: the Nabataean alphabet in Petra and the Palmyrene alphabet in Palmyra. In modern times, Turoyo (see below) has sometimes been written in a Latin script.\n\nPeriodization\n\nPeriodization of historical development of Aramaic language has been the subject of particular interest for scholars, who proposed several types of periodization, based on linguistic, chronological and territorial criteria. Overlapping terminology, used in different periodizations, led to the creation of several polysemic terms, that are used differently among scholars. Terms like: Old Aramaic, Ancient Aramaic, Early Aramaic, Middle Aramaic, Late Aramaic (and some others, like Paleo-Aramaic), were used in various meanings, thus referring (in scope or substance) to different stages in historical development of Aramaic language.\n\nMost commonly used types of periodization are those of Klaus Beyer and Joseph Fitzmyer.\n\nPeriodization of Klaus Beyer (1929–2014):\n Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to 200 AD\n Middle Aramaic, from 200 AD, to 1200 AD\n Modern Aramaic, from 1200 AD, up to the modern times\n\nPeriodization of Joseph Fitzmyer (1920–2016):\n Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to regional prominence 700 BC\n Official Aramaic, from 700 BC, to 200 BC\n Middle Aramaic, from 200 BC, to 200 AD\n Late Aramaic, from 200 AD, to 700 AD\n Modern Aramaic, from 700 AD, up to the modern times\n\nRecent periodization of Aaron Butts:\n Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to 538 BC\n Achaemenid Aramaic, from 538 BC, to 333 BC\n Middle Aramaic, from 333 BC, to 200 AD\n Late Aramaic, from 200 AD, to 1200 AD\n Neo-Aramaic, from 1200 AD, up to the modern times\n\nOld Aramaic\n\nAramaic's long history and diverse and widespread use has led to the development of many divergent varieties, which are sometimes considered dialects, though they have become distinct enough over time that they are now sometimes considered separate languages. Therefore, there is not one singular, static Aramaic language; each time and place rather has had its own variation. The more widely spoken Eastern Aramaic and Mandaic forms are largely restricted to Assyrian Christian and Mandean gnostic communities in Iraq, northeastern Syria, northwestern Iran and southeastern Turkey, whilst the severely endangered Western Neo-Aramaic is spoken by small communities of Arameans in western Syria, and persisted in Mount Lebanon until as late as the 17th century.\nThe term \"Old Aramaic\" is used to describe the varieties of the language from its first known use, until the point roughly marked by the rise of the Sasanian Empire (224 AD), dominating the influential, eastern dialect region. As such, the term covers over thirteen centuries of the development of Aramaic. This vast time span includes all Aramaic that is now effectively extinct. Regarding the earliest forms, Beyer suggests that written Aramaic probably dates from the 11th century BCE, as it is established by the 10th century, to which he dates the oldest inscriptions of northern Syria. Heinrichs uses the less controversial date of the 9th century, for which there is clear and widespread attestation.\n\nThe central phase in the development of Old Aramaic was its official use by the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–608 BC), Neo-Babylonian Empire (620–539 BC) and Achaemenid Empire (500–330 BC). The period before this, dubbed \"Ancient Aramaic\", saw the development of the language from being spoken in Aramaean city-states to become a major means of communication in diplomacy and trade throughout Mesopotamia, the Levant and Egypt. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, local vernaculars became increasingly prominent, fanning the divergence of an Aramaic dialect continuum and the development of differing written standards.\n\nAncient Aramaic\n\n\"Ancient Aramaic\" refers to the earliest known period of the language, from its origin until it becomes the lingua franca of the Fertile Crescent. It was the language of the Aramean city-states of Damascus, Hamath and Arpad.\n\nThere are inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the 10th century BC. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The alphabet of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on the Phoenician alphabet, and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined alphabet, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop from this in the eastern regions of Aram. Due to increasing Aramean migration eastward, the Western periphery of Assyria became bilingual in Akkadian and Aramean at least as early as the mid-9th century BC. As the Neo-Assyrian Empire conquered Aramean lands west of the Euphrates, Tiglath-Pileser III made Aramaic the Empire's second official language, and it eventually supplanted Akkadian completely.\n\nFrom 700 BC, the language began to spread in all directions, but lost much of its unity. Different dialects emerged in Assyria, Babylonia, the Levant and Egypt. Around 600 BC, Adon, a Canaanite king, used Aramaic to write to an Egyptian Pharaoh.\n\nImperial Aramaic\n\nAround 500 BC, following the Achaemenid (Persian) conquest of Mesopotamia under Darius I, Aramaic (as had been used in that region) was adopted by the conquerors as the \"vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed Official Aramaic or Imperial Aramaic, can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did\". In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an \"official language\", noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language. Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Achaemenid territories, suggesting then that the Achaemenid-era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than generally thought.\n\nImperial Aramaic was highly standardised; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect, and the inevitable influence of Persian gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility. For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire (in 330 BC), Imperial Aramaic – or a version thereof near enough for it to be recognisable – would remain an influence on the various native Iranian languages. Aramaic script and – as ideograms – Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of the Pahlavi scripts.\n\nOne of the largest collections of Imperial Aramaic texts is that of the Persepolis Administrative Archives, found at Persepolis, which number about five hundred. Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from Egypt, and Elephantine in particular (see Elephantine papyri). Of them, the best known is the Story of Ahikar, a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical Book of Proverbs. Consensus regards the Aramaic portion of the Biblical book of Daniel (i.e., 2:4b–7:28) as an example of Imperial (Official) Aramaic.\n\nAchaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written. Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language.\n\nA group of thirty Aramaic documents from Bactria have been discovered, and an analysis was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC Achaemenid administration of Bactria and Sogdia.\n\nBiblical Aramaic \nBiblical Aramaic is the Aramaic found in four discrete sections of the Bible:\n\n Ezra – documents from the Achaemenid period (5th century BC) concerning the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem.\n Daniel – five tales and an apocalyptic vision.\n Jeremiah 10:11 – a single sentence in the middle of a Hebrew text denouncing idolatry.\n Genesis – translation of a Hebrew place-name.\n\nBiblical Aramaic is a somewhat hybrid dialect. It is theorized that some Biblical Aramaic material originated in both Babylonia and Judaea before the fall of the Achaemenid dynasty.\n\nBiblical Aramaic presented various challenges for writers who were engaged in early Biblical studies. Since the time of Jerome of Stridon (d. 420), Aramaic of the Bible was named as \"Chaldean\" (Chaldaic, Chaldee). That label remained common in early Aramaic studies, and persisted up into the nineteenth century. The \"Chaldean misnomer\" was eventually abandoned, when modern scholarly analyses showed that Aramaic dialect used in Hebrew Bible was not related to ancient Chaldeans and their language.\n\nPost-Achaemenid Aramaic\n\nThe fall of the Achaemenid Empire ( 334–330 BC), and its replacement with the newly created political order, imposed by Alexander the Great (d. 323 BC) and his Hellenistic successors, marked an important turning point in the history of Aramaic language. During the early stages of the post-Achaemenid era, public use of Aramaic language was continued, but shared with the newly introduced Greek language. By the year 300 BC, all of the main Aramaic-speaking regions came under political rule of the newly created Seleucid Empire that promoted Hellenistic culture, and favored Greek language as the main language of public life and administration. During the 3rd century BCE, Greek overtook Aramaic in many spheres of public communication, particularly in highly Hellenized cities throughout the Seleucid domains. However, Aramaic continued to be used, in its post-Achaemenid form, among upper and literate classes of native Aramaic-speaking communities, and also by local authorities (along with the newly introduced Greek). Post-Achaemenid Aramaic, that bears a relatively close resemblance to that of the Achaemenid period, continued to be used up to the 2nd century BCE.\n\nBy the end of the 2nd century BC, several variants of Post-Achaemenid Aramaic emerged, bearing regional characteristics. One of them was Hasmonaean Aramaic, the official administrative language of Hasmonaean Judaea (142–37 BC), alongside Hebrew which was the language preferred in religious and some other public uses (coinage). It influenced the Biblical Aramaic of the Qumran texts, and was the main language of non-biblical theological texts of that community. The major Targums, translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, were originally composed in Hasmonaean Aramaic. It also appears in quotations in the Mishnah and Tosefta, although smoothed into its later context. It is written quite differently from Achaemenid Aramaic; there is an emphasis on writing as words are pronounced rather than using etymological forms.\n\nThe use of written Aramaic in the Achaemenid bureaucracy also precipitated the adoption of Aramaic(-derived) scripts to render a number of Middle Iranian languages. Moreover, many common words, including even pronouns, particles, numerals, and auxiliaries, continued to written as Aramaic \"words\" even when writing Middle Iranian languages. In time, in Iranian usage, these Aramaic \"words\" became disassociated from the Aramaic language and came to be understood as signs (i.e. logograms), much like the symbol '&' is read as \"and\" in English and the original Latin et is now no longer obvious. Under the early 3rd-century BC Parthian Arsacids, whose government used Greek but whose native language was Parthian, the Parthian language and its Aramaic-derived writing system both gained prestige. This in turn also led to the adoption of the name 'pahlavi' (< parthawi, \"of the Parthians\") for that writing system. The Persian Sassanids, who succeeded the Parthian Arsacids in the mid-3rd century AD, subsequently inherited/adopted the Parthian-mediated Aramaic-derived writing system for their own Middle Iranian ethnolect as well. That particular Middle Iranian dialect, Middle Persian, i.e. the language of Persia proper, subsequently also became a prestige language. Following the conquest of the Sassanids by the Arabs in the 7th-century, the Aramaic-derived writing system was replaced by the Arabic alphabet in all but Zoroastrian usage, which continued to use the name 'pahlavi' for the Aramaic-derived writing system and went on to create the bulk of all Middle Iranian literature in that writing system.\n\nOther regional dialects continued to exist alongside these, often as simple, spoken variants of Aramaic. Early evidence for these vernacular dialects is known only through their influence on words and names in a more standard dialect. However, some of those regional dialects became written languages by the 2nd century BC. These dialects reflect a stream of Aramaic that is not directly dependent on Achaemenid Aramaic, and they also show a clear linguistic diversity between eastern and western regions.\n\nTargumic\nBabylonian Targumic is the later post-Achaemenid dialect found in the Targum Onqelos and Targum Jonathan, the \"official\" targums. The original, Hasmonaean targums had reached Babylon sometime in the 2nd or 3rd century AD. They were then reworked according to the contemporary dialect of Babylon to create the language of the standard targums. This combination formed the basis of Babylonian Jewish literature for centuries to follow.\n\nGalilean Targumic is similar to Babylonian Targumic. It is the mixing of literary Hasmonaean with the dialect of Galilee. The Hasmonaean targums reached Galilee in the 2nd century AD, and were reworked into this Galilean dialect for local use. The Galilean Targum was not considered an authoritative work by other communities, and documentary evidence shows that its text was amended. From the 11th century AD onwards, once the Babylonian Targum had become normative, the Galilean version became heavily influenced by it.\n\nBabylonian Documentary Aramaic\nBabylonian Documentary Aramaic is a dialect in use from the 3rd century AD onwards. It is the dialect of Babylonian private documents, and, from the 12th century, all Jewish private documents are in Aramaic. It is based on Hasmonaean with very few changes. This was perhaps because many of the documents in BDA are legal documents, the language in them had to be sensible throughout the Jewish community from the start, and Hasmonaean was the old standard.\n\nNabataean\nNabataean Aramaic was the written language of the Arab kingdom of Nabataea, whose capital was Petra. The kingdom (c. 200 BC – 106 AD) controlled the region to the east of the Jordan River, the Negev, the Sinai Peninsula and the northern Hijaz, and supported a wide-ranging trade network. The Nabataeans used imperial Aramaic for written communications, rather than their native Arabic. Nabataean Aramaic developed from Imperial Aramaic, with some influence from Arabic: \"l\" is often turned into \"n\", and there are some Arabic loanwords. Arabic influence on Nabataean Aramaic increased over time. Some Nabataean Aramaic inscriptions date from the early days of the kingdom, but most datable inscriptions are from the first four centuries AD. The language is written in a cursive script which was the precursor to the Arabic alphabet. After annexation by the Romans in 106 AD, most of Nabataea was subsumed into the province of Arabia Petraea, the Nabataeans turned to Greek for written communications, and the use of Aramaic declined.\n\nPalmyrene\nPalmyrene Aramaic is the dialect that was in use in the Syriac city state of Palmyra in the Syrian Desert from 44 BC to 274 AD. It was written in a rounded script, which later gave way to cursive Estrangela. Like Nabataean, Palmyrene was influenced by Arabic, but to a much lesser degree.\n\nEastern dialects\n\nIn the eastern regions (from Mesopotamia to Persia), dialects like Palmyrene Aramaic and Arsacid Aramaic gradually merged with the regional vernacular dialects, thus creating languages with a foot in Achaemenid and a foot in regional Aramaic.\n\nIn the Kingdom of Osroene, founded in 132 BCE and centred in Edessa (Urhay), the regional dialect became the official language: Edessan Aramaic (Urhaya), that later came to be known as Classical Syriac. On the upper reaches of the Tigris, East Mesopotamian Aramaic flourished, with evidence from the regions of Hatra (Hatran Aramaic) and Assur (Assurian Aramaic).\n\nTatian, the author of the gospel harmony the Diatessaron came from Assyria, and perhaps wrote his work (172 AD) in East Mesopotamian rather than Syriac or Greek. In Babylonia, the regional dialect was used by the Jewish community, Jewish Old Babylonian (from c. 70 AD). This everyday language increasingly came under the influence of Biblical Aramaic and Babylonian Targumic.\n\nThe written form of Mandaic, the language of the Mandaean religion, was descended from the Arsacid chancery script.\n\nWestern dialects\n\nThe western regional dialects of Aramaic followed a similar course to those of the east. They are quite distinct from the eastern dialects and Imperial Aramaic. Aramaic came to coexist with Canaanite dialects, eventually completely displacing Phoenician in the first century BC and Hebrew around the turn of the fourth century AD.\n\nThe form of Late Old Western Aramaic used by the Jewish community is best attested, and is usually referred to as Jewish Old Palestinian. Its oldest form is Old East Jordanian, which probably comes from the region of Caesarea Philippi. This is the dialect of the oldest manuscript of the Book of Enoch (c. 170 BC). The next distinct phase of the language is called Old Judaean lasting into the second century AD. Old Judean literature can be found in various inscriptions and personal letters, preserved quotations in the Talmud and receipts from Qumran. Josephus' first, non-extant edition of his The Jewish War was written in Old Judean.\n\nThe Old East Jordanian dialect continued to be used into the first century AD by pagan communities living to the east of the Jordan. Their dialect is often then called Pagan Old Palestinian, and it was written in a cursive script somewhat similar to that used for Old Syriac. A Christian Old Palestinian dialect may have arisen from the pagan one, and this dialect may be behind some of the Western Aramaic tendencies found in the otherwise eastern Old Syriac gospels (see Peshitta).\n\nLanguages during Jesus' lifetime\n\nIt is generally believed by Christian scholars that in the first century, Jews in Judea primarily spoke Aramaic with a decreasing number using Hebrew as their first language, though many learned Hebrew as a liturgical language. Additionally, Koine Greek was the lingua franca of the Near East in trade, among the Hellenized classes (much like French in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries in Europe), and in the Roman administration. Latin, the language of the Roman army and higher levels of administration, had almost no impact on the linguistic landscape.\n\nIn addition to the formal, literary dialects of Aramaic based on Hasmonean and Babylonian, there were a number of colloquial Aramaic dialects. Seven Western Aramaic varieties were spoken in the vicinity of Judea in Jesus' time. They were probably distinctive yet mutually intelligible. Old Judean was the prominent dialect of Jerusalem and Judaea. The region of Ein Gedi spoke the Southeast Judaean dialect. Samaria had its distinctive Samaritan Aramaic, where the consonants \"he\", \"\" and \"'ayin\" all became pronounced as \"aleph\". Galilean Aramaic, the dialect of Jesus' home region, is only known from a few place names, the influences on Galilean Targumic, some rabbinic literature and a few private letters. It seems to have a number of distinctive features: diphthongs are never simplified into monophthongs. East of the Jordan, the various dialects of East Jordanian were spoken. In the region of Damascus and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, Damascene Aramaic was spoken (deduced mostly from Modern Western Aramaic). Finally, as far north as Aleppo, the western dialect of Orontes Aramaic was spoken.\n\nThe three languages, especially Hebrew and Aramaic, influenced one another through loanwords and semantic loans. Hebrew words entered Jewish Aramaic. Most were mostly technical religious words, but a few were everyday words like עץ \"wood\". Conversely, Aramaic words, such as māmmôn \"wealth\", were borrowed into Hebrew, and Hebrew words acquired additional senses from Aramaic. For instance, Hebrew ראוי rā'ûi \"seen\" borrowed the sense \"worthy, seemly\" from the Aramaic meaning \"seen\" and \"worthy\".\n\nThe Greek of the New Testament preserves some semiticisms, including transliterations of Semitic words. Some are Aramaic, like talitha (ταλιθα), which represents the noun טליתא , and others may be either Hebrew or Aramaic like רבוני Rabbounei (Ραββουνει), which means \"my master/great one/teacher\" in both languages. Other examples:\n \"Talitha kumi\" (טליתא קומי)\n \"Ephphatha\" (אתפתח)\n \"Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?\" (?אלי, אלי, למה שבקתני)\n\nThe 2004 film The Passion of the Christ used Aramaic for much of its dialogue, specially reconstructed by a scholar, William Fulco, S.J. Where the appropriate words (in first-century Aramaic) were no longer known, he used the Aramaic of Daniel and fourth-century Syriac and Hebrew as the basis for his work.\n\nMiddle Aramaic\nThe 3rd century AD is taken as the threshold between Old and Middle Aramaic. During that century, the nature of the various Aramaic languages and dialects began to change. The descendants of Imperial Aramaic ceased to be living languages, and the eastern and western regional languages began to develop vital new literatures. Unlike many of the dialects of Old Aramaic, much is known about the vocabulary and grammar of Middle Aramaic.\n\nEastern Middle Aramaic\nThe dialects of Old Eastern Aramaic continued in Assyria, Mesopotamia, Armenia and Iran as a written language using the Estrangela script from Edessa. Eastern Aramaic comprises Mandean, Assyrian, Babylonian Jewish Aramaic dialects, and Syriac (what emerged as the classical literary dialect of Syriac differs in some small details from the Syriac of the earlier pagan inscriptions from the Edessa area).\n\nSyriac Aramaic\n\nSyriac Aramaic (also \"Classical Syriac\") is the literary, liturgical and often spoken language of Syriac Christianity. It originated by the first century AD in the region of Osroene, centered in Edessa, but its golden age was the fourth to eight centuries. This period began with the translation of the Bible into the language: the Peshitta, and the masterful prose and poetry of Ephrem the Syrian. Classical Syriac became the language of the Assyrian Church of the East, and the Syriac Orthodox Church and later the Nestorian Church. Missionary activity led to the spread of Syriac from Mesopotamia and Persia, into Central Asia, India and China.\n\nJewish Babylonian Aramaic\n\nJewish Middle Babylonian is the language employed by Jewish writers in Babylonia between the fourth and the eleventh century. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian Talmud (which was completed in the seventh century) and of post-Talmudic Geonic literature, which are the most important cultural products of Babylonian Judaism. The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of incantation bowls written in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic.\n\nMandaic Aramaic\n\nThe Mandaic language, spoken by the Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran, is a sister dialect to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, though it is both linguistically and culturally distinct. Classical Mandaic is the language in which the Mandaeans' gnostic religious literature was composed. It is characterized by a highly phonetic orthography and does not make use of vowel diacritics.\n\nWestern Middle Aramaic\nThe dialects of Old Western Aramaic continued with Jewish Middle Palestinian (in Hebrew \"square script\"), Samaritan Aramaic (in the old Hebrew script) and Christian Palestinian (in cursive Syriac script). Of these three, only Jewish Middle Palestinian continued as a written language.\n\nSamaritan Aramaic\n\nThe Samaritan Aramaic is earliest attested by the documentary tradition of the Samaritans that can be dated back to the fourth century. Its modern pronunciation is based on the form used in the tenth century.\n\nJewish Palestinian Aramaic\n\nIn 135, after the Bar Kokhba revolt, many Jewish leaders, expelled from Jerusalem, moved to Galilee. The Galilean dialect thus rose from obscurity to become the standard among Jews in the west. This dialect was spoken not only in Galilee, but also in the surrounding parts. It is the linguistic setting for the Jerusalem Talmud (completed in the 5th century), Palestinian targumim (Jewish Aramaic versions of scripture), and midrashim (biblical commentaries and teaching). The standard vowel pointing for the Hebrew Bible, the Tiberian system (7th century), was developed by speakers of the Galilean dialect of Jewish Middle Palestinian. Classical Hebrew vocalisation, therefore, in representing the Hebrew of this period, probably reflects the contemporary pronunciation of this Aramaic dialect.\n\nMiddle Judaean Aramaic, the descendant of Old Judaean Aramaic, was no longer the dominant dialect, and was used only in southern Judaea (the variant Engedi dialect continued throughout this period). Likewise, Middle East Jordanian Aramaic continued as a minor dialect from Old East Jordanian Aramaic. The inscriptions in the synagogue at Dura-Europos are either in Middle East Jordanian or Middle Judaean.\n\nChristian Palestinian Aramaic\n\nThis was the language of the Christian Melkite (Chalcedonian) community from the 5th to the 8th century. As a liturgical language, it was used up to the 13th century. It is also been called \"Melkite Aramaic\" and \"Palestinian Syriac\". The language itself comes from Old Christian Palestinian Aramaic, but its writing conventions were based on early Middle Syriac, and it was heavily influenced by Greek. For example, the name Jesus, Syriac īšū‘, is written īsūs, a transliteration of the Greek form, in Christian Palestinian.\n\nModern Aramaic\n\nAs the Western Aramaic languages of the Levant and Lebanon have become nearly extinct in non-liturgical usage, the most prolific speakers of Aramaic dialects in the 21st century are Sureth Eastern Neo-Aramaic speakers, the most numerous being the Northeastern Neo-Aramaic speakers of Mesopotamia. This includes speakers of the Assyrian (235,000 speakers) and Chaldean (216,000 speakers) varieties of Suret and Turoyo (112,000 to 450,000 speakers). Having largely lived in remote areas as insulated communities for over a millennium, the remaining speakers of modern Aramaic dialects, such as the Assyrians and the Arameans, escaped the linguistic pressures experienced by others during the large-scale language shifts that saw the proliferation of other tongues among those who previously did not speak them, most recently the Arabization of the Middle East and North Africa by Arabs beginning with the early Muslim conquests of the seventh century.\n\nModern Eastern Aramaic\n\nModern Eastern Aramaic exists in a wide variety of dialects and languages. There is significant difference between the Aramaic spoken by Assyrian Syriac Christians, Jews, and Mandaeans.\n\nThe Christian varieties are often called Modern Syriac, Neo-Assyrian or Neo-Syriac, particularly when referring to their literature, being deeply influenced by the old literary and liturgical language, the Syriac language. However, they also have roots in numerous, previously unwritten, local Aramaic varieties and some contain Akkadian language influences, and are not purely the direct descendants of the language of Ephrem the Syrian. The varieties are not all mutually intelligible. The principal Christian varieties are Suret, Assyrian Neo-Aramaic and Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, all belonging to the Northeastern Neo-Aramaic languages and spoken by ethnic Assyrians in Iraq, northeast Syria, southeast Turkey, northwest Iran and in the Assyrian diaspora.\n\nThe Judeo-Aramaic languages are now mostly spoken in Israel, and most are facing extinction. The Jewish varieties that have come from communities that once lived between Lake Urmia and Mosul are not all mutually intelligible. In some places, for example Urmia, Assyrian Christians and Jews speak mutually unintelligible varieties of Modern Eastern Aramaic in the same place. In others, the Nineveh Plains around Mosul for example, the varieties of these two ethnic communities (Assyrians and Iraqi Jews) are similar enough to allow conversation.\n\nModern Central Neo-Aramaic, being in between Western Neo-Aramaic and Eastern Neo-Aramaic) is generally represented by Turoyo, the language of the Assyrians of Tur Abdin. A related Assyrian language, Mlaḥsô, has recently become extinct.\n\nMandaeans living in the Khuzestan province of Iran and scattered throughout Iraq, speak Neo-Mandaic. It is quite distinct from any other Aramaic variety. Mandaeans number some 50,000–75,000 people, but it is believed Neo-Mandaic may now be spoken fluently by as few as 5000 people, with other Mandaeans having varying degrees of knowledge.\n\nModern Western Aramaic\n\nVery little remains of Western Aramaic. Its only remaining vernacular is the Western Neo-Aramaic, which is still spoken in the Aramean villages of Maaloula, al-Sarkha (Bakhah), and Jubb'adin on Syria's side of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, as well as by some people who migrated from these villages, to Damascus and other larger towns of Syria. All these speakers of Modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic as well.\n\nOther Western Aramaic languages, like Jewish Palestinian Aramaic and Samaritan Aramaic, are preserved only in liturgical and literary usage.\n\nPhonology\n\nEach dialect of Aramaic has its own distinctive pronunciation, and it would not be feasible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a phonological palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. Some modern Aramaic pronunciations lack the series of \"emphatic\" consonants, and some have borrowed from the inventories of surrounding languages, particularly Arabic, Azerbaijani, Kurdish, Persian and Turkish.\n\nVowels\n\nAs with most Semitic languages, Aramaic can be thought of as having three basic sets of vowels:\n Open a-vowels\n Close front i-vowels\n Close back u-vowels\nThese vowel groups are relatively stable, but the exact articulation of any individual is most dependent on its consonantal setting.\n\nThe open vowel is an open near-front unrounded vowel (\"short\" a, somewhat like the first vowel in the English \"batter\", ). It usually has a back counterpart (\"long\" a, like the a in \"father\", , or even tending to the vowel in \"caught\", ), and a front counterpart (\"short\" e, like the vowel in \"head\", ). There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects. There is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short a and short e. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long a became the o sound. The open e and back a are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters א \"alaph\" (a glottal stop) or ה \"he\" (like the English h).\n\nThe close front vowel is the \"long\" i (like the vowel in \"need\", ). It has a slightly more open counterpart, the \"long\" e, as in the final vowel of \"café\" (). Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced slightly more open. Thus, the short close e corresponds with the open e in some dialects. The close front vowels usually use the consonant י y as a mater lectionis.\n\nThe close back vowel is the \"long\" u (like the vowel in \"school\", ). It has a more open counterpart, the \"long\" o, like the vowel in \"show\" (). There are shorter, and thus more open, counterparts to each of these, with the short close o sometimes corresponding with the long open a. The close back vowels often use the consonant ו w to indicate their quality.\n\nTwo basic diphthongs exist: an open vowel followed by י y (ay), and an open vowel followed by ו w (aw). These were originally full diphthongs, but many dialects have converted them to e and o respectively.\n\nThe so-called \"emphatic\" consonants (see the next section) cause all vowels to become mid-centralised.\n\nConsonants\n\nThe various alphabets used for writing Aramaic languages have twenty-two letters (all of which are consonants). Some of these letters, though, can stand for two or three different sounds (usually a stop and a fricative at the same point of articulation). Aramaic classically uses a series of lightly contrasted plosives and fricatives:\n Labial set: פּ\\פ p/f and בּ\\ב b/v,\n Dental set: תּ\\ת t/θ and דּ\\ד d/ð,\n Velar set: כּ\\כ k/x and גּ\\ג ɡ/ɣ.\nEach member of a certain pair is written with the same letter of the alphabet in most writing systems (that is, p and f are written with the same letter), and are near allophones.\n\nA distinguishing feature of Aramaic phonology (and that of Semitic languages in general) is the presence of \"emphatic\" consonants. These are consonants that are pronounced with the root of the tongue retracted, with varying degrees of pharyngealization and velarization. Using their alphabetic names, these emphatics are:\n ח Ḥêṯ, a voiceless pharyngeal fricative, ,\n ט Ṭêṯ, a pharyngealized t, ,\n ע ʽAyin (or ʽE in some dialects), a pharyngealized glottal stop (sometimes considered to be a voiced pharyngeal approximant), or ,\n צ Ṣāḏê, a pharyngealized s, ,\n ק Qôp, a voiceless uvular stop, .\n\nAncient Aramaic may have had a larger series of emphatics, and some Neo-Aramaic languages definitely do. Not all dialects of Aramaic give these consonants their historic values.\n\nOverlapping with the set of emphatics are the \"guttural\" consonants. They include ח Ḥêṯ and ע ʽAyn from the emphatic set, and add א ʼĀlap̄ (a glottal stop) and ה Hê (as the English \"h\").\n\nAramaic classically has a set of four sibilants (ancient Aramaic may have had six):\n ס, שׂ (as in English \"sea\"),\n ז (as in English \"zero\"),\n שׁ (as in English \"ship\"),\n צ (the emphatic Ṣāḏê listed above).\n\nIn addition to these sets, Aramaic has the nasal consonants מ m and נ n, and the approximants ר r (usually an alveolar trill), ל l, י y and ו w.\n\nHistorical sound changes\nSix broad features of sound change can be seen as dialect differentials:\n Vowel change occurs almost too frequently to document fully, but is a major distinctive feature of different dialects.\n Plosive/fricative pair reduction. Originally, Aramaic, like Tiberian Hebrew, had fricatives as conditioned allophones for each plosive. In the wake of vowel changes, the distinction eventually became phonemic; still later, it was often lost in certain dialects. For example, Turoyo has mostly lost , using instead, like Arabic; other dialects (for instance, standard Assyrian Neo-Aramaic) have lost and and replaced them with and , as with Modern Hebrew. In most dialects of Modern Syriac, and are realized as after a vowel.\n Loss of emphatics. Some dialects have replaced emphatic consonants with non-emphatic counterparts, while those spoken in the Caucasus often have glottalized rather than pharyngealized emphatics.\n Guttural assimilation is the main distinctive feature of Samaritan pronunciation, also found in Samaritan Hebrew: all the gutturals are reduced to a simple glottal stop. Some Modern Aramaic dialects do not pronounce h in all words (the third person masculine pronoun hu becomes ow).\n Proto-Semitic */θ/ */ð/ are reflected in Aramaic as */t/, */d/, whereas they became sibilants in Hebrew (the number three is שלוש šālôš in Hebrew but תלת tlāṯ in Aramaic, the word gold is זהב zahav in Hebrew but דהב dehav in Aramaic). Dental/sibilant shifts are still happening in the modern dialects.\n New phonetic inventory. Modern dialects have borrowed sounds from the dominant surrounding languages. The most frequent borrowings are (as the first consonant in \"azure\"), (as in \"jam\") and (as in \"church\"). The Syriac alphabet has been adapted for writing these new sounds.\n\nGrammar\nAs in other Semitic languages, Aramaic morphology (the way words are formed) is based on the consonantal root. The root generally consists of two or three consonants and has a basic meaning, for example, כת״ב k-t-b has the meaning of 'writing'. This is then modified by the addition of vowels and other consonants to create different nuances of the basic meaning:\n כתבה kṯāḇâ, handwriting, inscription, script, book.\n כתבי kṯāḇê, books, the Scriptures.\n כתובה kāṯûḇâ, secretary, scribe.\n כתבת kiṯḇeṯ, I wrote.\n אכתב eḵtûḇ, I shall write.\n\nNouns and adjectives\nAramaic nouns and adjectives are inflected to show gender, number and state.\n\nAramaic has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. The feminine absolute singular is often marked by the ending ה- -â.\n\nNouns can be either singular or plural, but an additional \"dual\" number exists for nouns that usually come in pairs. The dual number gradually disappeared from Aramaic over time and has little influence in Middle and Modern Aramaic.\n\nAramaic nouns and adjectives can exist in one of three states. To a certain extent, these states correspond to the role of articles and cases in the Indo-European languages:\n The absolute state is the basic form of a noun. In early forms of Aramaic, the absolute state expresses indefiniteness, comparable to the English indefinite article a(n) (for example, כתבה kṯāḇâ, \"a handwriting\"), and can be used in most syntactic roles. However, by the Middle Aramaic period, its use for nouns (but not adjectives) had been widely replaced by the emphatic state.\n The construct state is a form of the noun used to make possessive constructions (for example, כתבת מלכתא kṯāḇat' malkṯâ, \"the handwriting of the queen\"). In the masculine singular, the form of the construct is often the same as the absolute, but it may undergo vowel reduction in longer words. The feminine construct and masculine construct plural are marked by suffixes. Unlike a genitive case, which marks the possessor, the construct state is marked on the possessed. This is mainly due to Aramaic word order: possessed[const.] possessor[abs./emph.] are treated as a speech unit, with the first unit (possessed) employing the construct state to link it to the following word. In Middle Aramaic, the use of the construct state for all but stock phrases (like בר נשא bar nāšâ, \"son of man\") begins to disappear.\n The emphatic or determined state is an extended form of the noun that functions similarly to the definite article. It is marked with a suffix (for example, כתבתא kṯāḇtâ, \"the handwriting\"). Although its original grammatical function seems to have been to mark definiteness, it is used already in Imperial Aramaic to mark all important nouns, even if they should be considered technically indefinite. This practice developed to the extent that the absolute state became extraordinarily rare in later varieties of Aramaic.\n\nWhereas other Northwest Semitic languages, like Hebrew, have the absolute and construct states, the emphatic/determined state is a unique feature to Aramaic. Case endings, as in Ugaritic, probably existed in a very early stage of the language, and glimpses of them can be seen in a few compound proper names. However, as most of those cases were expressed by short final vowels, they were never written, and the few characteristic long vowels of the masculine plural accusative and genitive are not clearly evidenced in inscriptions. Often, the direct object is marked by a prefixed -ל l- (the preposition \"to\") if it is definite.\n\nAdjectives agree with their nouns in number and gender but agree in state only if used attributively. Predicative adjectives are in the absolute state regardless of the state of their noun (a copula may or may not be written). Thus, an attributive adjective to an emphatic noun, as in the phrase \"the good king\", is written also in the emphatic state מלכא טבא malkâ ṭāḇâking[emph.] good[emph.]. In comparison, the predicative adjective, as in the phrase \"the king is good\", is written in the absolute state מלכא טב malkâ ṭāḇking[emph.] good[abs.].\n\nThe final א- -â in a number of these suffixes is written with the letter aleph. However, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the letter he for the feminine absolute singular. Likewise, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the Hebrew masculine absolute singular suffix ים- -îm instead of ין- -în. The masculine determined plural suffix, יא- -ayyâ, has an alternative version, -ê. The alternative is sometimes called the \"gentilic plural\" for its prominent use in ethnonyms (יהודיא yəhûḏāyê, 'the Jews', for example). This alternative plural is written with the letter aleph, and came to be the only plural for nouns and adjectives of this type in Syriac and some other varieties of Aramaic. The masculine construct plural, -ê, is written with yodh. In Syriac and some other variants this ending is diphthongized to -ai.\n\nPossessive phrases in Aramaic can either be made with the construct state or by linking two nouns with the relative particle -[ד[י d[î]-. As the use of the construct state almost disappears from the Middle Aramaic period on, the latter method became the main way of making possessive phrases.\n\nFor example, the various forms of possessive phrases (for \"the handwriting of the queen\") are:\n כתבת מלכתא kṯāḇaṯ malkṯâ – the oldest construction, also known as סמיכות səmîḵûṯ : the possessed object (כתבה kṯābâ, \"handwriting\") is in the construct state (כתבת kṯāḇaṯ); the possessor (מלכה malkâ, \"queen\") is in the emphatic state (מלכתא malkṯâ)\n כתבתא דמלכתא kṯāḇtâ d(î)-malkṯâ – both words are in the emphatic state and the relative particle -[ד[י d[î]- is used to mark the relationship\n כתבתה דמלכתא kṯāḇtāh d(î)-malkṯâ – both words are in the emphatic state, and the relative particle is used, but the possessed is given an anticipatory, pronominal ending (כתבתה kṯāḇtā-h, \"handwriting-her\"; literally, \"her writing, that (of) the queen\").\nIn Modern Aramaic, the last form is by far the most common. In Biblical Aramaic, the last form is virtually absent.\n\nVerbs\nThe Aramaic verb has gradually evolved in time and place, varying between varieties of the language. Verb forms are marked for person (first, second or third), number (singular or plural), gender (masculine or feminine), tense (perfect or imperfect), mood (indicative, imperative, jussive or infinitive) and voice (active, reflexive or passive). Aramaic also employs a system of conjugations, or verbal stems, to mark intensive and extensive developments in the lexical meaning of verbs.\n\nAspectual tense\nAramaic has two proper tenses: perfect and imperfect. These were originally aspectual, but developed into something more like a preterite and future. The perfect is unmarked, while the imperfect uses various preformatives that vary according to person, number and gender. In both tenses the third-person singular masculine is the unmarked form from which others are derived by addition of afformatives (and preformatives in the imperfect). In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning \"to write\"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is Classical Syriac.\n\nConjugations or verbal stems\nLike other Semitic languages, Aramaic employs a number of derived verb stems, to extend the lexical coverage of verbs. The basic form of the verb is called the ground stem, or G-stem. Following the tradition of mediaeval Arabic grammarians, it is more often called the Pə‘al פעל (also written Pe‘al), using the form of the Semitic root פע״ל P-‘-L, meaning \"to do\". This stem carries the basic lexical meaning of the verb.\n\nBy doubling of the second radical, or root letter, the D-stem or פעל Pa‘‘el is formed. This is often an intensive development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, qəṭal means \"he killed\", whereas qaṭṭel means \"he slew\". The precise relationship in meaning between the two stems differs for every verb.\n\nA preformative, which can be -ה ha-, -א a- or -ש ša-, creates the C-stem or variously the Hap̄‘el, Ap̄‘el or Šap̄‘el (also spelt הפעל Haph‘el, אפעל Aph‘el and שפעל Shaph‘el). This is often an extensive or causative development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, טעה ṭə‘â means \"he went astray\", whereas אטעי aṭ‘î means \"he deceived\". The Šap̄‘el שפעל is the least common variant of the C-stem. Because this variant is standard in Akkadian, it is possible that its use in Aramaic represents loanwords from that language. The difference between the variants הפעל Hap̄‘el and אפעל Ap̄‘el appears to be the gradual dropping of the initial ה h sound in later Old Aramaic. This is noted by the respelling of the older he preformative with א aleph.\n\nThese three conjugations are supplemented with three further derived stems, produced by the preformative -הת hiṯ- or -את eṯ-. The loss of the initial ה h sound occurs similarly to that in the form above. These three derived stems are the Gt-stem, התפעל Hiṯpə‘el or אתפעל Eṯpə‘el (also written Hithpe‘el or Ethpe‘el), the Dt-stem, התפעּל Hiṯpa‘‘al or אתפעּל Eṯpa‘‘al (also written Hithpa‘‘al or Ethpa‘‘al), and the Ct-stem, התהפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al, אתּפעל Ettap̄‘al, השתפעל Hištap̄‘al or אשתפעל Eštap̄‘al (also written Hithhaph‘al, Ettaph‘al, Hishtaph‘al or Eshtaph‘al). Their meaning is usually reflexive, but later became passive. However, as with other stems, actual meaning differs from verb to verb.\n\nNot all verbs use all of these conjugations, and, in some, the G-stem is not used. In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning \"to write\"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is Classical Syriac.\n\nIn Imperial Aramaic, the participle began to be used for a historical present. Perhaps under influence from other languages, Middle Aramaic developed a system of composite tenses (combinations of forms of the verb with pronouns or an auxiliary verb), allowing for narrative that is more vivid. Aramaic syntax usually follows the order verb–subject–object (VSO). Imperial (Persian) Aramaic, however, tended to follow a S-O-V pattern (similar to Akkadian), which was the result of Persian syntactic influence.\n\nSee also\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n .\n\nExternal links\n\n Ancient Aramaic Audio Files: Contains audio recordings of scripture.\n The Aramaic Language and Its Classification – Efrem Yildiz, Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies \n Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon (including editions of Targums) at the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati\n Dictionary of Judeo-Aramaic\n Jewish Language Research Website: Jewish Aramaic \n\n \nLanguages attested from the 10th century BC", "role": "assistant" } ]
KCFX
KCFX (101.1 FM, "101 The Fox") is a radio station broadcasting a classic rock format. Licensed to the suburb of Harrisonville, Missouri, it serves the Kansas City Metropolitan Area. The station is currently owned by Cumulus Media. The station's studios are located in Overland Park, Kansas, and the transmitter is in Kansas City’s East Side. History Playing country and MOR since its inception in 1974, the original call sign was KIEE until changing to KCFX on December 21, 1983. The new album rock format coincided with a signal improvement to 100 kW. In 1985, KCFX developed the current "Fox" format in 1985, becoming one of the first classic rock stations in the country. On September 8, 1990, KCFX swapped frequencies with KMZU in Carrollton, jumping from 100.7 MHz to 101.1 in order to provide a stronger signal to cover the Kansas City area. They played a blend of artists from the late 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. In recent years they have started playing some hits from the 1990s by artists like Bruce Springsteen and Scorpions, as well as Collective Soul, Stone Temple Pilots, and Metallica, among others. This comes after years of billing themselves as only playing 1970s rock with some 1960s and 1980s. As the years wore on, they added more 1980s. The station carried The Bob & Tom Show from March 13, 2006 to February 9, 2007 as its morning drive program. A new local morning show featuring former KYYS voices Larry Moffit and Frankie (formerly middays) replaced that show. On January 11, 2008, longtime rival rocker KYYS changed formats (and call letters to KBLV), prompting KCFX to change its slogan to "Kansas City's Only Classic Rock Station." In October 2008, Cumulus Media had massive layoffs to its stations across the country. Among those released were KCFX morning team Moffit and Frankie. In March 2009, Slacker, longtime heritage Classic Rock DJ from Kansas City, was installed as the KCFX morning show weekdays from 5am to 9am. Program Director Chris Hoffman took over at middays from 9am to 2pm, and longtime heritage Classic Rock DJ Skid Roadie aired on the drive home evenings from 2pm to 7pm. In 2013, Dan McClintock replaced Chris Hoffman as Program Director. In 2020, Dave Hill became the program director. In May 2021, longtime afternoon host Skid Roadie retired. Beginning with the 1990 NFL season, KCFX was the longtime flagship station for the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League, one of the first broadcast agreements where an NFL team associated with an FM station rather than a traditional AM radio station. On December 5, 2019, it was announced that Entercom's WDAF-FM (106.5) would become the new flagship of the Chiefs radio network with the start of the 2020 season, ending KCFX's 30-year association with the team. The last game broadcast by KCFX was the team's victory in Super Bowl LIV. KCFX-HD2 On March 18, 2010, KCFX-HD2 signed on with mainstream rock as "103.7 The Dam" (in reference to new FM translator K279BI 103.7 FM). On April 29, 2012, KCFX-HD2 and K279BI changed formats to a simulcast of news/talk-formatted KCMO 710 AM. KCFX-HD3 KCFX-HD3 is an affiliate of the Educational Media Foundation's Air1 Christian radio network. Prior to May 2019, the station was previously known as "107.9 The Fountain" (in reference to FM translator K300CH 107.9 FM). References External links KCFX Website CFX Cass County, Missouri Classic rock radio stations in the United States Radio stations established in 1974 1974 establishments in Missouri Cumulus Media radio stations
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "KCFX", "role": "user" }, { "content": "KCFX (101.1 FM, \"101 The Fox\") is a radio station broadcasting a classic rock format. Licensed to the suburb of Harrisonville, Missouri, it serves the Kansas City Metropolitan Area. The station is currently owned by Cumulus Media. The station's studios are located in Overland Park, Kansas, and the transmitter is in Kansas City’s East Side.\n\nHistory\nPlaying country and MOR since its inception in 1974, the original call sign was KIEE until changing to KCFX on December 21, 1983. The new album rock format coincided with a signal improvement to 100 kW. In 1985, KCFX developed the current \"Fox\" format in 1985, becoming one of the first classic rock stations in the country. On September 8, 1990, KCFX swapped frequencies with KMZU in Carrollton, jumping from 100.7 MHz to 101.1 in order to provide a stronger signal to cover the Kansas City area. They played a blend of artists from the late 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. In recent years they have started playing some hits from the 1990s by artists like Bruce Springsteen and Scorpions, as well as Collective Soul, Stone Temple Pilots, and Metallica, among others. This comes after years of billing themselves as only playing 1970s rock with some 1960s and 1980s. As the years wore on, they added more 1980s. The station carried The Bob & Tom Show from March 13, 2006 to February 9, 2007 as its morning drive program. A new local morning show featuring former KYYS voices Larry Moffit and Frankie (formerly middays) replaced that show. On January 11, 2008, longtime rival rocker KYYS changed formats (and call letters to KBLV), prompting KCFX to change its slogan to \"Kansas City's Only Classic Rock Station.\"\n\nIn October 2008, Cumulus Media had massive layoffs to its stations across the country. Among those released were KCFX morning team Moffit and Frankie. In March 2009, Slacker, longtime heritage Classic Rock DJ from Kansas City, was installed as the KCFX morning show weekdays from 5am to 9am. Program Director Chris Hoffman took over at middays from 9am to 2pm, and longtime heritage Classic Rock DJ Skid Roadie aired on the drive home evenings from 2pm to 7pm. In 2013, Dan McClintock replaced Chris Hoffman as Program Director. In 2020, Dave Hill became the program director.\n\nIn May 2021, longtime afternoon host Skid Roadie retired.\n\nBeginning with the 1990 NFL season, KCFX was the longtime flagship station for the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League, one of the first broadcast agreements where an NFL team associated with an FM station rather than a traditional AM radio station. On December 5, 2019, it was announced that Entercom's WDAF-FM (106.5) would become the new flagship of the Chiefs radio network with the start of the 2020 season, ending KCFX's 30-year association with the team. The last game broadcast by KCFX was the team's victory in Super Bowl LIV.\n\nKCFX-HD2\nOn March 18, 2010, KCFX-HD2 signed on with mainstream rock as \"103.7 The Dam\" (in reference to new FM translator K279BI 103.7 FM). On April 29, 2012, KCFX-HD2 and K279BI changed formats to a simulcast of news/talk-formatted KCMO 710 AM.\n\nKCFX-HD3\n\nKCFX-HD3 is an affiliate of the Educational Media Foundation's Air1 Christian radio network. Prior to May 2019, the station was previously known as \"107.9 The Fountain\" (in reference to FM translator K300CH 107.9 FM).\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nKCFX Website\n\nCFX\nCass County, Missouri\nClassic rock radio stations in the United States\nRadio stations established in 1974\n1974 establishments in Missouri\nCumulus Media radio stations", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havixbeck
Havixbeck (Westphalian: Havkesbierk or Havkesbieck) is a municipality situated on the north-east edge of the Baumberge in the district of Coesfeld, in northern North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located approximately 15 km west of Münster. Geography Geographical Location Havixbeck is located on the fringes of the Baumberge, with 187 m the highest elevations of the Münsterland. West of the town emanates the spring of Münstersche Aa which, after passing Münster, converges in the Ems River near Greven. Adjacent municipalities Havixbeck borders (clockwise, starting north) on Altenberge (District of Steinfurt), the city of Münster, as well as Senden, Nottuln and Billerbeck (District of Coesfeld). Division of the town The district of Hohenholte has a population of about 1,000 residents. In the parish church of St. George, a former monastery church, there is a crucifixion relief from the period around 1530/40 as well as the epitaph of the prioress Richmond Warendorp († 1503), both created by the sculptor Johann Brabender from Münster. Politics Local council Elections in 2014: CDU: 41,8% SPD: 26,3% Greens: 23,3% FDP: 8,6% Results of local elections since 1975 In the list, only political parties that received at least 2.95% of the votes in the election are listed: Twin cities Havixbeck is twinned with the following places: Bellegarde (Loiret), France Bestensee near Berlin, Brandenburg Economics and infrastructure The economy in Havixbeck consists mainly of small and medium-sized enterprises, mainly located in two major industrial areas. Transportation The road network is excellent, there are good connections to Münster, as well as to the two nearby highways A1 and A43. Havixbeck is located at the railroadtrack between Münster and Coesfeld operating hourly. The travel times is approx. 17 minutes to Münster and 22 to Coesfeld. Public Facilities With a little distance outside Havixbeck there is the Stift Tilbeck which offers housing and employment for people with disabilities. Education Baumberge-Schule (Catholic elementary school) Anne-Frank comprehensive school Music school (in sponsorship of Jugendorchester Havixbeck e.V.) Adult education centre (in cooperation with Dülmen and Haltern) History The German poet Annette von Droste-Hülshoff was born in the Havixbeck castlet Burg Hülshoff in 1797, where a museum with a retrospective of her work is open to the public. References Coesfeld (district)
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havixbeck", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Havixbeck (Westphalian: Havkesbierk or Havkesbieck) is a municipality situated on the north-east edge of the Baumberge in the district of Coesfeld, in northern North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located approximately 15 km west of Münster.\n\nGeography\n\nGeographical Location \nHavixbeck is located on the fringes of the Baumberge, with 187 m the highest elevations of the Münsterland. West of the town emanates the spring of Münstersche Aa which, after passing Münster, converges in the Ems River near Greven.\n\nAdjacent municipalities \nHavixbeck borders (clockwise, starting north) on Altenberge (District of Steinfurt), the city of Münster, as well as Senden, Nottuln and Billerbeck (District of Coesfeld).\n\nDivision of the town \nThe district of Hohenholte has a population of about 1,000 residents. In the parish church of St. George, a former monastery church, there is a crucifixion relief from the period around 1530/40 as well as the epitaph of the prioress Richmond Warendorp († 1503), both created by the sculptor Johann Brabender from Münster.\n\nPolitics\n\nLocal council \n\nElections in 2014:\t\nCDU: 41,8%\t\nSPD: 26,3%\t\nGreens: 23,3%\t\nFDP: 8,6%\n\nResults of local elections since 1975 \nIn the list, only political parties that received at least 2.95% of the votes in the election are listed:\n\nTwin cities \nHavixbeck is twinned with the following places:\n Bellegarde (Loiret), France\n Bestensee near Berlin, Brandenburg\n\nEconomics and infrastructure \nThe economy in Havixbeck consists mainly of small and medium-sized enterprises, mainly located in two major industrial areas.\n\nTransportation \nThe road network is excellent, there are good connections to Münster, as well as to the two nearby highways A1 and A43. Havixbeck is located at the railroadtrack between Münster and Coesfeld operating hourly. The travel times is approx. 17 minutes to Münster and 22 to Coesfeld.\n\nPublic Facilities \nWith a little distance outside Havixbeck there is the Stift Tilbeck which offers housing and employment for people with disabilities.\n\nEducation \nBaumberge-Schule (Catholic elementary school)\nAnne-Frank comprehensive school\nMusic school (in sponsorship of Jugendorchester Havixbeck e.V.)\nAdult education centre (in cooperation with Dülmen and Haltern)\n\nHistory\n\nThe German poet Annette von Droste-Hülshoff was born in the Havixbeck castlet Burg Hülshoff in 1797, where a museum with a retrospective of her work is open to the public.\n\nReferences \n\nCoesfeld (district)", "role": "assistant" } ]
Bernhard Caesar Einstein
Bernhard Caesar Einstein (10 July 1930 – 30 September 2008) was a German-American engineer, the son of Hans Albert Einstein. Of the three known biological grandchildren of Albert Einstein, all sons of Hans, he was the only one to survive childhood. After attending UC Berkeley and ETH Zurich, Bernard worked as an engineer at several companies and organizations, including Texas Instruments and Litton Industries, receiving numerous patents in electronics. Early life and family Bernhard Einstein was the son of Hans Albert Einstein and Frieda Einstein (née Knecht), who had married in 1927 in Switzerland. He was born on 10 July 1930 in Dortmund, Germany, where Hans Albert was involved in a bridge building project. Hans Albert was the only one of Albert Einstein's three children to marry and have children. Bernhard spent his early years in Switzerland until the age of eight, when his family moved to South Carolina. Albert Einstein was very worried about the rise of Nazi Germany and encouraged his son Hans Albert to emigrate to the United States as he himself had done in 1933. Hans Albert heeded this advice, and moved his family to Greenville, South Carolina, where he was a civil engineer working with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Bernhard spent his teenage years in Pasadena, where his father was a professor at the California Institute of Technology, and in Berkeley. Bernhard first met his grandfather Albert when he was two years old. As a boy he travelled alone to spend time with Albert in New Jersey, and at Saranac Lake in upstate New York. Albert Einstein died in April 1955. Having shared his love of music with his grandson, he bestowed upon Bernhard his violin in addition to a modest sum of money. In 1954, Bernhard married Doris Aude Ascher (born 1930), with whom he had five children: Thomas Martin Einstein (born 1955 in Switzerland) Paul Michael Einstein (born 1959 in Switzerland) Eduard Albert "Ted" Einstein (born 1961 in Dallas, Texas) Mira Einstein-Yehieli (born 1965 in the US) Charles Quincy Ascher "Charly" Einstein (born 1971 in the US) Education and career Einstein excelled only in German at the University of California at Berkeley. He enlisted in the US Army in 1954, and finished basic training at Fort Ord, near Monterey, California. He was stationed in southern Germany where he met his first wife, Doris Aude Ascher, whom he married in 1954. After discharge he applied and was admitted to Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zürich, Switzerland. He followed in his grandfather's and father's footsteps to study physics at the ETH. When he obtained his diploma at ETH, Einstein returned to the United States and worked as an engineer for Texas Instruments in Dallas, Texas. Einstein then moved to California and worked at Litton Industries in the San Francisco Bay Area. His area of expertise was electron tube technology, and specifically light amplification devices for night vision. He filed and obtained four U.S. patents related to light amplification technology while he worked for Litton Industries. In 1974 Bernard moved back to Switzerland and worked in laser technology at the Swiss Army Research Lab in Thun, obtaining a further US patent. References 1930 births 2008 deaths 20th-century American physicists 20th-century American engineers Bernard American people of German-Jewish descent American people of Serbian descent Swiss emigrants to the United States United States Army soldiers
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Bernhard Caesar Einstein", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Bernhard Caesar Einstein (10 July 1930 – 30 September 2008) was a German-American engineer, the son of Hans Albert Einstein. Of the three known biological grandchildren of Albert Einstein, all sons of Hans, he was the only one to survive childhood.\n\nAfter attending UC Berkeley and ETH Zurich, Bernard worked as an engineer at several companies and organizations, including Texas Instruments and Litton Industries, receiving numerous patents in electronics.\n\nEarly life and family\nBernhard Einstein was the son of Hans Albert Einstein and Frieda Einstein (née Knecht), who had married in 1927 in Switzerland. He was born on 10 July 1930 in Dortmund, Germany, where Hans Albert was involved in a bridge building project. Hans Albert was the only one of Albert Einstein's three children to marry and have children. \n\nBernhard spent his early years in Switzerland until the age of eight, when his family moved to South Carolina. Albert Einstein was very worried about the rise of Nazi Germany and encouraged his son Hans Albert to emigrate to the United States as he himself had done in 1933. Hans Albert heeded this advice, and moved his family to Greenville, South Carolina, where he was a civil engineer working with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Bernhard spent his teenage years in Pasadena, where his father was a professor at the California Institute of Technology, and in Berkeley. \n\nBernhard first met his grandfather Albert when he was two years old. As a boy he travelled alone to spend time with Albert in New Jersey, and at Saranac Lake in upstate New York. Albert Einstein died in April 1955. Having shared his love of music with his grandson, he bestowed upon Bernhard his violin in addition to a modest sum of money. \n \nIn 1954, Bernhard married Doris Aude Ascher (born 1930), with whom he had five children:\nThomas Martin Einstein (born 1955 in Switzerland)\nPaul Michael Einstein (born 1959 in Switzerland)\nEduard Albert \"Ted\" Einstein (born 1961 in Dallas, Texas)\nMira Einstein-Yehieli (born 1965 in the US)\nCharles Quincy Ascher \"Charly\" Einstein (born 1971 in the US)\n\nEducation and career\n\nEinstein excelled only in German at the University of California at Berkeley. He enlisted in the US Army in 1954, and finished basic training at Fort Ord, near Monterey, California. He was stationed in southern Germany where he met his first wife, Doris Aude Ascher, whom he married in 1954. After discharge he applied and was admitted to Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zürich, Switzerland. He followed in his grandfather's and father's footsteps to study physics at the ETH. \n\nWhen he obtained his diploma at ETH, Einstein returned to the United States and worked as an engineer for Texas Instruments in Dallas, Texas.\n\nEinstein then moved to California and worked at Litton Industries in the San Francisco Bay Area. His area of expertise was electron tube technology, and specifically light amplification devices for night vision. He filed and obtained four U.S. patents related to light amplification technology while he worked for Litton Industries. In 1974 Bernard moved back to Switzerland and worked in laser technology at the Swiss Army Research Lab in Thun, obtaining a further US patent.\n\nReferences\n\n1930 births\n2008 deaths\n20th-century American physicists\n20th-century American engineers\nBernard\nAmerican people of German-Jewish descent\nAmerican people of Serbian descent\nSwiss emigrants to the United States\nUnited States Army soldiers", "role": "assistant" } ]
Vanilla Mood
is a Japanese musical ensemble associated with Rising Production, consisting of members Keiko (piano, keyboard, vocals), Yui (violin), and Mariko (cello). Members Current members Keiko — piano, keyboard, vocals Yui — violin — cello Former members Emilee — violin Waka — flute Discography Extended plays Singles References External links Japanese pop music groups Avex Group artists
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Vanilla Mood", "role": "user" }, { "content": "is a Japanese musical ensemble associated with Rising Production, consisting of members Keiko (piano, keyboard, vocals), Yui (violin), and Mariko (cello).\n\nMembers\n\nCurrent members\n\n Keiko — piano, keyboard, vocals\n Yui — violin\n — cello\n\nFormer members\n\n Emilee — violin\n Waka — flute\n\nDiscography\n\nExtended plays\n\nSingles\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\nJapanese pop music groups\nAvex Group artists", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma%20State%20Highway%2019
State Highway 19, abbreviated as SH-19, is a highway running through the southern part of the U.S. state of Oklahoma. It is signed east–west. Route description SH-19 begins at an intersection with US-283 in Blair, Oklahoma. SH-19 heads east from Blair for 23 miles (37 km) without intersecting another highway before meeting U.S. Highway 183 north of Roosevelt. It continues eastward, sharing a 3-mile (4.8 km) section of road with State Highway 54 before splitting off to the east and briefly overlapping with SH-115 and State Highway 58. The next town Highway 19 encounters is Apache, north of Lake Ellsworth, where it crosses U.S. Highway 62/281. Nine miles (14½ km) later, it overlaps with U.S. Highway 277 at Cyril. These two overlap with US-81 near Ninnekah, but SH-19 splits off to the east once again within 3 miles (4.8 km). After splitting off, SH-19 travels in a southeast direction to have a brief concurrency with State Highway 76 through Lindsay. 10 miles (16 km) later it intersects with State Highway 74 at a four-way stop in Maysville. Still continuing southeast, 10 miles (16 km) later it has an interchange with Interstate 35 and an intersection with U.S. Highway 77 in Pauls Valley. After passing through the Pauls Valley area, SH-19 crosses U.S. Highway 177 west of Stratford, Oklahoma. It then ends, concurrent with SH-3W at the Richardson Loop outside of Ada. Spurs SH-19 has two lettered spurs. SH-19C runs for one mile (1.6 km) from SH-19 to Alex. It was commissioned on August 7, 1950. SH-19D runs for one mile (1.6 km) from SH-19 to Bradley. Junction list References External links SH-19 at OKHighways 019 Ada, Oklahoma Transportation in Jackson County, Oklahoma Transportation in Kiowa County, Oklahoma Transportation in Caddo County, Oklahoma Transportation in Grady County, Oklahoma Transportation in Garvin County, Oklahoma Transportation in Pontotoc County, Oklahoma
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma%20State%20Highway%2019", "role": "user" }, { "content": "State Highway 19, abbreviated as SH-19, is a highway running through the southern part of the U.S. state of Oklahoma. It is signed east–west.\n\nRoute description\n\nSH-19 begins at an intersection with US-283 in Blair, Oklahoma. SH-19 heads east from Blair for 23 miles (37 km) without intersecting another highway before meeting U.S. Highway 183 north of Roosevelt. It continues eastward, sharing a 3-mile (4.8 km) section of road with State Highway 54 before splitting off to the east and briefly overlapping with SH-115 and State Highway 58.\n\nThe next town Highway 19 encounters is Apache, north of Lake Ellsworth, where it crosses U.S. Highway 62/281. Nine miles (14½ km) later, it overlaps with U.S. Highway 277 at Cyril. These two overlap with US-81 near Ninnekah, but SH-19 splits off to the east once again within 3 miles (4.8 km).\n\nAfter splitting off, SH-19 travels in a southeast direction to have a brief concurrency with State Highway 76 through Lindsay. 10 miles (16 km) later it intersects with State Highway 74 at a four-way stop in Maysville. Still continuing southeast, 10 miles (16 km) later it has an interchange with Interstate 35 and an intersection with U.S. Highway 77 in Pauls Valley.\n\nAfter passing through the Pauls Valley area, SH-19 crosses U.S. Highway 177 west of Stratford, Oklahoma. It then ends, concurrent with SH-3W at the Richardson Loop outside of Ada.\n\nSpurs\nSH-19 has two lettered spurs.\n\n SH-19C runs for one mile (1.6 km) from SH-19 to Alex. It was commissioned on August 7, 1950.\n SH-19D runs for one mile (1.6 km) from SH-19 to Bradley.\n\nJunction list\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nSH-19 at OKHighways\n\n019\nAda, Oklahoma\nTransportation in Jackson County, Oklahoma\nTransportation in Kiowa County, Oklahoma\nTransportation in Caddo County, Oklahoma\nTransportation in Grady County, Oklahoma\nTransportation in Garvin County, Oklahoma\nTransportation in Pontotoc County, Oklahoma", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980%E2%80%9381%20in%20English%20football
The 1980–81 season was the 101st season of competitive football in England. Diary of the season 9 August 1980: Liverpool win the Charity Shield as Terry McDermott scores the only goal in a 1–0 win over West Ham United. 14 August 1980: Having not played a first team game for Arsenal, Clive Allen leaves the club after just two months to join Crystal Palace, again costing his new club £1,250,000. 16 August 1980: Norwich City achieve the biggest win of the opening day of the First Division season, beating Stoke City 5–1. Champions Liverpool begin with a 3–0 win at home to Crystal Palace. Kevin Keegan makes his League début for Southampton in a 2–0 victory at home to Manchester City. Tottenham Hotspur's expensive new strike force of Steve Archibald and Garth Crooks help them to a 2–0 win over Nottingham Forest, with Crooks scoring the second goal. 30 August 1980: Newcastle United's Bill McGarry becomes the first managerial casualty of the season, being sacked after a failure to win any of the Second Division fixtures combined with a humiliating League Cup exit at the hands of Fourth Division side Bury. Former manager Joe Harvey takes charge of the club in a caretaker capacity, but quickly distances himself from any thoughts of a permanent return to the manager's job. 31 August 1980: The first month of the Football League season ends with Ipswich Town, Southampton and Aston Villa level at the top of the First Division after four matches. Stoke City, Manchester City and Leeds United occupy the bottom three places. The Second Division promotion race has begun with Blackburn Rovers, Derby County and Sheffield Wednesday occupying the top three places. Cambridge United, in only their 11th season as a Football League team, stand fourth in the division harbouring dreams of the quickest modern day rise from non-league football to the First Division. 1 September 1980: Third Division basement side Carlisle United sack manager Martin Harvey after only six months in charge, and re-appoint former manager Bob Stokoe to replace him. 7 September 1980: Chesterfield manager Arthur Cox is appointed as Newcastle United's new manager. Jimmy Adamson resigns as Leeds United manager. 10 September 1980: England's 1982 World Cup qualifying series begins with a 4–0 win over Norway at Wembley. 16 September 1980: Leeds United appoint former player and Barnsley manager Allan Clarke as Jimmy Adamson's successor. Clarke is succeeded at Barnsley by former Leeds teammate Norman Hunter. 30 September 1980: September draws to a close with Ipswich Town leading the First Division by four points over their nearest rivals Liverpool, Everton and Aston Villa. Crystal Palace have slumped to the bottom of the table and are joined in the relegation zone by Manchester City and Leeds United. The race for a place in the First Division next season is headed by the Second Division top three of Blackburn Rovers, West Ham United and Notts County. Cambridge United's promising start has fallen away and they now stand third from bottom. 1 October 1980: Manchester City sack manager Malcolm Allison and replace him with Norwich City's John Bond, who in turn is replaced by Ken Brown. 2 October 1980: Terry Venables departs Crystal Palace to take over at Queens Park Rangers, who sacked Tommy Docherty earlier that day. Crystal Palace appoint Venables' assistant, Ernie Walley as caretaker manager. 15 October 1980: England suffer a 2–1 defeat to Romania in Bucharest in their second World Cup qualifier. 17 October 1980: Andy Ritchie, the highly promising Manchester United striker who turns 20 next month, is surprisingly sold to Brighton & Hove Albion for £500,000. 22 October 1980: Bottom of the First Division, Manchester City win their first league match of the season at the thirteenth attempt when they defeat Tottenham Hotspur 3–1. 31 October 1980: Aston Villa, who last won a top division title in 1910, finish October as First Division leaders, though Ipswich Town, still unbeaten, are two points behind them with two games in hand. Liverpool, Nottingham Forest, Manchester United and West Bromwich Albion are a further two points behind. Crystal Palace, Manchester City and Brighton & Hove Albion occupy the relegation places. The race for three places in the First Division next season is being headed by Notts County, West Ham United and Chelsea, with Swansea City, Blackburn Rovers and Sheffield Wednesday in close contention. 11 November 1980: Ipswich Town's unbeaten start to the season ends when they lose their fifteenth match 1–0 to bottom-placed Brighton & Hove Albion. 19 November 1980: England get their World Cup qualifying campaign back on track with a 2–1 win over Switzerland at Wembley. 29 November 1980: Ken Brown makes his first signing for Norwich City by paying Liverpool £100,000 for 19-year-old central defender Dave Watson. 30 November 1980: November ends with Aston Villa still leading the First Division, two points ahead of Liverpool. Ipswich Town are now third, but are three points off top spot with three games in hand. West Bromwich Albion and Arsenal complete the top five. Leicester City prop up the First Division having lost their last four games, and join Crystal Palace and Brighton & Hove Albion in the bottom three. West Ham United, Chelsea and Notts County continue to head the challenge for promotion to the First Division. 6 December 1980: Following a run of just one point in the last month, Crystal Palace reappoint former manager Malcolm Allison. Ernie Walley is offered the chance to continue as first-team manager with Allison in the role of general manager, but opts to leave the club and rejoin Terry Venables at Queens Park Rangers, leaving Allison in sole charge. 31 December 1980: The year ends with Liverpool leading the First Division on goal difference ahead of Aston Villa. Ipswich Town are a point behind the leaders with two games in hand, and Arsenal are a further three points adrift. Crystal Palace and Leicester City remain stranded in the bottom three, but Brighton & Hove Albion have climbed out of the drop zone on goal difference at the expense of Norwich City. FA Cup holders West Ham United lead the Second Division promotion race, joining in the top three by Swansea City (who have never played in the top flight before) and Chelsea (who were last in the top flight two seasons ago). Notts County and Derby County are pushing the top three hard, while the likes of Luton Town and Orient are starting to emerge as possible contenders. 3 January 1981: Ipswich Town beat Aston Villa 1–0 in a heavyweight clash in the FA Cup third round. Everton defeat Arsenal 2–0. 10 January 1981: Aston Villa move to the top of the First Division after beating Liverpool 2–0 at Villa Park. 19 January 1981: FA Cup holders West Ham United are beaten 1–0 in a third round second replay by fellow Second Division side Wrexham. 24 January 1981: Manchester City defeat Norwich City 6–0 in the FA Cup fourth round tie at Maine Road, just two months after John Bond's move between the two clubs as manager. Everton knock out Merseyside rivals Liverpool with a 2–1 victory at Goodison Park, and Nottingham Forest beat Manchester United 1–0. 28 January 1981: Third Division Exeter City cause one of the shocks of the season by beating Leicester City 3–1 in an FA Cup fourth round replay. 31 January 1981: January draws to a close with Ipswich Town back on top of the First Division, ahead of second placed Aston Villa on goal difference with a game in hand. Liverpool are beaten 2–1 at home by Leicester City and are now four points off the top. Southampton and West Bromwich Albion complete the top five, while Manchester United, with fifteen draws already this season, have fallen to ninth in the table. Crystal Palace, Leicester City and Norwich City remain in the bottom three. West Ham United continue to lead the race for promotion, with Notts County and Chelsea completing the top three. Liverpool's 85-match unbeaten home run in all competitions is ended by a 2–1 home defeat to struggling Leicester City in the league, Their last home defeat was in February 1978. 3 February 1981: New Crystal Palace owner Ron Noades sacks Malcolm Allison and appoints Wimbledon manager Dario Gradi as Palace's fourth manager of the season. Wimbledon in turn appoint coach Dave Bassett as their new manager. 18 February 1981: Exeter City reach the FA Cup quarter-finals for only the second time in their history by defeating Newcastle United 4–0 in a replay after drawing 1–1 in the original fixture. 28 February 1981: Having won five League matches in a row, Ipswich Town remain top of the First Division at the end of February, with Aston Villa two points behind them. Liverpool's challenge is effectively over after taking just four points from four League games this month. Crystal Palace, Leicester City and Norwich City still occupy the relegation zone. West Ham United remain top of the Second Division, followed closely behind by Notts County and joined in the top three by Sheffield Wednesday at the expense of Chelsea, who have slumped to seventh. Grimsby Town have emerged as surprise promotion contenders alongside larger clubs like Blackburn Rovers and Derby County. 7 March 1981: Exeter City's FA Cup run finally ends when they lose 2–0 away to Tottenham Hotspur in the quarter-finals. At the City Ground, Ipswich Town go 2–0 up before Nottingham Forest score thrice to take the lead; the match finishes honours even at 3–3 after Frans Thijssen sends the match to a replay. 10 March 1981: Ipswich Town remain in contention for a treble of the league title, FA Cup and UEFA Cup by beating Nottingham Forest 1–0 in the FA Cup quarter-final replay. 12 March 1981: Ken Brown continues to build for the future of First Division strugglers Norwich City by paying Queens Park Rangers £225,000 for 22-year-old goalkeeper Chris Woods. Meanwhile, Liverpool sign 23-year-old Vancouver Whitecaps and Zimbabwe goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar for £250,000. 14 March 1981: The League Cup final ends in a 1–1 draw between Liverpool and West Ham United. 25 March 1981: Spain beat England 2–1 in a friendly at Wembley. 31 March 1981: Ipswich Town lose 3–0 away to Leeds United but remain one point ahead of second placed Aston Villa at the top of the First Division. West Bromwich Albion have moved into third, but are a distant six points behind Aston Villa. Crystal Palace, Norwich City and Leicester City remain in the bottom three places. West Ham United and Notts County continue to head the Second Division promotion race, joined in the top three by Grimsby Town at the expense of Sheffield Wednesday, who are now eighth. 1 April 1981: Liverpool win the Football League Cup for the first time, winning the replay 2–1 against West Ham United at Villa Park. 4 April 1981: Crystal Palace are relegated from the First Division with five matches of the season remaining. West Ham clinch promotion to the 1st Division. 7 April 1981: Sunderland sack manager Ken Knighton, and appoint Mick Docherty as caretaker manager for the last five games of the season. 8 April 1981: Aston Villa move three points clear at the top of the First Division after winning the derby against third-placed West Bromwich Albion 1–0. 10 April 1981: Following a disastrous run of form which has turned an initially promising season into a struggle against relegation, Everton announce that manager Gordon Lee will not be offered a new contract, and will leave the club at the end of the season. Blackburn Rovers manager Howard Kendall is considered the overwhelming favourite to succeed Lee for the following season. 11 April 1981: Ipswich Town's treble bid is ended with a 1–0 extra-time defeat by Manchester City in the FA Cup semi-final at Villa Park. In the final, they will face either Tottenham Hotspur or Wolverhampton Wanderers, who draw 2–2 in the other semi-final at Hillsborough. 14 April 1981: Ipswich Town return to Villa Park for a crucial League match against First Division leaders Aston Villa, and win 2–1 to move within a point of their opponents with a game in hand. 15 April 1981: Tottenham Hotspur reach the FA Cup final by beating Wolverhampton Wanderers 3–0 in the semi-final replay at Highbury. 18 April 1981: Aston Villa take a decisive step towards the First Division title by beating Nottingham Forest 2–0 on the same day that Ipswich Town lose 2–0 at home to Arsenal. 25 April 1981: Aston Villa defeat Middlesbrough 3–0 at Villa Park, meaning they only need a draw from their final game of the season to seal their first league title since 1910. Leicester City are relegated. 29 April 1981: England draw 0–0 with Romania in their World Cup qualifying game at Wembley. 30 April 1981: Manchester United sack Dave Sexton after four trophyless seasons as manager. 2 May 1981: Aston Villa seal their first league title for 71 years despite losing their final game of the season 2–0 to Arsenal as Ipswich Town lose 2–1 to Middlesbrough, their third League defeat in four matches. Norwich City are relegated after a 3–2 home defeat to second-bottom Leicester City. Newly promoted to the First Division for next season are West Ham United after a three-year exile, Notts County after 55 years away, and Swansea City for the first time ever. 6 May 1981: Ipswich Town beat AZ Alkmaar 3–0 of the Netherlands in the first leg of the UEFA Cup final at Portman Road. 9 May 1981: In the FA Cup final against Tottenham Hotspur, Manchester City's Tommy Hutchison scores for both teams, first putting Manchester City 1–0 but later scoring an own goal to bring the match to a replay. 12 May 1981: Zico scores the only goal as Brazil beat England 1–0 at Wembley. 14 May 1981: Tottenham Hotspur lift the FA Cup, defeating Manchester City 3–2 in the replay. 20 May 1981: Ipswich Town win the UEFA Cup 5–4 on aggregate despite losing 4–2 to AZ Alkmaar in the second leg of the final. 23 May 1981: England lose 1–0 at home to Scotland in the Home Championship, but the tournament remains unfinished after Northern Ireland are unable to complete their fixtures. 27 May 1981: An Alan Kennedy goal gives Liverpool their third European Cup triumph as they defeat Real Madrid 1–0 in the final at the Parc des Princes in Paris. 30 May 1981: A 2–1 defeat away to Switzerland leaves England struggling to qualify for the 1982 World Cup Finals. 6 June 1981: England end a run of six matches without a win with a 3–1 victory away to Hungary in a World Cup qualifier. 8 June 1981: Having failed to save Crystal Palace from relegation, Clive Allen drops down a division to return to Queens Park Rangers in a £400,000 deal. 9 June 1981: After a month of searching for a new manager, Manchester United appoint Ron Atkinson from West Bromwich Albion. National teams UEFA Competitions English clubs continued their dominance of European football. Liverpool won the European Cup, beating Real Madrid 1–0 in the final and ensuring that the trophy remained in English hands for the fifth year running. Bobby Robson proved his managerial credentials by bringing UEFA Cup glory to Ipswich Town, who beat AZ Alkmaar 5–4 on aggregate in the final. FA Cup Inspired by Ricardo Villa and Osvaldo Ardiles, World Cup winners with Argentina in 1978, Tottenham Hotspur overcame Manchester City in the FA Cup final replay to lift their first major trophy under the management of Keith Burkinshaw. League Cup Liverpool won their first League Cup, beating Second Division West Ham United 2–1 in a replay after the original tie ended in a 1–1 draw. Football League First Division A fiercely contested First Division title race went right to the wire between Aston Villa and Ipswich Town, as challenges from the likes of Arsenal, West Bromwich Albion and Liverpool fell away during the season's closing stages. The title was finally won by Villa for the first time since 1910, while Ipswich did manage to win the UEFA Cup. Liverpool slipped into fifth place but compensated for this downfall by lifting the European Cup for the third time and their first-ever League Cup. Manchester United failed to make the top five and this shortcoming cost Dave Sexton his manager's job. Manchester United endured a disappointing season, finishing eighth. Their manager Dave Sexton had come under increased pressure over the disappointment of record signing Garry Birtles, who failed to find the net for United after his late autumn signing from Nottingham Forest in a million-plus transfer. At the end of the campaign Sexton was replaced by Ron Atkinson, who had just finished fourth in the league and reached the UEFA Cup quarter finals with an impressive West Bromwich Albion side. United's cross-city neighbours had also changed their manager, when dismissing Malcolm Allison in October to replace him with Norwich's John Bond, who pulled them up from the foot of the table to finish 12th in the league and reach the FA Cup final, where they took Tottenham to a replay before losing 3-2. Crystal Palace endured a dreadful season with just six wins. They were joined in the Second Division by Norwich City and Leicester City. The Eagles' stay in the top flight had lasted just two years, while The Canaries' relegation brought to an end their six years in the limelight. The Foxes, however, were relegated after just a single season in the First Division. Second Division FA Cup holders West Ham United clinched the Second Division title by a wide margin to end their three-year absence from the First Division. They were joined by runners-up Notts County and a Swansea City side whose third-place finish gave them First Division football for the first time in their history and also completed a record of three promotions in four seasons. Blackburn Rovers missed out on promotion on goal difference, but their achievements did not go unnoticed by First Division clubs, as their manager Howard Kendall was then appointed manager of Everton. Both Bristol City and Bristol Rovers were relegated from the Second Division, and they were joined in the relegation zone by Preston North End. The Robins suffered their second consecutive relegation, having been relegated from the top flight just 12 months previously, having not fallen as low as the Third Division for 16 years. Their close rivals, Bristol Rovers, on the other hand, returned to the Third Division after seven years in the Second. However, Preston North End's stay in the Second Division was even shorter, The Lilywhites having only been promoted three years previous. Third Division Ian Porterfield, the scorer of Sunderland's winning goal in their famous FA Cup triumph of 1973, achieved the first success of his managerial career by guiding Rotherham United to the Third Division title and a place in the Second Division. Runners-up in the Third Division were another South Yorkshire side, Barnsley, now managed by the former Leeds United defender Norman Hunter. The final promotion place was snatched by Charlton Athletic, who finished three points ahead of a Huddersfield side looking to win a second successive promotion. Sheffield United and Blackpool both fell into the Fourth Division for the first time, and were joined by Hull City and Colchester United. Despite falling out of the Third Division this season, Sheffield United remarkably managed to lure Ian Porterfield from a Rotherham side who had just reached the Second Division, offering him a five-year contract and making the resources available to him to get the Blades back into the First Division by 1986. Fourth Division Southend United won the Fourth Division title to clinch a place in the Third Division. They were joined by runners-up Lincoln City, third placed Doncaster Rovers and fourth placed Wimbledon. There were no movements between the Fourth Division and the Alliance Premier League as the re-election system went in favour of the league's bottom four clubs, although bottom-placed York City came perilously close to being replaced by Alliance champions Altrincham, surviving by just two votes. Top goalscorers First Division Steve Archibald (Tottenham Hotspur) and Peter Withe (Aston Villa) – 20 goals Second Division David Cross (West Ham United) – 22 goals Third Division Tony Kellow (Exeter City) – 25 goals Fourth Division Alan Cork (Wimbledon) – 23 goals Non-league football The divisional champions of the major non-League competitions were: Awards High scoring defensive midfielder John Wark was credited for his achievements at UEFA Cup Winners Ipswich Town as PFA Players' Player of the Year. Aston Villa's forward Gary Shaw added the PFA Young Player of the Year award to his league championship medal. Ipswich Town's Dutch midfielder Frans Thijssen was voted FWA Footballer of the Year. Star managers Ron Saunders ended Aston Villa's 71-year wait for the league championship trophy by pipping Ipswich Town at the post. Bob Paisley made up for Liverpool's disappointing league form with success in the European Cup and League Cup. Bobby Robson couldn't quite bring the league championship trophy to Ipswich Town but compensated by bringing them the UEFA Cup. Keith Burkinshaw completed his rebuilding programme at Tottenham Hotspur by yielding an FA Cup triumph. John Lyall had another successful season with West Ham United as they won promotion to the First Division a year after winning the FA Cup. John Toshack completed the quickest rise through the Football League with Swansea City, who climbed from the Fourth Division to the First Division with three promotions in four seasons. Ron Atkinson took West Bromwich Albion to fourth place in the league to attain their second UEFA Cup place in three seasons. Terry Neill guided Arsenal to third place in the league to ensure UEFA Cup qualification. Jimmy Sirrel took Notts County into the First Division for the first time in nearly 60 years. Norman Hunter attained promotion to the Second Division with Barnsley. Deaths 13 August 1980: George Haslam, 82, was a half-back during the interwar years for Manchester United, Darwen and Portsmouth. 29 August 1980: Billy Furness, 71, scored 93 league goals from inside-forward between 1928 and 1947 for Leeds United and Norwich City and was capped once for England in 1933. 6 September 1980: Joe Bradford, 79, scored a club record 267 goals in all competitions for Birmingham City between 1920 and 1935, completing his career with five games and one goal for Bristol City. He was capped 12 times for England, scoring seven goals. 7 October 1980: Jim Lewis, 71, played 111 league games for Watford as a centre-half in the 1930s before his playing career was ended by the war. 20 December 1980: Tom Waring, 74, scored 159 league goals from centre-forward for Aston Villa between 1928 and 1935, though he failed to win a major trophy with them. He had previously scored 23 goals in 24 league games for Tranmere Rovers, and after leaving Villa Park he turned out for Barnsley and Wolverhampton Wanderers before returning to Tranmere for two years and finishing his career at Accrington Stanley. By the time of his last senior game in 1938, he had scored 244 league goals. He was capped five times by England in the early 1930s and scored four goals. 30 December 1980: George Beel, 80, scored a club record 178 league goals for Burnley between 1923 and 1932. His career spanned from 1919 to 1933 and took in a total of 243 league goals. He also turned out for Lincoln City (twice), Merthyr Town, Chesterfield and Rochdale. 3 February 1981: Sammy Crooks, 73, played 408 league games on the right wing for Derby County between 1927 and 1947 after signing from Durham City. He played for the Rams in the first five rounds of the FA Cup in 1946 but a knee injury prevented him from playing in the final. He managed Shrewsbury Town in their first four seasons in the Football League and also managed four different non-league sides. He was capped 26 times by England in the 1930s and scored seven goals. 4 February 1981: Joe Jacques, 36, made more than 300 league appearances in defence for Lincoln City, Darlington, Southend United, Gillingham and Hartlepool United between 1964 and 1976. He began his professional career in 1959 with Preston but failed to make a league appearance for them in five years. 16 March 1981: Reg Spencer, 72, played 261 games at left-half for his only club Tranmere Rovers in the 1930s. 6 April 1981: Des Harlock, 58, played 150 league games for Tranmere Rovers as a right-winger between 1946 and 1954 after signing from Liverpool in 1945, his league debut delayed until his 24th year due to the war. 10 May 1981: Bert Lyons, 79, played 76 league games for Orient between 1926 and 1930 before signing for Tottenham Hotspur and completing his league career with 54 league games in three years. 16 June 1981: Billy Hughes, 63, played 200 league games between 1935 and 1951 for Birmingham City, Luton Town and Chelsea in a career which was disrupted by the war. He was capped ten times by Wales. 20 June 1981: Billy Charlton, 80, scored 103 league goals as a left-winger for South Shields, West Ham United, Newport County, Cardiff City and finally Tranmere Rovers, 72 of those goals coming for his final club. References
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980%E2%80%9381%20in%20English%20football", "role": "user" }, { "content": "The 1980–81 season was the 101st season of competitive football in England.\n\nDiary of the season \n9 August 1980: Liverpool win the Charity Shield as Terry McDermott scores the only goal in a 1–0 win over West Ham United.\n\n14 August 1980: Having not played a first team game for Arsenal, Clive Allen leaves the club after just two months to join Crystal Palace, again costing his new club £1,250,000.\n\n16 August 1980: Norwich City achieve the biggest win of the opening day of the First Division season, beating Stoke City 5–1. Champions Liverpool begin with a 3–0 win at home to Crystal Palace. Kevin Keegan makes his League début for Southampton in a 2–0 victory at home to Manchester City. Tottenham Hotspur's expensive new strike force of Steve Archibald and Garth Crooks help them to a 2–0 win over Nottingham Forest, with Crooks scoring the second goal.\n\n30 August 1980: Newcastle United's Bill McGarry becomes the first managerial casualty of the season, being sacked after a failure to win any of the Second Division fixtures combined with a humiliating League Cup exit at the hands of Fourth Division side Bury. Former manager Joe Harvey takes charge of the club in a caretaker capacity, but quickly distances himself from any thoughts of a permanent return to the manager's job.\n\n31 August 1980: The first month of the Football League season ends with Ipswich Town, Southampton and Aston Villa level at the top of the First Division after four matches. Stoke City, Manchester City and Leeds United occupy the bottom three places. The Second Division promotion race has begun with Blackburn Rovers, Derby County and Sheffield Wednesday occupying the top three places. Cambridge United, in only their 11th season as a Football League team, stand fourth in the division harbouring dreams of the quickest modern day rise from non-league football to the First Division.\n\n1 September 1980: Third Division basement side Carlisle United sack manager Martin Harvey after only six months in charge, and re-appoint former manager Bob Stokoe to replace him.\n\n7 September 1980: Chesterfield manager Arthur Cox is appointed as Newcastle United's new manager. Jimmy Adamson resigns as Leeds United manager.\n\n10 September 1980: England's 1982 World Cup qualifying series begins with a 4–0 win over Norway at Wembley.\n\n16 September 1980: Leeds United appoint former player and Barnsley manager Allan Clarke as Jimmy Adamson's successor. Clarke is succeeded at Barnsley by former Leeds teammate Norman Hunter.\n\n30 September 1980: September draws to a close with Ipswich Town leading the First Division by four points over their nearest rivals Liverpool, Everton and Aston Villa. Crystal Palace have slumped to the bottom of the table and are joined in the relegation zone by Manchester City and Leeds United. The race for a place in the First Division next season is headed by the Second Division top three of Blackburn Rovers, West Ham United and Notts County. Cambridge United's promising start has fallen away and they now stand third from bottom.\n\n1 October 1980: Manchester City sack manager Malcolm Allison and replace him with Norwich City's John Bond, who in turn is replaced by Ken Brown.\n\n2 October 1980: Terry Venables departs Crystal Palace to take over at Queens Park Rangers, who sacked Tommy Docherty earlier that day. Crystal Palace appoint Venables' assistant, Ernie Walley as caretaker manager.\n\n15 October 1980: England suffer a 2–1 defeat to Romania in Bucharest in their second World Cup qualifier.\n\n17 October 1980: Andy Ritchie, the highly promising Manchester United striker who turns 20 next month, is surprisingly sold to Brighton & Hove Albion for £500,000.\n\n22 October 1980: Bottom of the First Division, Manchester City win their first league match of the season at the thirteenth attempt when they defeat Tottenham Hotspur 3–1.\n\n31 October 1980: Aston Villa, who last won a top division title in 1910, finish October as First Division leaders, though Ipswich Town, still unbeaten, are two points behind them with two games in hand. Liverpool, Nottingham Forest, Manchester United and West Bromwich Albion are a further two points behind. Crystal Palace, Manchester City and Brighton & Hove Albion occupy the relegation places. The race for three places in the First Division next season is being headed by Notts County, West Ham United and Chelsea, with Swansea City, Blackburn Rovers and Sheffield Wednesday in close contention.\n\n11 November 1980: Ipswich Town's unbeaten start to the season ends when they lose their fifteenth match 1–0 to bottom-placed Brighton & Hove Albion.\n\n19 November 1980: England get their World Cup qualifying campaign back on track with a 2–1 win over Switzerland at Wembley.\n\n29 November 1980: Ken Brown makes his first signing for Norwich City by paying Liverpool £100,000 for 19-year-old central defender Dave Watson.\n\n30 November 1980: November ends with Aston Villa still leading the First Division, two points ahead of Liverpool. Ipswich Town are now third, but are three points off top spot with three games in hand. West Bromwich Albion and Arsenal complete the top five. Leicester City prop up the First Division having lost their last four games, and join Crystal Palace and Brighton & Hove Albion in the bottom three. West Ham United, Chelsea and Notts County continue to head the challenge for promotion to the First Division.\n\n6 December 1980: Following a run of just one point in the last month, Crystal Palace reappoint former manager Malcolm Allison. Ernie Walley is offered the chance to continue as first-team manager with Allison in the role of general manager, but opts to leave the club and rejoin Terry Venables at Queens Park Rangers, leaving Allison in sole charge.\n\n31 December 1980: The year ends with Liverpool leading the First Division on goal difference ahead of Aston Villa. Ipswich Town are a point behind the leaders with two games in hand, and Arsenal are a further three points adrift. Crystal Palace and Leicester City remain stranded in the bottom three, but Brighton & Hove Albion have climbed out of the drop zone on goal difference at the expense of Norwich City. FA Cup holders West Ham United lead the Second Division promotion race, joining in the top three by Swansea City (who have never played in the top flight before) and Chelsea (who were last in the top flight two seasons ago). Notts County and Derby County are pushing the top three hard, while the likes of Luton Town and Orient are starting to emerge as possible contenders.\n\n3 January 1981: Ipswich Town beat Aston Villa 1–0 in a heavyweight clash in the FA Cup third round. Everton defeat Arsenal 2–0.\n\n10 January 1981: Aston Villa move to the top of the First Division after beating Liverpool 2–0 at Villa Park.\n\n19 January 1981: FA Cup holders West Ham United are beaten 1–0 in a third round second replay by fellow Second Division side Wrexham.\n\n24 January 1981: Manchester City defeat Norwich City 6–0 in the FA Cup fourth round tie at Maine Road, just two months after John Bond's move between the two clubs as manager. Everton knock out Merseyside rivals Liverpool with a 2–1 victory at Goodison Park, and Nottingham Forest beat Manchester United 1–0.\n\n28 January 1981: Third Division Exeter City cause one of the shocks of the season by beating Leicester City 3–1 in an FA Cup fourth round replay.\n\n31 January 1981: January draws to a close with Ipswich Town back on top of the First Division, ahead of second placed Aston Villa on goal difference with a game in hand. Liverpool are beaten 2–1 at home by Leicester City and are now four points off the top. Southampton and West Bromwich Albion complete the top five, while Manchester United, with fifteen draws already this season, have fallen to ninth in the table. Crystal Palace, Leicester City and Norwich City remain in the bottom three. West Ham United continue to lead the race for promotion, with Notts County and Chelsea completing the top three. Liverpool's 85-match unbeaten home run in all competitions is ended by a 2–1 home defeat to struggling Leicester City in the league, Their last home defeat was in February 1978.\n\n3 February 1981: New Crystal Palace owner Ron Noades sacks Malcolm Allison and appoints Wimbledon manager Dario Gradi as Palace's fourth manager of the season. Wimbledon in turn appoint coach Dave Bassett as their new manager.\n\n18 February 1981: Exeter City reach the FA Cup quarter-finals for only the second time in their history by defeating Newcastle United 4–0 in a replay after drawing 1–1 in the original fixture.\n\n28 February 1981: Having won five League matches in a row, Ipswich Town remain top of the First Division at the end of February, with Aston Villa two points behind them. Liverpool's challenge is effectively over after taking just four points from four League games this month. Crystal Palace, Leicester City and Norwich City still occupy the relegation zone. West Ham United remain top of the Second Division, followed closely behind by Notts County and joined in the top three by Sheffield Wednesday at the expense of Chelsea, who have slumped to seventh. Grimsby Town have emerged as surprise promotion contenders alongside larger clubs like Blackburn Rovers and Derby County.\n\n7 March 1981: Exeter City's FA Cup run finally ends when they lose 2–0 away to Tottenham Hotspur in the quarter-finals. At the City Ground, Ipswich Town go 2–0 up before Nottingham Forest score thrice to take the lead; the match finishes honours even at 3–3 after Frans Thijssen sends the match to a replay.\n\n10 March 1981: Ipswich Town remain in contention for a treble of the league title, FA Cup and UEFA Cup by beating Nottingham Forest 1–0 in the FA Cup quarter-final replay.\n\n12 March 1981: Ken Brown continues to build for the future of First Division strugglers Norwich City by paying Queens Park Rangers £225,000 for 22-year-old goalkeeper Chris Woods. Meanwhile, Liverpool sign 23-year-old Vancouver Whitecaps and Zimbabwe goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar for £250,000.\n\n14 March 1981: The League Cup final ends in a 1–1 draw between Liverpool and West Ham United.\n\n25 March 1981: Spain beat England 2–1 in a friendly at Wembley.\n\n31 March 1981: Ipswich Town lose 3–0 away to Leeds United but remain one point ahead of second placed Aston Villa at the top of the First Division. West Bromwich Albion have moved into third, but are a distant six points behind Aston Villa. Crystal Palace, Norwich City and Leicester City remain in the bottom three places. West Ham United and Notts County continue to head the Second Division promotion race, joined in the top three by Grimsby Town at the expense of Sheffield Wednesday, who are now eighth.\n\n1 April 1981: Liverpool win the Football League Cup for the first time, winning the replay 2–1 against West Ham United at Villa Park.\n\n4 April 1981: Crystal Palace are relegated from the First Division with five matches of the season remaining. West Ham clinch promotion to the 1st Division.\n\n7 April 1981: Sunderland sack manager Ken Knighton, and appoint Mick Docherty as caretaker manager for the last five games of the season.\n\n8 April 1981: Aston Villa move three points clear at the top of the First Division after winning the derby against third-placed West Bromwich Albion 1–0.\n\n10 April 1981: Following a disastrous run of form which has turned an initially promising season into a struggle against relegation, Everton announce that manager Gordon Lee will not be offered a new contract, and will leave the club at the end of the season. Blackburn Rovers manager Howard Kendall is considered the overwhelming favourite to succeed Lee for the following season.\n\n11 April 1981: Ipswich Town's treble bid is ended with a 1–0 extra-time defeat by Manchester City in the FA Cup semi-final at Villa Park. In the final, they will face either Tottenham Hotspur or Wolverhampton Wanderers, who draw 2–2 in the other semi-final at Hillsborough.\n\n14 April 1981: Ipswich Town return to Villa Park for a crucial League match against First Division leaders Aston Villa, and win 2–1 to move within a point of their opponents with a game in hand.\n\n15 April 1981: Tottenham Hotspur reach the FA Cup final by beating Wolverhampton Wanderers 3–0 in the semi-final replay at Highbury.\n\n18 April 1981: Aston Villa take a decisive step towards the First Division title by beating Nottingham Forest 2–0 on the same day that Ipswich Town lose 2–0 at home to Arsenal.\n\n25 April 1981: Aston Villa defeat Middlesbrough 3–0 at Villa Park, meaning they only need a draw from their final game of the season to seal their first league title since 1910. Leicester City are relegated.\n\n29 April 1981: England draw 0–0 with Romania in their World Cup qualifying game at Wembley.\n\n30 April 1981: Manchester United sack Dave Sexton after four trophyless seasons as manager.\n\n2 May 1981: Aston Villa seal their first league title for 71 years despite losing their final game of the season 2–0 to Arsenal as Ipswich Town lose 2–1 to Middlesbrough, their third League defeat in four matches. Norwich City are relegated after a 3–2 home defeat to second-bottom Leicester City. Newly promoted to the First Division for next season are West Ham United after a three-year exile, Notts County after 55 years away, and Swansea City for the first time ever.\n\n6 May 1981: Ipswich Town beat AZ Alkmaar 3–0 of the Netherlands in the first leg of the UEFA Cup final at Portman Road.\n\n9 May 1981: In the FA Cup final against Tottenham Hotspur, Manchester City's Tommy Hutchison scores for both teams, first putting Manchester City 1–0 but later scoring an own goal to bring the match to a replay.\n\n12 May 1981: Zico scores the only goal as Brazil beat England 1–0 at Wembley.\n\n14 May 1981: Tottenham Hotspur lift the FA Cup, defeating Manchester City 3–2 in the replay.\n\n20 May 1981: Ipswich Town win the UEFA Cup 5–4 on aggregate despite losing 4–2 to AZ Alkmaar in the second leg of the final.\n\n23 May 1981: England lose 1–0 at home to Scotland in the Home Championship, but the tournament remains unfinished after Northern Ireland are unable to complete their fixtures.\n\n27 May 1981: An Alan Kennedy goal gives Liverpool their third European Cup triumph as they defeat Real Madrid 1–0 in the final at the Parc des Princes in Paris.\n\n30 May 1981: A 2–1 defeat away to Switzerland leaves England struggling to qualify for the 1982 World Cup Finals.\n\n6 June 1981: England end a run of six matches without a win with a 3–1 victory away to Hungary in a World Cup qualifier.\n\n8 June 1981: Having failed to save Crystal Palace from relegation, Clive Allen drops down a division to return to Queens Park Rangers in a £400,000 deal.\n\n9 June 1981: After a month of searching for a new manager, Manchester United appoint Ron Atkinson from West Bromwich Albion.\n\nNational teams\n\nUEFA Competitions\n\nEnglish clubs continued their dominance of European football. Liverpool won the European Cup, beating Real Madrid 1–0 in the final and ensuring that the trophy remained in English hands for the fifth year running. Bobby Robson proved his managerial credentials by bringing UEFA Cup glory to Ipswich Town, who beat AZ Alkmaar 5–4 on aggregate in the final.\n\nFA Cup\n\nInspired by Ricardo Villa and Osvaldo Ardiles, World Cup winners with Argentina in 1978, Tottenham Hotspur overcame Manchester City in the FA Cup final replay to lift their first major trophy under the management of Keith Burkinshaw.\n\nLeague Cup\n\nLiverpool won their first League Cup, beating Second Division West Ham United 2–1 in a replay after the original tie ended in a 1–1 draw.\n\nFootball League\n\nFirst Division\nA fiercely contested First Division title race went right to the wire between Aston Villa and Ipswich Town, as challenges from the likes of Arsenal, West Bromwich Albion and Liverpool fell away during the season's closing stages. The title was finally won by Villa for the first time since 1910, while Ipswich did manage to win the UEFA Cup. Liverpool slipped into fifth place but compensated for this downfall by lifting the European Cup for the third time and their first-ever League Cup. Manchester United failed to make the top five and this shortcoming cost Dave Sexton his manager's job.\n\nManchester United endured a disappointing season, finishing eighth. Their manager Dave Sexton had come under increased pressure over the disappointment of record signing Garry Birtles, who failed to find the net for United after his late autumn signing from Nottingham Forest in a million-plus transfer. At the end of the campaign Sexton was replaced by Ron Atkinson, who had just finished fourth in the league and reached the UEFA Cup quarter finals with an impressive West Bromwich Albion side. United's cross-city neighbours had also changed their manager, when dismissing Malcolm Allison in October to replace him with Norwich's John Bond, who pulled them up from the foot of the table to finish 12th in the league and reach the FA Cup final, where they took Tottenham to a replay before losing 3-2.\n\nCrystal Palace endured a dreadful season with just six wins. They were joined in the Second Division by Norwich City and Leicester City. The Eagles' stay in the top flight had lasted just two years, while The Canaries' relegation brought to an end their six years in the limelight. The Foxes, however, were relegated after just a single season in the First Division.\n\nSecond Division\nFA Cup holders West Ham United clinched the Second Division title by a wide margin to end their three-year absence from the First Division. They were joined by runners-up Notts County and a Swansea City side whose third-place finish gave them First Division football for the first time in their history and also completed a record of three promotions in four seasons. Blackburn Rovers missed out on promotion on goal difference, but their achievements did not go unnoticed by First Division clubs, as their manager Howard Kendall was then appointed manager of Everton.\n\nBoth Bristol City and Bristol Rovers were relegated from the Second Division, and they were joined in the relegation zone by Preston North End. The Robins suffered their second consecutive relegation, having been relegated from the top flight just 12 months previously, having not fallen as low as the Third Division for 16 years. Their close rivals, Bristol Rovers, on the other hand, returned to the Third Division after seven years in the Second. However, Preston North End's stay in the Second Division was even shorter, The Lilywhites having only been promoted three years previous.\n\nThird Division\nIan Porterfield, the scorer of Sunderland's winning goal in their famous FA Cup triumph of 1973, achieved the first success of his managerial career by guiding Rotherham United to the Third Division title and a place in the Second Division. Runners-up in the Third Division were another South Yorkshire side, Barnsley, now managed by the former Leeds United defender Norman Hunter. The final promotion place was snatched by Charlton Athletic, who finished three points ahead of a Huddersfield side looking to win a second successive promotion.\n\nSheffield United and Blackpool both fell into the Fourth Division for the first time, and were joined by Hull City and Colchester United.\n\nDespite falling out of the Third Division this season, Sheffield United remarkably managed to lure Ian Porterfield from a Rotherham side who had just reached the Second Division, offering him a five-year contract and making the resources available to him to get the Blades back into the First Division by 1986.\n\nFourth Division\nSouthend United won the Fourth Division title to clinch a place in the Third Division. They were joined by runners-up Lincoln City, third placed Doncaster Rovers and fourth placed Wimbledon.\n\nThere were no movements between the Fourth Division and the Alliance Premier League as the re-election system went in favour of the league's bottom four clubs, although bottom-placed York City came perilously close to being replaced by Alliance champions Altrincham, surviving by just two votes.\n\nTop goalscorers \nFirst Division\nSteve Archibald (Tottenham Hotspur) and Peter Withe (Aston Villa) – 20 goals\n\nSecond Division\nDavid Cross (West Ham United) – 22 goals\n\nThird Division\nTony Kellow (Exeter City) – 25 goals\n\nFourth Division\nAlan Cork (Wimbledon) – 23 goals\n\nNon-league football\nThe divisional champions of the major non-League competitions were:\n\nAwards \nHigh scoring defensive midfielder John Wark was credited for his achievements at UEFA Cup Winners Ipswich Town as PFA Players' Player of the Year.\nAston Villa's forward Gary Shaw added the PFA Young Player of the Year award to his league championship medal.\nIpswich Town's Dutch midfielder Frans Thijssen was voted FWA Footballer of the Year.\n\nStar managers \nRon Saunders ended Aston Villa's 71-year wait for the league championship trophy by pipping Ipswich Town at the post.\nBob Paisley made up for Liverpool's disappointing league form with success in the European Cup and League Cup.\nBobby Robson couldn't quite bring the league championship trophy to Ipswich Town but compensated by bringing them the UEFA Cup.\nKeith Burkinshaw completed his rebuilding programme at Tottenham Hotspur by yielding an FA Cup triumph.\nJohn Lyall had another successful season with West Ham United as they won promotion to the First Division a year after winning the FA Cup.\nJohn Toshack completed the quickest rise through the Football League with Swansea City, who climbed from the Fourth Division to the First Division with three promotions in four seasons.\nRon Atkinson took West Bromwich Albion to fourth place in the league to attain their second UEFA Cup place in three seasons.\nTerry Neill guided Arsenal to third place in the league to ensure UEFA Cup qualification.\nJimmy Sirrel took Notts County into the First Division for the first time in nearly 60 years.\nNorman Hunter attained promotion to the Second Division with Barnsley.\n\nDeaths\n13 August 1980: George Haslam, 82, was a half-back during the interwar years for Manchester United, Darwen and Portsmouth.\n\n29 August 1980: Billy Furness, 71, scored 93 league goals from inside-forward between 1928 and 1947 for Leeds United and Norwich City and was capped once for England in 1933.\n\n6 September 1980: Joe Bradford, 79, scored a club record 267 goals in all competitions for Birmingham City between 1920 and 1935, completing his career with five games and one goal for Bristol City. He was capped 12 times for England, scoring seven goals.\n\n7 October 1980: Jim Lewis, 71, played 111 league games for Watford as a centre-half in the 1930s before his playing career was ended by the war.\n\n20 December 1980: Tom Waring, 74, scored 159 league goals from centre-forward for Aston Villa between 1928 and 1935, though he failed to win a major trophy with them. He had previously scored 23 goals in 24 league games for Tranmere Rovers, and after leaving Villa Park he turned out for Barnsley and Wolverhampton Wanderers before returning to Tranmere for two years and finishing his career at Accrington Stanley. By the time of his last senior game in 1938, he had scored 244 league goals. He was capped five times by England in the early 1930s and scored four goals.\n\n30 December 1980: George Beel, 80, scored a club record 178 league goals for Burnley between 1923 and 1932. His career spanned from 1919 to 1933 and took in a total of 243 league goals. He also turned out for Lincoln City (twice), Merthyr Town, Chesterfield and Rochdale.\n\n3 February 1981: Sammy Crooks, 73, played 408 league games on the right wing for Derby County between 1927 and 1947 after signing from Durham City. He played for the Rams in the first five rounds of the FA Cup in 1946 but a knee injury prevented him from playing in the final. He managed Shrewsbury Town in their first four seasons in the Football League and also managed four different non-league sides. He was capped 26 times by England in the 1930s and scored seven goals.\n\n4 February 1981: Joe Jacques, 36, made more than 300 league appearances in defence for Lincoln City, Darlington, Southend United, Gillingham and Hartlepool United between 1964 and 1976. He began his professional career in 1959 with Preston but failed to make a league appearance for them in five years.\n\n16 March 1981: Reg Spencer, 72, played 261 games at left-half for his only club Tranmere Rovers in the 1930s.\n\n6 April 1981: Des Harlock, 58, played 150 league games for Tranmere Rovers as a right-winger between 1946 and 1954 after signing from Liverpool in 1945, his league debut delayed until his 24th year due to the war.\n\n10 May 1981: Bert Lyons, 79, played 76 league games for Orient between 1926 and 1930 before signing for Tottenham Hotspur and completing his league career with 54 league games in three years.\n\n16 June 1981: Billy Hughes, 63, played 200 league games between 1935 and 1951 for Birmingham City, Luton Town and Chelsea in a career which was disrupted by the war. He was capped ten times by Wales.\n\n20 June 1981: Billy Charlton, 80, scored 103 league goals as a left-winger for South Shields, West Ham United, Newport County, Cardiff City and finally Tranmere Rovers, 72 of those goals coming for his final club.\n\nReferences", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooh%20Afza
Rooh Afza (; ; ) (Soul Refresher) is a concentrated squash. It was formulated in 1906 in Ghaziabad, in the British India by Hakeem Muhammad Kabeeruddin and introduced by Hakim Hafiz Abdul Majeed, and launched from Old Delhi. Currently, Rooh Afza is manufactured by the companies founded by him and his sons, Hamdard Laboratories, India, Hamdard Laboratories (Waqf) Pakistan and Hamdard Laboratories (Waqf) Bangladesh. Since 1948, the company has been manufacturing the product in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Other companies formulate the same un-patented recipe in these countries as well. The specific Unani recipe of Rooh Afza combines several ingredients popularly believed to be cooling agents, such as rose, which is used as a remedy for loo (the hot summer winds of Northern India and Pakistan and Bangladesh). The drink is commonly associated with the month of Ramadan, in which it is usually consumed during iftar. It is sold commercially as a syrup to flavour sherbets, cold milk drinks, ices, and cold desserts such as the popular falooda. The name Rooh Afza is sometimes translated as "refresher of the soul". It is said that this name was made up by the original formulator of the drink, with possible cultural influences. History Rooh Afza was founded by Hamdard's founder Hakim Hafiz Abdul Majeed in old Delhi, India. In 1906, he wanted to create a herbal mix that would help Delhi's people stay cool in the summer. He selected herbs and syrups from traditional Unani medicine and created a drink that would help counter heat strokes and prevent water loss in people. An artist, Mirza Noor Ahmad, designed the labels of Rooh Afza in many colours in 1910. Progress in development and refining the original recipe continued all along until the final drink emerged. After Majeed's death 15 years later, his wife Rabea Begum established a charitable trust in the name of herself and their two sons. Following the partition of India in 1947, while the elder son, Hakim Abdul Hameed, stayed back in India – the younger son, Hakim Mohammad Said, migrated to Pakistan on 9 January 1948 and started a separate Hamdard Company from two rooms in the old Arambagh area of Karachi. Hamdard Pakistan finally became profitable in 1953. Hakim Mohammad Said had opened a branch of Hamdard in the former East Pakistan. According to Hakim Mohammad Said's daughter, Sadia Rashid, chairperson of Hamdard Pakistan in 2019, her father gifted the business to the people of Bangladesh after their independence in 1971. In 2010, chef Nita Mehta and Indian film actress Juhi Chawla were hired for promotional activities by Hamdard Laboratories to create new mocktail and dessert recipes for Rooh Afza, their all-season summer drink, which was used in a new marketing campaign. Ingredients Its original formulation included: Herbs: Deepak ("khurfa seeds", Portulaca oleracea) Chicory Wine-grape raisins (Vitis vinifera) European white lily (Nymphaea alba) Blue star water lily (Nymphaea nouchali) Lotus (nelumbo) Borage coriander Rosemary Fruits: Orange Citron Pineapple Apple Berries Strawberry Raspberry Loganberry Blackberry Cherry Concord grapes Blackcurrant Watermelon Vegetables: Spinach Carrot Mint Sponge gourd (Luffa aegyptiaca) Flowers: Rose Kewra (Pandanus fascicularis) Lemon Orange Roots: Vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides) Preparation Rooh Afza syrup is generally served mixed with cold milk and ice. Rooh Afza is often prepared as part of Iftar (the evening meal for breaking the fast or roza), during Ramadan (the holy month of fasting for Muslims). The concentrate can also be mixed with water, which is a common preparation in the hot Pakistani summers. When mixed with water, the final drink is a type of sharbat. Rooh Afza syrup is often mixed with Kulfi ice cream and vermicelli to make a similar version of the popular Iranian dessert Faloodeh. Lawsuit and fine in Bangladesh On the complaint of false information, misleading advertisements and publication of false information on the web site, Safe Food Inspector Kamrul Hassan filed a case against Hamdard Laboratories Bangladesh on May 30, 2018. In the case, he mentions that the information published in the advertisement with 'Rooh Afza made with 35 fruit juice' is not correct. On June 12 of the same year, Pure food court judge AFM Maruf Chowdhury fined the company four lakhs taka for publishing misleading advertisements. If unable to pay the fine, then the Hamdard chairman and managing director would be punished for three months' imprisonment. Variants Hamdard Laboratories India has launched two ready to drink variants in India namely RoohAfza Fusion and RoohAfza Milkshake. References External links Official Website of Hamdard Laboratories (WAQF), Bangladesh (Archive) Official Website of Hamdard Laboratories, India Official Website of Hamdard Laboratories (Waqf) Pakistan Non-alcoholic drinks Indian drink brands Pakistani drinks Bangladeshi drinks Pakistani drink brands Products introduced in 1906 Iftar foods
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooh%20Afza", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Rooh Afza (; ; ) (Soul Refresher) is a concentrated squash. It was formulated in 1906 in Ghaziabad, in the British India by Hakeem Muhammad Kabeeruddin and introduced by Hakim Hafiz Abdul Majeed, and launched from Old Delhi. Currently, Rooh Afza is manufactured by the companies founded by him and his sons, Hamdard Laboratories, India, Hamdard Laboratories (Waqf) Pakistan and Hamdard Laboratories (Waqf) Bangladesh. Since 1948, the company has been manufacturing the product in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.\n\nOther companies formulate the same un-patented recipe in these countries as well. The specific Unani recipe of Rooh Afza combines several ingredients popularly believed to be cooling agents, such as rose, which is used as a remedy for loo (the hot summer winds of Northern India and Pakistan and Bangladesh). The drink is commonly associated with the month of Ramadan, in which it is usually consumed during iftar. It is sold commercially as a syrup to flavour sherbets, cold milk drinks, ices, and cold desserts such as the popular falooda. The name Rooh Afza is sometimes translated as \"refresher of the soul\". It is said that this name was made up by the original formulator of the drink, with possible cultural influences.\n\nHistory\n\nRooh Afza was founded by Hamdard's founder Hakim Hafiz Abdul Majeed in old Delhi, India. In 1906, he wanted to create a herbal mix that would help Delhi's people stay cool in the summer. He selected herbs and syrups from traditional Unani medicine and created a drink that would help counter heat strokes and prevent water loss in people. An artist, Mirza Noor Ahmad, designed the labels of Rooh Afza in many colours in 1910. Progress in development and refining the original recipe continued all along until the final drink emerged.\n\nAfter Majeed's death 15 years later, his wife Rabea Begum established a charitable trust in the name of herself and their two sons.\n\nFollowing the partition of India in 1947, while the elder son, Hakim Abdul Hameed, stayed back in India – the younger son, Hakim Mohammad Said, migrated to Pakistan on 9 January 1948 and started a separate Hamdard Company from two rooms in the old Arambagh area of Karachi. Hamdard Pakistan finally became profitable in 1953. Hakim Mohammad Said had opened a branch of Hamdard in the former East Pakistan. According to Hakim Mohammad Said's daughter, Sadia Rashid, chairperson of Hamdard Pakistan in 2019, her father gifted the business to the people of Bangladesh after their independence in 1971.\n\nIn 2010, chef Nita Mehta and Indian film actress Juhi Chawla were hired for promotional activities by Hamdard Laboratories to create new mocktail and dessert recipes for Rooh Afza, their all-season summer drink, which was used in a new marketing campaign.\n\nIngredients\nIts original formulation included:\n\nHerbs: \n Deepak (\"khurfa seeds\", Portulaca oleracea)\n Chicory\n Wine-grape raisins (Vitis vinifera)\n European white lily (Nymphaea alba)\n Blue star water lily (Nymphaea nouchali)\n Lotus (nelumbo)\n Borage\n coriander \n Rosemary\n\nFruits: \n Orange\n Citron \n Pineapple\n Apple\n Berries\n Strawberry\n Raspberry \n Loganberry\n Blackberry\n Cherry\n Concord grapes\n Blackcurrant \n Watermelon\n\nVegetables: \n Spinach\n Carrot\n Mint\n Sponge gourd (Luffa aegyptiaca)\n\nFlowers: \n Rose \n Kewra (Pandanus fascicularis)\n Lemon\n Orange\n\nRoots:\n Vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides)\n\nPreparation\nRooh Afza syrup is generally served mixed with cold milk and ice. Rooh Afza is often prepared as part of Iftar (the evening meal for breaking the fast or roza), during Ramadan (the holy month of fasting for Muslims). The concentrate can also be mixed with water, which is a common preparation in the hot Pakistani summers. When mixed with water, the final drink is a type of sharbat. Rooh Afza syrup is often mixed with Kulfi ice cream and vermicelli to make a similar version of the popular Iranian dessert Faloodeh.\n\nLawsuit and fine in Bangladesh\nOn the complaint of false information, misleading advertisements and publication of false information on the web site, Safe Food Inspector Kamrul Hassan filed a case against Hamdard Laboratories Bangladesh on May 30, 2018. In the case, he mentions that the information published in the advertisement with 'Rooh Afza made with 35 fruit juice' is not correct. On June 12 of the same year, Pure food court judge AFM Maruf Chowdhury fined the company four lakhs taka for publishing misleading advertisements. If unable to pay the fine, then the Hamdard chairman and managing director would be punished for three months' imprisonment.\n\nVariants \nHamdard Laboratories India has launched two ready to drink variants in India namely RoohAfza Fusion and RoohAfza Milkshake.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Official Website of Hamdard Laboratories (WAQF), Bangladesh (Archive)\n Official Website of Hamdard Laboratories, India\n Official Website of Hamdard Laboratories (Waqf) Pakistan\n\nNon-alcoholic drinks\nIndian drink brands\nPakistani drinks\nBangladeshi drinks\nPakistani drink brands\nProducts introduced in 1906\nIftar foods", "role": "assistant" } ]
Thailand at the 1964 Summer Olympics
Thailand competed at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan. 54 competitors, 47 men and 7 women, took part in 41 events in 8 sports. Athletics Boxing Five boxers represented Thailand in 1964. Flyweight Veerapan Komolsen Bantamweight Cherdchai Udompaichitkul Light welterweight Niyom Prasertsom Welterweight Sukda Songsang Light middleweight Yot Thiancharoen Cycling Eight cyclists represented Thailand in 1964. Individual road race Tarwon Jirapan Pakdi Chillananda Chainarong Sophonpong Vitool Charernratana Team time trial Suwan Ornkerd Vitool Charernratana Tarwon Jirapan Chainarong Sophonpong 1000m time trial Preeda Chullamondhol Individual pursuit Smaisuk Krisansuwan Team pursuit Preeda Chullamondhol Somchai Chantarasamrit Smaisuk Krisansuwan Judo Three judoka represented Thailand in 1964. Lightweight Eiam Harssarungsri Udom Rasmelungom Middleweight Pipat Sinhasema Sailing Shooting Ten shooters represented Thailand in 1964. 25 m pistol Sumol Sumontame Taweesak Kasiwat 50 m pistol Paitoon Smuthranond Amorn Yuktanandana 300 m rifle, three positions Turong Tousvasu Chan Pancharut 50 m rifle, three positions Krisada Arunwong Salai Srisathorn 50 m rifle, prone Choomphol Chaiyanitr Hongsa Purnaveja Swimming Weightlifting References External links Official Olympic Reports Nations at the 1964 Summer Olympics 1964 Summer Olympics 1964 in Thai sport
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Thailand at the 1964 Summer Olympics", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Thailand competed at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan. 54 competitors, 47 men and 7 women, took part in 41 events in 8 sports.\n\nAthletics\n\nBoxing\n\nFive boxers represented Thailand in 1964.\n\n Flyweight\n Veerapan Komolsen\n\n Bantamweight\n Cherdchai Udompaichitkul\n\n Light welterweight\n Niyom Prasertsom\n\n Welterweight\n Sukda Songsang\n\n Light middleweight\n Yot Thiancharoen\n\nCycling\n\nEight cyclists represented Thailand in 1964.\n\n Individual road race\n Tarwon Jirapan\n Pakdi Chillananda\n Chainarong Sophonpong\n Vitool Charernratana\n\n Team time trial\n Suwan Ornkerd\n Vitool Charernratana\n Tarwon Jirapan\n Chainarong Sophonpong\n\n 1000m time trial\n Preeda Chullamondhol\n\n Individual pursuit\n Smaisuk Krisansuwan\n\n Team pursuit\n Preeda Chullamondhol\n Somchai Chantarasamrit\n Smaisuk Krisansuwan\n\nJudo\n\nThree judoka represented Thailand in 1964.\n\n Lightweight\n Eiam Harssarungsri\n Udom Rasmelungom\n\n Middleweight\n Pipat Sinhasema\n\nSailing\n\nShooting\n\nTen shooters represented Thailand in 1964.\n\n25 m pistol\n Sumol Sumontame\n Taweesak Kasiwat\n\n50 m pistol\n Paitoon Smuthranond\n Amorn Yuktanandana\n\n300 m rifle, three positions\n Turong Tousvasu\n Chan Pancharut\n\n50 m rifle, three positions\n Krisada Arunwong\n Salai Srisathorn\n\n50 m rifle, prone\n Choomphol Chaiyanitr\n Hongsa Purnaveja\n\nSwimming\n\nWeightlifting\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nOfficial Olympic Reports\n\nNations at the 1964 Summer Olympics\n1964 Summer Olympics\n1964 in Thai sport", "role": "assistant" } ]
Sudan at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Sudan competed at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea. Competitors The following is the list of number of competitors in the Games. Athletics Men Track & road events Boxing Men References Official Olympic Reports sports-reference Nations at the 1988 Summer Olympics 1988 Oly
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Sudan at the 1988 Summer Olympics", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Sudan competed at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea.\n\nCompetitors\nThe following is the list of number of competitors in the Games.\n\nAthletics\n\nMen\nTrack & road events\n\nBoxing\n\nMen\n\nReferences\n\nOfficial Olympic Reports\nsports-reference\n\nNations at the 1988 Summer Olympics\n1988\nOly", "role": "assistant" } ]
Babine River Corridor Provincial Park
Babine River Corridor Provincial Park is a provincial park in British Columbia, Canada, located to the north of Hazelton. The park was established by Order-in-Council in 1999 and is approximately 15,339 hectares in area. References Provincial parks of British Columbia Skeena Country Protected areas established in 1999 1999 establishments in British Columbia
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Babine River Corridor Provincial Park", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Babine River Corridor Provincial Park is a provincial park in British Columbia, Canada, located to the north of Hazelton. The park was established by Order-in-Council in 1999 and is approximately 15,339 hectares in area.\n\nReferences\n\nProvincial parks of British Columbia\nSkeena Country\nProtected areas established in 1999\n1999 establishments in British Columbia", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARCO%20Arena%20%281985%29
ARCO Arena (originally called the Sacramento Sports Arena and sometimes referred to as the Original ARCO Arena or ARCO Arena I to distinguish it from its successor) was an indoor arena in Sacramento, California. It was the NBA's smallest arena as it held just 10,333 people and was built in 1985 to temporarily accommodate the NBA's Sacramento Kings, who had relocated from Kansas City. The arena's first event was a fashion show on September 12, 1985. The arena also hosted boxing matches. The idea to move the Kings to the building was first pitched in late 1984, with the building being described as a "warehouse under construction" by the Sacramento Bee. The arena cost $12 million to build. Located north of Sacramento's downtown, ARCO Arena was nicknamed "The Madhouse on Market Street", and Kings games in this small venue were 100% sold out. Its official name of "ARCO Arena" is believed to be the first example of an NBA team selling naming rights to a brand new facility: in this case, rights were sold to the Atlantic Richfield Company, which is now a subsidiary of Marathon Petroleum. The Kings sold the naming rights for $5 million over ten years in August 1985, which included the naming rights for the new arena. The Kings left this building in 1988 to move to the new ARCO Arena, built one mile (1.6 km) to the west. The structure survived as an office building for Sprint Communications. On December 19, 2005, the California Department of Consumer Affairs moved their headquarters into the building. References External links Ballparks.com – ARCO Arena I Photos of the original ARCO Arena Basketball venues in California Music venues in California Sports venues in Sacramento, California Defunct basketball venues in the United States Sports venues completed in 1985 1988 disestablishments in California Former National Basketball Association venues 1985 establishments in California Defunct indoor arenas in California Sacramento Kings
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARCO%20Arena%20%281985%29", "role": "user" }, { "content": "ARCO Arena (originally called the Sacramento Sports Arena and sometimes referred to as the Original ARCO Arena or ARCO Arena I to distinguish it from its successor) was an indoor arena in Sacramento, California. It was the NBA's smallest arena as it held just 10,333 people and was built in 1985 to temporarily accommodate the NBA's Sacramento Kings, who had relocated from Kansas City. The arena's first event was a fashion show on September 12, 1985. The arena also hosted boxing matches.\n\nThe idea to move the Kings to the building was first pitched in late 1984, with the building being described as a \"warehouse under construction\" by the Sacramento Bee. The arena cost $12 million to build.\n\nLocated north of Sacramento's downtown, ARCO Arena was nicknamed \"The Madhouse on Market Street\", and Kings games in this small venue were 100% sold out. Its official name of \"ARCO Arena\" is believed to be the first example of an NBA team selling naming rights to a brand new facility: in this case, rights were sold to the Atlantic Richfield Company, which is now a subsidiary of Marathon Petroleum. The Kings sold the naming rights for $5 million over ten years in August 1985, which included the naming rights for the new arena.\n\nThe Kings left this building in 1988 to move to the new ARCO Arena, built one mile (1.6 km) to the west. The structure survived as an office building for Sprint Communications. On December 19, 2005, the California Department of Consumer Affairs moved their headquarters into the building.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBallparks.com – ARCO Arena I\nPhotos of the original ARCO Arena\n\nBasketball venues in California\nMusic venues in California\nSports venues in Sacramento, California\nDefunct basketball venues in the United States\nSports venues completed in 1985\n1988 disestablishments in California\nFormer National Basketball Association venues\n1985 establishments in California\nDefunct indoor arenas in California\nSacramento Kings", "role": "assistant" } ]
Reign Over Me
Reign Over Me is a 2007 American buddy drama film written and directed by Mike Binder, produced by his brother Jack Binder, and starring Adam Sandler, Don Cheadle, Jada Pinkett Smith, Liv Tyler, Donald Sutherland, Saffron Burrows, and Mike Binder. The film follows the story of former college roommates and old friends Alan and Charlie, the latter of whom is struggling with mental health issues after the loss of his wife and daughters in the September 11 attacks. This was also Melinda Dillon's final film acting role before retiring from acting later that same year and her death in 2023. Distributed by Columbia Pictures, the film was theatrically released on March 23, 2007, and on DVD and Blu-ray on October 9, 2007. It is the first of two films produced by Madison 23, a drama subsidiary of Sandler's Happy Madison Productions. Plot After the Twin Towers went down in 2001, Charlie Fineman lost everything important in his life. Five years have passed since Charlie's wife and daughters died and now the once-successful and sociable man has become a withdrawn shadow of his former self. He does not discuss his loss, causing his in-laws to worry for his sanity, believing that he has struck the tragedy from his mind. When Charlie suddenly runs into his former college roommate Alan Johnson together once again on a Manhattan street corner, Alan is shocked to see just how far his old friend has fallen. Charlie's hair is long and he wears a headset constantly to let music drown out any mentions of his wife and children. Though on the surface it would appear that Alan, a successful dentist, has it all, the pressures of a family and career have been weighing heavily on him. At a pivotal moment when Charlie and Alan both need a trusted friend, the restorative power of a rekindled friendship provides a lifeline needed to move forward. Alan endeavors to bring Charlie out of his shell by convincing him to see a therapist. Barely communicative, he ends every session after only a couple of minutes. His therapist says he needs to tell the story about his family to someone eventually and Charlie soon tells Alan his tragic story. Later on, following a suicide by cop attempt, Charlie ends up in a psychiatric ward. Legal proceedings commence, and Judge David Raines must determine whether to commit Charlie to psychiatric care. After Charlie suffers a breakdown, Raines leaves the decision to Charlie's in-laws, asking them to think of what their daughter would want for him. Charlie approaches his in-laws in the lobby of the courthouse, stating that he does not carry pictures nor discuss his family because he sees them every day, in the faces of people walking down the street. They decide that he should not be committed; instead, Charlie moves to a new apartment, leaving behind the painful memories associated with his former home. Alan visits Charlie in his new home and his wife calls and tells him "I love you and just want you to come home." The apartment's doorman brings out Charlie's scooter, telling Alan not to leave stuff lying around. He tells the doorman to take it back upstairs, but he does not respond. Not knowing what to do, Alan decides to ride home on the scooter. Cast Adam Sandler as Dr. Charlie Fineman, a man who lost everything important when the Twin Towers collapsed Don Cheadle as Dr. Alan Johnson, a dentist who is the former college roommate of Charlie Jada Pinkett Smith as Janeane Johnson, the wife of Alan Liv Tyler as Dr. Angela Oakhurst, Charlie's therapist Saffron Burrows as Donna Remar, Alan's "stalker" patient Donald Sutherland as David Raines, a judge at the committal hearing Mike Binder (film's director) as Bryan Sugarman, Charlie's protective pre-tragedy best friend Robert Klein as Jonathan Timpleman, Charlie's father in-law Melinda Dillon as Ginger Timpleman, Charlie's mother in-law Jonathan Banks as Stelter, Alan's abrasive dental practice partner John de Lancie as Nigel Pennington, a "covert" therapist Alan arranges Paula Newsome as Melanie, Alan's protective dental practice receptionist Ted Raimi as Peter Saravino, Charlie's committal hearing lawyer Rae Allen as Adell Modell, Charlie's protective landlady B. J. Novak as Fallon, the DA's committal hearing lawyer Soundtrack The many songs during the film include Bruce Springsteen's "Out in the Street" and "Drive All Night", "Simple Man" by Graham Nash, and a few songs by the Who, including the titular "Love, Reign o'er Me". The latter appears on the film's soundtrack, along with a cover version recorded specifically for the film by Pearl Jam. Televised trailers featured the songs "Ashes" by English band Embrace, "All These Things That I've Done" by the Killers, "How to Save a Life" by the Fray, and "In This Life" by Chantal Kreviazuk. The score was written by Rolfe Kent and orchestrated by Tony Blondal. Reception Box office The film opened to $7,460,690 from 1,671 theaters, for an average of $4,465 per venue. Its last recorded weekend was April 27–29, 2007, with a final domestic gross of $19,661,987. It made another $2,560,321 internationally, for a total worldwide gross of $22,222,308, against its $20 million budget. Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 64% based on 153 reviews, with an average rating of 6.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Reign Over Me is a charming, affecting tale of friendship and loss, with solid performances from Adam Sandler as a broken, grief-stricken man and Don Cheadle as his old friend and savior." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 61 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews." Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade A− on scale of A to F. Lisa Schwarzbaum at Entertainment Weekly gave Reign Over Me a B− rating, calling the film "a strange, black-and-blue therapeutic drama equally mottled with likable good intentions and agitating clumsiness." She shared her own discomfort with seeing the September 11 attacks casually included as a plot device in a fictional dramedy, though praised the film's performances and story. The New York Times found the film "maddeningly uneven", adding, "It's rare to see so many moments of grace followed by so many stumbles and fumbles, or to see intelligence and discretion undone so thoroughly by glibness and grossness. And it is puzzling, and ultimately draining, to see a film that waves the flag of honesty—Face your demons! Speak from your heart! Open up!—turn out to be so phony." The video gaming blog Kotaku praised Reign Over Me's inclusion of the video game Shadow of the Colossus, stating that it "must be one of the first Hollywood films, if not the first, to deal with games thematically and intelligently." See also List of cultural references to the September 11 attacks References External links 2007 films 2007 drama films American buddy drama films 2000s buddy drama films Films based on the September 11 attacks Films set in New York City Columbia Pictures films Happy Madison Productions films Relativity Media films Films directed by Mike Binder Sunlight Productions films Films scored by Rolfe Kent 2000s English-language films Films about grieving 2000s American films
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Reign Over Me", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Reign Over Me is a 2007 American buddy drama film written and directed by Mike Binder, produced by his brother Jack Binder, and starring Adam Sandler, Don Cheadle, Jada Pinkett Smith, Liv Tyler, Donald Sutherland, Saffron Burrows, and Mike Binder. The film follows the story of former college roommates and old friends Alan and Charlie, the latter of whom is struggling with mental health issues after the loss of his wife and daughters in the September 11 attacks. This was also Melinda Dillon's final film acting role before retiring from acting later that same year and her death in 2023.\n\nDistributed by Columbia Pictures, the film was theatrically released on March 23, 2007, and on DVD and Blu-ray on October 9, 2007. It is the first of two films produced by Madison 23, a drama subsidiary of Sandler's Happy Madison Productions.\n\nPlot \nAfter the Twin Towers went down in 2001, Charlie Fineman lost everything important in his life. Five years have passed since Charlie's wife and daughters died and now the once-successful and sociable man has become a withdrawn shadow of his former self. He does not discuss his loss, causing his in-laws to worry for his sanity, believing that he has struck the tragedy from his mind.\n\nWhen Charlie suddenly runs into his former college roommate Alan Johnson together once again on a Manhattan street corner, Alan is shocked to see just how far his old friend has fallen. Charlie's hair is long and he wears a headset constantly to let music drown out any mentions of his wife and children.\n\nThough on the surface it would appear that Alan, a successful dentist, has it all, the pressures of a family and career have been weighing heavily on him. At a pivotal moment when Charlie and Alan both need a trusted friend, the restorative power of a rekindled friendship provides a lifeline needed to move forward.\n\nAlan endeavors to bring Charlie out of his shell by convincing him to see a therapist. Barely communicative, he ends every session after only a couple of minutes. His therapist says he needs to tell the story about his family to someone eventually and Charlie soon tells Alan his tragic story. Later on, following a suicide by cop attempt, Charlie ends up in a psychiatric ward.\n\nLegal proceedings commence, and Judge David Raines must determine whether to commit Charlie to psychiatric care. After Charlie suffers a breakdown, Raines leaves the decision to Charlie's in-laws, asking them to think of what their daughter would want for him. Charlie approaches his in-laws in the lobby of the courthouse, stating that he does not carry pictures nor discuss his family because he sees them every day, in the faces of people walking down the street. They decide that he should not be committed; instead, Charlie moves to a new apartment, leaving behind the painful memories associated with his former home.\n\nAlan visits Charlie in his new home and his wife calls and tells him \"I love you and just want you to come home.\" The apartment's doorman brings out Charlie's scooter, telling Alan not to leave stuff lying around. He tells the doorman to take it back upstairs, but he does not respond. Not knowing what to do, Alan decides to ride home on the scooter.\n\nCast\n Adam Sandler as Dr. Charlie Fineman, a man who lost everything important when the Twin Towers collapsed\n Don Cheadle as Dr. Alan Johnson, a dentist who is the former college roommate of Charlie\n Jada Pinkett Smith as Janeane Johnson, the wife of Alan\n Liv Tyler as Dr. Angela Oakhurst, Charlie's therapist\n Saffron Burrows as Donna Remar, Alan's \"stalker\" patient\n Donald Sutherland as David Raines, a judge at the committal hearing\n Mike Binder (film's director) as Bryan Sugarman, Charlie's protective pre-tragedy best friend\n Robert Klein as Jonathan Timpleman, Charlie's father in-law\n Melinda Dillon as Ginger Timpleman, Charlie's mother in-law\n Jonathan Banks as Stelter, Alan's abrasive dental practice partner\n John de Lancie as Nigel Pennington, a \"covert\" therapist Alan arranges\n Paula Newsome as Melanie, Alan's protective dental practice receptionist\n Ted Raimi as Peter Saravino, Charlie's committal hearing lawyer\n Rae Allen as Adell Modell, Charlie's protective landlady\n B. J. Novak as Fallon, the DA's committal hearing lawyer\n\nSoundtrack\n\nThe many songs during the film include Bruce Springsteen's \"Out in the Street\" and \"Drive All Night\", \"Simple Man\" by Graham Nash, and a few songs by the Who, including the titular \"Love, Reign o'er Me\". The latter appears on the film's soundtrack, along with a cover version recorded specifically for the film by Pearl Jam. \n\nTelevised trailers featured the songs \"Ashes\" by English band Embrace, \"All These Things That I've Done\" by the Killers, \"How to Save a Life\" by the Fray, and \"In This Life\" by Chantal Kreviazuk. \n\nThe score was written by Rolfe Kent and orchestrated by Tony Blondal.\n\nReception\n\nBox office\n\nThe film opened to $7,460,690 from 1,671 theaters, for an average of $4,465 per venue. Its last recorded weekend was April 27–29, 2007, with a final domestic gross of $19,661,987. It made another $2,560,321 internationally, for a total worldwide gross of $22,222,308, against its $20 million budget.\n\nCritical response\n\nOn Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 64% based on 153 reviews, with an average rating of 6.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"Reign Over Me is a charming, affecting tale of friendship and loss, with solid performances from Adam Sandler as a broken, grief-stricken man and Don Cheadle as his old friend and savior.\" On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 61 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews.\" Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade A− on scale of A to F.\n\nLisa Schwarzbaum at Entertainment Weekly gave Reign Over Me a B− rating, calling the film \"a strange, black-and-blue therapeutic drama equally mottled with likable good intentions and agitating clumsiness.\" She shared her own discomfort with seeing the September 11 attacks casually included as a plot device in a fictional dramedy, though praised the film's performances and story. The New York Times found the film \"maddeningly uneven\", adding, \"It's rare to see so many moments of grace followed by so many stumbles and fumbles, or to see intelligence and discretion undone so thoroughly by glibness and grossness. And it is puzzling, and ultimately draining, to see a film that waves the flag of honesty—Face your demons! Speak from your heart! Open up!—turn out to be so phony.\"\n\nThe video gaming blog Kotaku praised Reign Over Me's inclusion of the video game Shadow of the Colossus, stating that it \"must be one of the first Hollywood films, if not the first, to deal with games thematically and intelligently.\"\n\nSee also\n List of cultural references to the September 11 attacks\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n \n \n \n\n2007 films\n2007 drama films\nAmerican buddy drama films\n2000s buddy drama films\nFilms based on the September 11 attacks\nFilms set in New York City\nColumbia Pictures films\nHappy Madison Productions films\nRelativity Media films\nFilms directed by Mike Binder\nSunlight Productions films\nFilms scored by Rolfe Kent\n2000s English-language films\nFilms about grieving\n2000s American films", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo%202%20Original%20Soundtrack
The Halo 2 Original Soundtrack is the soundtrack for Bungie's 2004 video game Halo 2. The soundtrack was released as two separate volumes, released almost two years apart. Volume 1, released at the same time as Halo 2 on November 9, 2004, contains arranged instrumental pieces written by Martin O'Donnell and his partner Michael Salvatori, as well as "inspired-by" tracks from bands Incubus, Hoobastank and Breaking Benjamin. Volume 2 was released on April 25, 2006, and contains all the game music arranged in a suite form. O'Donnell, who had previously composed the music for Bungie games such as Myth and Halo: Combat Evolved, sought to develop the "Halo sound" of the previous game as well as introduce new sounds and influences to the music. The music was based on what was happening in the game, rather than using leitmotifs or theme repetitively. The music was recorded in pieces with a fifty-piece orchestra at Studio X in Seattle, Washington. To mark its release both Microsoft and Sumthing Else Music Works planned an aggressive marketing campaign. Upon release, the music of Halo 2 was praised. Critics were split on the merits of Volume 1, with some publications enjoying the bonus offerings while others felt the first volume lacked cohesion. Volume 2 was declared the "real" soundtrack to Halo 2. Upon release both soundtracks became commercial successes, with more than 100,000 copies sold. The soundtracks' success was pointed to as a sign of increasing legitimacy of video game music in the entertainment industry. Halos music has since been played in concert settings, including Play! A Video Game Symphony and Video Games Live. Background In the summer of 2004, Halo 2 composer Martin O'Donnell and album producer Nile Rodgers decided it would be a good idea to present Halo 2s music in two distinct volumes. The first volume would contain the game's themes that were finished and mixed as well as "inspired-by" offerings from other artists. The first volume was released alongside the video game as Volume 1 on November 9 of the same year. As the soundtrack was finished before all the in-game music was completed, none of the tracks written by O'Donnell appear in Halo 2 in the same arrangement. The bands featured in Volume 1, including Breaking Benjamin and Incubus, were enthusiastic about adding music to the soundtrack. Incubus was tapped to produce a suite of music which appears scattered throughout the soundtrack as four movements. Incubus guitarist Mike Einziger said that "Halo is the only video game that ever inspired us to write a whole suite [of music]." The first pieces of music O'Donnell wrote for Halo 2 were promotional in nature; O'Donnell scored the cinematic announcement trailer for Halo 2 on August 2, 2002, and followed up with interactive music for the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2003 Halo 2 demo. O'Donnell confirmed that the chanting monks of Halo: Combat Evolveds choral theme, along with additional guitars by Steve Vai, would return in Halo 2. O'Donnell noted that the new setting of Africa prompted him to look at "Afro-Cuban" influences, but most of this type of music did not make it to the final product. Rather than write for locations or use leitmotifs for all the different characters in what O'Donnell called a "Peter and the Wolf approach to music", O'Donnell wrote "sad music for sad moments, scary music to score the scary bits and so forth." Recurring themes developed more by accident than planning. Recording of orchestrated music was completed over several sessions with the Northwest Sinfonia orchestra at Studio X in Seattle, Washington. Nile Rodgers produced both volumes of the soundtrack, in addition to writing and performing the track "Never Surrender" in collaboration with songwriter/remixer Nataraj. Rodgers himself is a video game player, noting in an interview that "30% to 40% of the [recording] budget was spent in downtime playing video games. Since all that money was going to that part of the recording session, I decided to figure out what was so compelling about it, and I got hooked [by the game]." Due to legal issues, the second Halo 2 soundtrack containing the entire finished score, Volume 2, was not released until more than a year after the soundtrack had been mixed and mastered. The volume's music is formatted in a 'suite' structure that corresponds with the chapters within the game, in order to create a "music representation" of the video game. O'Donnell stated that this presentation of the music as a concept album was natural because the overall story and atmosphere of Halo 2 directly influenced the sound to begin with. Promotion The first volume of the Halo 2 Original Soundtrack was specifically timed to coincide with the launch of the video game, to cash in on the "Halo effect"; players would go to buy the game and get the soundtrack and other merchandise by association. The first several million copies of the game sold all contained promotional inserts for the soundtrack. The soundtrack was seen as an integral part of the marketing and merchandise push Microsoft planned for Halo 2. The soundtrack's publisher, Sumthing Distribution, also planned and executed an aggressive marketing campaign, including special music listening stations and side-by-side soundtrack and game placement at participating retailers. The "Halo Theme MJOLNIR Mix", the first track on Volume 1, was released on November 22, 2007, as a free track for Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock on the Xbox 360. Reception Upon release, the reaction to Halo 2s score was generally positive. Reception for the two soundtrack releases, however, varied. Volume 1's inclusion of other artists in addition to original music received both praise and criticism. Mike Brennan Soundtrack.net's review claimed that the inclusion of Hoobastank and Breaking Benjamin as well as Incubus made the soundtrack "more harsh" sounding but overall lacked cohesion. On the other hand, G4 TV found the four-part Odyssey by Incubus comprised "a progressive rock/fusion jam the likes of which haven't been recorded since the 1970s." Nuketown.com declared that Volume 2 was the soundtrack that fans had been waiting for; other publications agreed, saying that it "feels like the real soundtrack to Halo 2". IGN found the soundtrack ultimately enjoyable, but felt that the more traditional orchestration that appeared in Halo 2 clashed with the ambient and electronic sounds that had appeared before, making the album "divided". Overall, the Halo 2 soundtracks sold well. Volume 1 sold more than 100,000 copies, and peaked at the number 162 position of the Billboard 200, the first video game soundtrack to ever enter the chart. This compares favorably to typical movie soundtracks, which generally sell no more than 10,000 copies. The Halo 2 Original Soundtracks success was pointed to as a sign of increasing legitimacy of video game music in the entertainment industry, which had graduated from "simple beeps" to complex melodies with big budgets. Track listings Volume 1 Volume 2 Personnel All information is taken from the CD credits. Martin O'Donnell (ASCAP) – composer Michael Salvatori (ASCAP) – composer Simon James – concert master/contractor Christian Knapp – Northwest Sinfonia conductor Marcie O'Donnell – choir conductor Nile Rodgers – producer Nile Rodgers, Michael Ostin – music co-supervisors Lorraine McLees – album art director References 2004 soundtrack albums 2 Video game soundtracks Albums produced by Nile Rodgers
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo%202%20Original%20Soundtrack", "role": "user" }, { "content": "The Halo 2 Original Soundtrack is the soundtrack for Bungie's 2004 video game Halo 2. The soundtrack was released as two separate volumes, released almost two years apart. Volume 1, released at the same time as Halo 2 on November 9, 2004, contains arranged instrumental pieces written by Martin O'Donnell and his partner Michael Salvatori, as well as \"inspired-by\" tracks from bands Incubus, Hoobastank and Breaking Benjamin. Volume 2 was released on April 25, 2006, and contains all the game music arranged in a suite form.\n\nO'Donnell, who had previously composed the music for Bungie games such as Myth and Halo: Combat Evolved, sought to develop the \"Halo sound\" of the previous game as well as introduce new sounds and influences to the music. The music was based on what was happening in the game, rather than using leitmotifs or theme repetitively. The music was recorded in pieces with a fifty-piece orchestra at Studio X in Seattle, Washington. To mark its release both Microsoft and Sumthing Else Music Works planned an aggressive marketing campaign.\n\nUpon release, the music of Halo 2 was praised. Critics were split on the merits of Volume 1, with some publications enjoying the bonus offerings while others felt the first volume lacked cohesion. Volume 2 was declared the \"real\" soundtrack to Halo 2. Upon release both soundtracks became commercial successes, with more than 100,000 copies sold. The soundtracks' success was pointed to as a sign of increasing legitimacy of video game music in the entertainment industry. Halos music has since been played in concert settings, including Play! A Video Game Symphony and Video Games Live.\n\nBackground\nIn the summer of 2004, Halo 2 composer Martin O'Donnell and album producer Nile Rodgers decided it would be a good idea to present Halo 2s music in two distinct volumes. The first volume would contain the game's themes that were finished and mixed as well as \"inspired-by\" offerings from other artists. The first volume was released alongside the video game as Volume 1 on November 9 of the same year. As the soundtrack was finished before all the in-game music was completed, none of the tracks written by O'Donnell appear in Halo 2 in the same arrangement. The bands featured in Volume 1, including Breaking Benjamin and Incubus, were enthusiastic about adding music to the soundtrack. Incubus was tapped to produce a suite of music which appears scattered throughout the soundtrack as four movements. Incubus guitarist Mike Einziger said that \"Halo is the only video game that ever inspired us to write a whole suite [of music].\"\n\nThe first pieces of music O'Donnell wrote for Halo 2 were promotional in nature; O'Donnell scored the cinematic announcement trailer for Halo 2 on August 2, 2002, and followed up with interactive music for the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2003 Halo 2 demo. O'Donnell confirmed that the chanting monks of Halo: Combat Evolveds choral theme, along with additional guitars by Steve Vai, would return in Halo 2. O'Donnell noted that the new setting of Africa prompted him to look at \"Afro-Cuban\" influences, but most of this type of music did not make it to the final product. Rather than write for locations or use leitmotifs for all the different characters in what O'Donnell called a \"Peter and the Wolf approach to music\", O'Donnell wrote \"sad music for sad moments, scary music to score the scary bits and so forth.\" Recurring themes developed more by accident than planning. Recording of orchestrated music was completed over several sessions with the Northwest Sinfonia orchestra at Studio X in Seattle, Washington.\n\nNile Rodgers produced both volumes of the soundtrack, in addition to writing and performing the track \"Never Surrender\" in collaboration with songwriter/remixer Nataraj. Rodgers himself is a video game player, noting in an interview that \"30% to 40% of the [recording] budget was spent in downtime playing video games. Since all that money was going to that part of the recording session, I decided to figure out what was so compelling about it, and I got hooked [by the game].\"\n\nDue to legal issues, the second Halo 2 soundtrack containing the entire finished score, Volume 2, was not released until more than a year after the soundtrack had been mixed and mastered. The volume's music is formatted in a 'suite' structure that corresponds with the chapters within the game, in order to create a \"music representation\" of the video game. O'Donnell stated that this presentation of the music as a concept album was natural because the overall story and atmosphere of Halo 2 directly influenced the sound to begin with.\n\nPromotion\nThe first volume of the Halo 2 Original Soundtrack was specifically timed to coincide with the launch of the video game, to cash in on the \"Halo effect\"; players would go to buy the game and get the soundtrack and other merchandise by association. The first several million copies of the game sold all contained promotional inserts for the soundtrack. The soundtrack was seen as an integral part of the marketing and merchandise push Microsoft planned for Halo 2. The soundtrack's publisher, Sumthing Distribution, also planned and executed an aggressive marketing campaign, including special music listening stations and side-by-side soundtrack and game placement at participating retailers. The \"Halo Theme MJOLNIR Mix\", the first track on Volume 1, was released on November 22, 2007, as a free track for Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock on the Xbox 360.\n\nReception\n\nUpon release, the reaction to Halo 2s score was generally positive. Reception for the two soundtrack releases, however, varied. Volume 1's inclusion of other artists in addition to original music received both praise and criticism. Mike Brennan Soundtrack.net's review claimed that the inclusion of Hoobastank and Breaking Benjamin as well as Incubus made the soundtrack \"more harsh\" sounding but overall lacked cohesion. On the other hand, G4 TV found the four-part Odyssey by Incubus comprised \"a progressive rock/fusion jam the likes of which haven't been recorded since the 1970s.\"\n\nNuketown.com declared that Volume 2 was the soundtrack that fans had been waiting for; other publications agreed, saying that it \"feels like the real soundtrack to Halo 2\". IGN found the soundtrack ultimately enjoyable, but felt that the more traditional orchestration that appeared in Halo 2 clashed with the ambient and electronic sounds that had appeared before, making the album \"divided\".\n\nOverall, the Halo 2 soundtracks sold well. Volume 1 sold more than 100,000 copies, and peaked at the number 162 position of the Billboard 200, the first video game soundtrack to ever enter the chart. This compares favorably to typical movie soundtracks, which generally sell no more than 10,000 copies. The Halo 2 Original Soundtracks success was pointed to as a sign of increasing legitimacy of video game music in the entertainment industry, which had graduated from \"simple beeps\" to complex melodies with big budgets.\n\nTrack listings\n\nVolume 1\n\nVolume 2\n\nPersonnel\nAll information is taken from the CD credits.\n Martin O'Donnell (ASCAP) – composer\n Michael Salvatori (ASCAP) – composer\n Simon James – concert master/contractor\n Christian Knapp – Northwest Sinfonia conductor\n Marcie O'Donnell – choir conductor\n Nile Rodgers – producer\n Nile Rodgers, Michael Ostin – music co-supervisors\n Lorraine McLees – album art director\n\nReferences\n\n2004 soundtrack albums\n 2\nVideo game soundtracks\nAlbums produced by Nile Rodgers", "role": "assistant" } ]
Brussels
Brussels ( or ; ), officially the Brussels-Capital Region (; ), is a region of Belgium comprising 19 municipalities, including the City of Brussels, which is the capital of Belgium. The Brussels-Capital Region is located in the central portion of the country and is a part of both the French Community of Belgium and the Flemish Community, but is separate from the Flemish Region (within which it forms an enclave) and the Walloon Region. Brussels is the most densely populated region in Belgium, and although it has the highest GDP per capita, it has the lowest available income per household. The Brussels Region covers , a relatively small area compared to the two other regions, and has a population of over 1.2 million. The five times larger metropolitan area of Brussels comprises over 2.5 million people, which makes it the largest in Belgium. It is also part of a large conurbation extending towards the cities of Ghent, Antwerp, and Leuven and the province of Walloon Brabant, in total home to over 5 million people. Brussels grew from a small rural settlement on the river Senne to become an important city-region in Europe. Since the end of the Second World War, it has been a major centre for international politics and home to numerous international organisations, politicians, diplomats and civil servants. Brussels is the de facto capital of the European Union, as it hosts a number of principal EU institutions, including its administrative-legislative, executive-political, and legislative branches (though the judicial branch is located in Luxembourg, and the European Parliament meets for a minority of the year in Strasbourg). Because of this, its name is sometimes used metonymically to describe the EU and its institutions. The secretariat of the Benelux and the headquarters of NATO are also located in Brussels. As the economic capital of Belgium and a top financial centre of Western Europe with Euronext Brussels, Brussels is classified as an Alpha global city. It is also a national and international hub for rail, road and air traffic, and are sometimes considered, together with Belgium, as the geographic, economic and cultural crossroads of Europe. The Brussels Metro is the only rapid transit system in Belgium. In addition, both its airport and railway stations are the largest and busiest in the country. Historically Dutch-speaking, Brussels saw a language shift to French from the late 19th century. Nowadays, the Brussels-Capital Region is officially bilingual in French and Dutch, although French is the majority language and lingua franca with over 90% of the inhabitants being able to speak it. Brussels is also increasingly becoming multilingual. English is spoken as a second language by nearly a third of the population and many migrants and expatriates speak other languages as well. Brussels is known for its cuisine and gastronomic offer (including its local waffle, its chocolate, its French fries and its numerous types of beers), as well as its historical and architectural landmarks; some of them are registered as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Principal attractions include its historic Grand-Place/Grote Markt (main square), Manneken Pis, the Atomium, and cultural institutions such as La Monnaie/De Munt and the Museums of Art and History. Due to its long tradition of Belgian comics, Brussels is also hailed as a capital of the comic strip. Toponymy Etymology The most common theory of the origin of the name Brussels is that it derives from the Old Dutch , or , meaning ( / ) and ( / / ) or . Saint Vindicianus, the Bishop of Cambrai, made the first recorded reference to the place in 695, when it was still a hamlet. The names of all the municipalities in the Brussels-Capital Region are also of Dutch origin, except for Evere, which is Celtic. Pronunciation In French, is pronounced (the x is pronounced , like in English, and the final s is silent) and in Dutch, is pronounced . Inhabitants of Brussels are known in French as (pronounced ) and in Dutch as (pronounced ). In the Brabantian dialect of Brussels (known as Brusselian, and also sometimes referred to as Marols or Marollien), they are called Brusseleers or Brusseleirs. Originally, the written x noted the group . In the Belgian French pronunciation as well as in Dutch, the k eventually disappeared and z became s, as reflected in the current Dutch spelling, whereas in the more conservative French form, the spelling remained. The pronunciation in French only dates from the 18th century, but this modification did not affect the traditional Brussels usage. In France, the pronunciations and (for ) are often heard, but are rather rare in Belgium. History Early history The history of Brussels is closely linked to that of Western Europe. Traces of human settlement go back to the Stone Age, with vestiges and place-names related to the civilisation of megaliths, dolmens and standing stones (Plattesteen near the Grand-Place/Grote Markt and Tomberg in Woluwe-Saint-Lambert, for example). During late antiquity, the region was home to Roman occupation, as attested by archaeological evidence discovered on the current site of Tour & Taxis, north-west of the Pentagon (Brussels' city centre). Following the decline of the Western Roman Empire, it was incorporated into the Frankish Empire. According to local legend, the origin of the settlement which was to become Brussels lies in Saint Gaugericus' construction of a chapel on an island in the river Senne around 580. The official founding of Brussels is usually said to be around 979, when Duke Charles of Lower Lorraine transferred the relics of the martyr Saint Gudula from Moorsel (located in today's province of East Flanders) to Saint Gaugericus' chapel. When King Lothair II appointed the same Charles (his brother) to become Duke of Lower Lotharingia in 977, Charles ordered the construction of the city's first permanent fortification, doing so on that same island. Middle Ages Lambert I of Leuven, Count of Leuven, gained the County of Brussels around 1000, by marrying Charles' daughter. Because of its location on the banks of the Senne, on an important trade route between Bruges and Ghent, and Cologne, Brussels became a commercial centre specialised in the textile trade. The town grew quite rapidly and extended towards the upper town (Treurenberg, Coudenberg and Sablon/Zavel areas), where there was a smaller risk of floods. As it grew to a population of around 30,000, the surrounding marshes were drained to allow for further expansion. Around this time, work began on what is now the Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula (1225), replacing an older Romanesque church. In 1183, the Counts of Leuven became Dukes of Brabant. Brabant, unlike the county of Flanders, was not fief of the king of France but was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire. In the early 13th century, the first walls of Brussels were built, and after this, the city grew significantly. To let the city expand, a second set of walls was erected between 1356 and 1383. Traces of these walls can still be seen, although the Small Ring, a series of boulevards bounding the historical city centre, follows their former course. Early modern In the 15th century, the marriage between heiress Margaret III of Flanders and Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, produced a new Duke of Brabant of the House of Valois, namely Antoine, their son. In 1477, the Burgundian duke Charles the Bold perished in the Battle of Nancy. Through the marriage of his daughter Mary of Burgundy (who was born in Brussels) to Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, the Low Countries fell under Habsburg sovereignty. Brabant was integrated into this composite state, and Brussels flourished as the Princely Capital of the prosperous Burgundian Netherlands, also known as the Seventeen Provinces. After the death of Mary in 1482, her son Philip the Handsome succeeded as Duke of Burgundy and Brabant. Philip died in 1506, and he was succeeded by his son Charles V who then also became King of Spain (crowned in the Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula) and even Holy Roman Emperor at the death of his grandfather Maximilian I in 1519. Charles was now the ruler of a Habsburg Empire "on which the sun never sets" with Brussels serving as one of his main capitals. It was in the Coudenberg Palace that Charles V was declared of age in 1515, and it was there in 1555 that he abdicated all of his possessions and passed the Habsburg Netherlands to King Philip II of Spain. This palace, famous all over Europe, had greatly expanded since it had first become the seat of the Dukes of Brabant, but it was destroyed by fire in 1731. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Brussels was a centre for the lace industry. In addition, Brussels tapestry hung on the walls of castles throughout Europe. In 1695, during the Nine Years' War, King Louis XIV of France sent troops to bombard Brussels with artillery. Together with the resulting fire, it was the most destructive event in the entire history of Brussels. The Grand-Place was destroyed, along with 4,000 buildings—a third of all the buildings in the city. The reconstruction of the city centre, effected during subsequent years, profoundly changed its appearance and left numerous traces still visible today. Following the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, Spanish sovereignty over the Southern Netherlands was transferred to the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg. This event started the era of the Austrian Netherlands. Brussels was captured by France in 1746, during the War of the Austrian Succession, but was handed back to Austria three years later. It remained with Austria until 1795, when the Southern Netherlands were captured and annexed by France, and the city became the capital of the department of the Dyle. The French rule ended in 1815, with the defeat of Napoleon on the battlefield of Waterloo, located south of today's Brussels-Capital Region. With the Congress of Vienna, the Southern Netherlands joined the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, under King William I of Orange. The former Dyle department became the province of South Brabant, with Brussels as its capital. Late modern In 1830, the Belgian Revolution began in Brussels, after a performance of Auber's opera La Muette de Portici at the Royal Theatre of La Monnaie. The city became the capital and seat of government of the new nation. South Brabant was renamed simply Brabant, with Brussels as its administrative centre. On 21 July 1831, Leopold I, the first King of the Belgians, ascended the throne, undertaking the destruction of the city walls and the construction of many buildings. Following independence, Brussels underwent many more changes. It became a financial centre, thanks to the dozens of companies launched by the Société Générale de Belgique. The Industrial Revolution and the opening of the Brussels–Charleroi Canal in 1832 brought prosperity to the city through commerce and manufacturing. The Free University of Brussels was established in 1834 and Saint-Louis University in 1858. In 1835, the first passenger railway built outside England linked the municipality of Molenbeek-Saint-Jean with Mechelen. During the 19th century, the population of Brussels grew considerably; from about 80,000 to more than 625,000 people for the city and its surroundings. The Senne had become a serious health hazard, and from 1867 to 1871, under the tenure of the city's then-mayor, Jules Anspach, its entire course through the urban area was completely covered over. This allowed urban renewal and the construction of modern buildings of Haussmann-esque style along grand central boulevards, characteristic of downtown Brussels today. Buildings such as the Brussels Stock Exchange (1873), the Palace of Justice (1883) and Saint Mary's Royal Church (1885) date from this period. This development continued throughout the reign of King Leopold II. The International Exposition of 1897 contributed to the promotion of the infrastructure. Among other things, the Palace of the Colonies, present-day Royal Museum for Central Africa, in the suburb of Tervuren, was connected to the capital by the construction of an grand alley. Brussels became one of the major European cities for the development of the Art Nouveau style in the 1890s and early 1900s. The architects Victor Horta, Paul Hankar, and Henry van de Velde were known for their designs, many of which survive today. 20th century During the 20th century, the city hosted various fairs and conferences, including the Solvay Conference on Physics and on Chemistry, and three world's fairs: the Brussels International Exposition of 1910, the Brussels International Exposition of 1935 and the 1958 Brussels World's Fair (Expo 58). During World War I, Brussels was an occupied city, but German troops did not cause much damage. During World War II, it was again occupied by German forces, and spared major damage, before it was liberated by the British Guards Armoured Division on 3 September 1944. Brussels Airport, in the suburb of Zaventem, dates from the occupation. After World War II, Brussels underwent extensive modernisation. The construction of the North–South connection, linking the main railway stations in the city, was completed in 1952, while the first premetro (underground tram) service was launched in 1969, and the first Metro line was opened in 1976. Starting from the early 1960s, Brussels became the de facto capital of what would become the European Union (EU), and many modern offices were built. Development was allowed to proceed with little regard to the aesthetics of newer buildings, and numerous architectural landmarks were demolished to make way for newer buildings that often clashed with their surroundings, giving name to the process of Brusselisation. Contemporary The Brussels-Capital Region was formed on 18 June 1989, after a constitutional reform in 1988. It is one of the three federal regions of Belgium, along with Flanders and Wallonia, and has bilingual status. The yellow iris is the emblem of the region (referring to the presence of these flowers on the city's original site) and a stylised version is featured on its official flag. In recent years, Brussels has become an important venue for international events. In 2000, it was named European Capital of Culture alongside eight other European cities. In 2013, the city was the site of the Brussels Agreement. In 2014, it hosted the 40th G7 summit, and in 2017, 2018 and 2021 respectively the 28th, 29th and 31st NATO Summits. On 22 March 2016, three coordinated nail bombings were detonated by ISIL in Brussels—two at Brussels Airport in Zaventem and one at Maalbeek/Maelbeek metro station—resulting in 32 victims and three suicide bombers killed, and 330 people were injured. It was the deadliest act of terrorism in Belgium. Geography Location and topography Brussels lies in the north-central part of Belgium, about from the Belgian coast and about from Belgium's southern tip. It is located in the heartland of the Brabantian Plateau, about south of Antwerp (Flanders), and north of Charleroi (Wallonia). Its average elevation is above sea level, varying from a low point in the valley of the almost completely covered Senne, which cuts the Brussels-Capital Region from east to west, up to high points in the Sonian Forest, on its southeastern side. In addition to the Senne, tributary streams such as the Maalbeek and the Woluwe, to the east of the region, account for significant elevation differences. Brussels' central boulevards are above sea level. Contrary to popular belief, the highest point (at ) is not near the / in Forest, but at the / in the Sonian Forest. Climate Brussels experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb) with warm summers and cool winters. Proximity to coastal areas influences the area's climate by sending marine air masses from the Atlantic Ocean. Nearby wetlands also ensure a maritime temperate climate. On average (based on measurements in the period 1981–2010), there are approximately 135 days of rain per year in the Brussels-Capital Region. Snowfall is infrequent, averaging 24 days per year. The city also often experiences violent thunderstorms in summer months. Brussels as a capital Despite its name, the Brussels-Capital Region is not the capital of Belgium. Article 194 of the Belgian Constitution establishes that the capital of Belgium is the City of Brussels, the municipality in the region that is the city's core. The City of Brussels is the location of many national institutions. The Royal Palace of Brussels, where the King of the Belgians exercises his prerogatives as head of state, is situated alongside Brussels Park (not to be confused with the Royal Palace of Laeken, the official home of the Belgian Royal Family). The Palace of the Nation is located on the opposite side of this park, and is the seat of the Belgian Federal Parliament. The office of the Prime Minister of Belgium, colloquially called Law Street 16 (, ), is located adjacent to this building. It is also where the Council of Ministers holds its meetings. The Court of Cassation, Belgium's main court, has its seat in the Palace of Justice. Other important institutions in the City of Brussels are the Constitutional Court, the Council of State, the Court of Audit, the Royal Belgian Mint and the National Bank of Belgium. The City of Brussels is also the capital of both the French Community of Belgium and the Flemish Community. The Flemish Parliament and Flemish Government have their seats in Brussels, and so do the Parliament of the French Community and the Government of the French Community. Municipalities The 19 municipalities (, ) of the Brussels-Capital Region are political subdivisions with individual responsibilities for the handling of local level duties, such as law enforcement and the upkeep of schools and roads within its borders. Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive. In 1831, Belgium was divided into 2,739 municipalities, including the 19 in the Brussels-Capital Region. Unlike most of the municipalities in Belgium, the ones located in the Brussels-Capital Region were not merged with others during mergers occurring in 1964, 1970, and 1975. However, several municipalities outside the Brussels-Capital Region have been merged with the City of Brussels throughout its history, including Laeken, Haren and Neder-Over-Heembeek in 1921. The largest municipality in area and population is the City of Brussels, covering and with 145,917 inhabitants; the least populous is Koekelberg with 18,541 inhabitants. The smallest in area is Saint-Josse-ten-Noode, which is only , but still has the highest population density in the region, with . Watermael-Boitsfort has the lowest population density in the region, with . There is much controversy on the division of 19 municipalities for a highly urbanised region, which is considered as (half of) one city by most people. Some politicians mock the "19 baronies" and want to merge the municipalities under one city council and one mayor. That would lower the number of politicians needed to govern Brussels, and centralise the power over the city to make decisions easier, thus reduce the overall running costs. The current municipalities could be transformed into districts with limited responsibilities, similar to the current structure of Antwerp or to structures of other capitals like the boroughs in London or arrondissements in Paris, to keep politics close enough to the citizen. In early 2016, Molenbeek-Saint-Jean held a reputation as a safe haven for jihadists in relation to the support shown by some residents towards the bombers who carried out the Paris and Brussels attacks. Brussels-Capital Region Political status The Brussels-Capital Region is one of the three federated regions of Belgium, alongside the Walloon Region and the Flemish Region. Geographically and linguistically, it is a bilingual enclave in the monolingual Flemish Region. Regions are one component of Belgium's institutions; the three communities being the other component. Brussels' inhabitants deal with either the French Community or the Flemish Community for matters such as culture and education, as well as a Common Community for competencies which do not belong exclusively to either Community, such as healthcare and social welfare. Since the split of Brabant in 1995, the Brussels Region does not belong to any of the provinces of Belgium, nor is it subdivided into provinces itself. Within the Region, 99% of the areas of provincial jurisdiction are assumed by the Brussels regional institutions and community commissions. Remaining is only the governor of Brussels-Capital and some aides, analogously to provinces. Its status is roughly akin to that of a federal district. Institutions The Brussels-Capital Region is governed by a parliament of 89 members (72 French-speaking, 17 Dutch-speaking—parties are organised on a linguistic basis) and an eight-member regional cabinet consisting of a minister-president, four ministers and three state secretaries. By law, the cabinet must comprise two French-speaking and two Dutch-speaking ministers, one Dutch-speaking secretary of state and two French-speaking secretaries of state. The minister-president does not count against the language quota, but in practice every minister-president has been a bilingual francophone. The regional parliament can enact ordinances (, ), which have equal status as a national legislative act. Nineteen of the 72 French-speaking members of the Brussels Parliament are also members of the Parliament of the French Community of Belgium, and, until 2004, this was also the case for six Dutch-speaking members, who were at the same time members of the Flemish Parliament. Now, people voting for a Flemish party have to vote separately for 6 directly elected members of the Flemish Parliament. Agglomeration of Brussels Before the creation of the Brussels-Capital Region, regional competences in the 19 municipalities were performed by the Brussels Agglomeration. The Brussels Agglomeration was an administrative division established in 1971. This decentralised administrative public body also assumed jurisdiction over areas which, elsewhere in Belgium, were exercised by municipalities or provinces. The Brussels Agglomeration had a separate legislative council, but the by-laws enacted by it did not have the status of a legislative act. The only election of the council took place on 21 November 1971. The working of the council was subject to many difficulties caused by the linguistic and socio-economic tensions between the two communities. After the creation of the Brussels-Capital Region, the Brussels Agglomeration was never formally abolished, although it no longer has a purpose. French and Flemish communities The French Community and the Flemish Community exercise their powers in Brussels through two community-specific public authorities: the French Community Commission ( or COCOF) and the Flemish Community Commission ( or VGC). These two bodies each have an assembly composed of the members of each linguistic group of the Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region. They also have a board composed of the ministers and secretaries of state of each linguistic group in the Government of the Brussels-Capital Region. The French Community Commission has also another capacity: some legislative powers of the French Community have been devolved to the Walloon Region (for the French language area of Belgium) and to the French Community Commission (for the bilingual language area). The Flemish Community, however, did the opposite; it merged the Flemish Region into the Flemish Community. This is related to different conceptions in the two communities, one focusing more on the Communities and the other more on the Regions, causing an asymmetrical federalism. Because of this devolution, the French Community Commission can enact decrees, which are legislative acts. Common Community Commission A bi-communitarian public authority, the Common Community Commission (, COCOM, , GGC) also exists. Its assembly is composed of the members of the regional parliament, and its board are the ministers—not the secretaries of state—of the region, with the minister-president not having the right to vote. This commission has two capacities: it is a decentralised administrative public body, responsible for implementing cultural policies of common interest. It can give subsidies and enact by-laws. In another capacity, it can also enact ordinances, which have equal status as a national legislative act, in the field of the welfare powers of the communities: in the Brussels-Capital Region, both the French Community and the Flemish Community can exercise powers in the field of welfare, but only in regard to institutions that are unilingual (for example, a private French-speaking retirement home or the Dutch-speaking hospital of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel). The Common Community Commission is responsible for policies aiming directly at private persons or at bilingual institutions (for example, the centres for social welfare of the 19 municipalities). Its ordinances have to be enacted with a majority in both linguistic groups. Failing such a majority, a new vote can be held, where a majority of at least one third in each linguistic group is sufficient. Brussels and the European Union Brussels serves as de facto capital of the European Union (EU), hosting the major political institutions of the Union. The EU has not declared a capital formally, though the Treaty of Amsterdam formally gives Brussels the seat of the European Commission (the executive branch of government) and the Council of the European Union (a legislative institution made up from executives of member states). It locates the formal seat of European Parliament in Strasbourg, where votes take place, with the council, on the proposals made by the commission. However, meetings of political groups and committee groups are formally given to Brussels, along with a set number of plenary sessions. Three quarters of Parliament sessions now take place at its Brussels hemicycle. Between 2002 and 2004, the European Council also fixed its seat in the city. In 2014, the Union hosted a G7 summit in the city. Brussels, along with Luxembourg and Strasbourg, began to host European institutions in 1957, soon becoming the centre of activities, as the Commission and Council based their activities in what has become the European Quarter, in the east of the city. Early building in Brussels was sporadic and uncontrolled, with little planning. The current major buildings are the Berlaymont building of the commission, symbolic of the quarter as a whole, the Europa building of the Council and the Espace Léopold of the Parliament. Today, the presence has increased considerably, with the Commission alone occupying within the European Quarter (a quarter of the total office space in Brussels). The concentration and density has caused concern that the presence of the institutions has created a ghetto effect in that part of the city. However, the European presence has contributed significantly to the importance of Brussels as an international centre. International institutions Brussels has, since World War II, become the administrative centre of many international organisations. The city is the political and administrative centre of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). NATO's Brussels headquarters houses 29 embassies and brings together over 4,500 staff from allied nations, their militaries, and civil service personnel. Many other international organisations such as the World Customs Organization and Eurocontrol, as well as international corporations, have their main institutions in the city. In addition, the main international trade union confederations have their headquarters there: the European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC), the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) and the World Confederation of Labour (WCL). Brussels is third in the number of international conferences it hosts, also becoming one of the largest convention centres in the world. The presence of the EU and the other international bodies has, for example, led to there being more ambassadors and journalists in Brussels than in Washington, D.C. The city hosts 120 international institutions, 181 embassies () and more than 2,500 diplomats, making it the second centre of diplomatic relations in the world (after New York City). International schools have also been established to serve this presence. The "international community" in Brussels numbers at least 70,000 people. In 2009, there were an estimated 286 lobbying consultancies known to work in Brussels. Finally, Brussels has more than 1,400 NGOs. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation The Treaty of Brussels, which was signed on 17 March 1948 between Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, was a prelude to the establishment of the intergovernmental military alliance which later became the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Today, the alliance consists of 29 independent member countries across North America and Europe. Several countries also have diplomatic missions to NATO through embassies in Belgium. Since 1949, a number of NATO Summits have been held in Brussels, the most recent taking place in June 2021. The organisation's political and administrative headquarters are located on the / in Haren, on the north-eastern perimeter of the City of Brussels. A new €750 million headquarters building begun in 2010 and was completed in 2017. Eurocontrol The European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation, commonly known as Eurocontrol, is an international organisation which coordinates and plans air traffic control across European airspace. The corporation was founded in 1960 and has 41 member states. Its headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels. Demographics Population Brussels is located in one of the most urbanised regions of Europe, between Paris, London, the Rhine-Ruhr (Germany), and the Randstad (Netherlands). The Brussels-Capital Region has a population of around 1.2 million and has witnessed, in recent years, a remarkable increase in its population. In general, the population of Brussels is younger than the national average, and the gap between rich and poor is wider. Brussels is the core of a built-up area that extends well beyond the region's limits. Sometimes referred to as the urban area of Brussels (, ) or Greater Brussels (, ), this area extends over a large part of the two Brabant provinces, including much of the surrounding arrondissement of Halle-Vilvoorde and some small parts of the arrondissement of Leuven in Flemish Brabant, as well as the northern part of Walloon Brabant. The metropolitan area of Brussels is divided into three levels. Firstly, the central agglomeration (within the regional borders), with a population of 1,218,255 inhabitants. Adding the closest suburbs (, ) gives a total population of 1,831,496. Including the outer commuter zone (Brussels Regional Express Network (RER/GEN) area), the population is 2,676,701. Brussels is also part of a wider diamond-shaped conurbation, with Ghent, Antwerp and Leuven, which has about 4.4 million inhabitants (a little more than 40% of the Belgium's total population). Nationalities There have been numerous migrations towards Brussels since the end of the 18th century, when the city acted as a common destination for political refugees from neighbouring or more distant countries, particularly France. From 1871, many of the Paris Communards fled to Brussels, where they received political asylum. Other notable international exiles living in Brussels at the time included Victor Hugo, Karl Marx, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Georges Boulanger, and Léon Daudet, to name a few. Attracted by the industrial opportunities, many workers moved in, first from the other Belgian provinces (mainly rural residents from Flanders) and France, then from Southern European, and more recently from Eastern European and African countries. Nowadays, Brussels is home to a large number of immigrants and émigré communities, as well as labour migrants, former foreign students or expatriates, and many Belgian families in Brussels can claim at least one foreign grandparent. At the last Belgian census in 1991, 63.7% of inhabitants in Brussels-Capital Region answered that they were Belgian citizens, born as such in Belgium, indicating that more than a third of residents had not been born in the country. According to Statbel (the Belgian Statistical Office), in 2020, taking into account the nationality of birth of the parents, 74.3% of the population of the Brussels-Capital Region was of foreign origin and 41.8% was of non-European origin (including 28.7% of African origin). Among those aged under 18, 88% were of foreign origin and 57% of non-European origin (including 42.4% of African origin). This large concentration of immigrants and their descendants includes many of Moroccan (mainly Riffian and other Berbers) and Turkish ancestry, together with French-speaking black Africans from former Belgian colonies, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi. Many immigrants were naturalised following the great 1991 reform of the naturalisation process. In 2012, about 32% of city residents were of non-Belgian European origin (mainly expatriates from France, Romania, Italy, Spain, Poland, and Portugal) and 36% were of another background, mostly from Morocco, Turkey and Sub-Saharan Africa. Among all major migrant groups from outside the EU, a majority of the permanent residents have acquired Belgian nationality. Languages Brussels was historically Dutch-speaking, using the Brabantian dialect, but over the two past centuries French has become the predominant language of the city. The main cause of this transition was the rapid assimilation of the local Flemish population, amplified by immigration from France and Wallonia. The rise of French in public life gradually began by the end of the 18th century, quickly accelerating after Belgian independence. Dutch — of which standardisation in Belgium was still very weak — could not compete with French, which was the exclusive language of the judiciary, the administration, the army, education, cultural life and the media, and thus necessary for social mobility. The value and prestige of the French language was universally acknowledged to such an extent that after 1880, and more particularly after the turn of the 20th century, proficiency in French among Dutch-speakers in Brussels increased spectacularly. Although a majority of the population remained bilingual until the second half of the 20th century, family transmission of the historic Brabantian dialect declined, leading to an increase of monolingual French-speakers from 1910 onwards. From the mid-20th century, the number of monolingual French-speakers surpassed the number of mostly bilingual Flemish inhabitants. This process of assimilation weakened after the 1960s, as the language border was fixed, the status of Dutch as an official language of Belgium was reinforced, and the economic centre of gravity shifted northward to Flanders. However, with the continuing arrival of immigrants and the post-war emergence of Brussels as a centre of international politics, the relative position of Dutch continued to decline. Furthermore, as Brussels' urban area expanded, a further number of Dutch-speaking municipalities in the Brussels periphery also became predominantly French-speaking. This phenomenon of expanding Francisation — dubbed "oil slick" by its opponents — is, together with the future of Brussels, one of the most controversial topics in Belgian politics. Today, the Brussels-Capital Region is legally bilingual, with both French and Dutch having official status, as is the administration of the 19 municipalities. The creation of this bilingual, full-fledged region, with its own competencies and jurisdiction, had long been hampered by different visions of Belgian federalism. Nevertheless, some communitarian issues remain. Flemish political parties demanded, for decades, that the Flemish part of Brussels-Halle-Vilvoorde (BHV) arrondissement be separated from the Brussels Region (which made Halle-Vilvoorde a monolingual Flemish electoral and judicial district). BHV was divided mid-2012. The French-speaking population regards the language border as artificial and demands the extension of the bilingual region to at least all six municipalities with language facilities in the surroundings of Brussels. Flemish politicians have strongly rejected these proposals. Owing to migration and to its international role, Brussels is home to a large number of native speakers of languages other than French or Dutch. Currently, about half of the population speaks a home language other than these two. In 2013, academic research showed that approximately 17% of families spoke none of the official languages in the home, while in a further 23% a foreign language was used alongside French. The share of unilingual French-speaking families had fallen to 38% and that of Dutch-speaking families to 5%, while the percentage of bilingual Dutch-French families reached 17%. At the same time, French remains widely spoken: in 2013, French was spoken "well to perfectly" by 88% of the population, while for Dutch this percentage was only 23% (down from 33% in 2000); the other most commonly known languages were English (30%), Arabic (18%), Spanish (9%), German (7%) and Italian and Turkish (5% each). Despite the rise of English as a second language in Brussels, including as an unofficial compromise language between French and Dutch, as well as the working language for some of its international businesses and institutions, French remains the lingua franca and all public services are conducted exclusively in French or Dutch. The original dialect of Brussels (known as Brusselian, and also sometimes referred to as Marols or Marollien), a form of Brabantic (the variant of Dutch spoken in the ancient Duchy of Brabant) with a significant number of loanwords from French, still survives among a small minority of inhabitants called Brusseleers (or Brusseleirs), many of them quite bi- and multilingual, or educated in French and not writing in Dutch. The ethnic and national self-identification of Brussels' inhabitants is nonetheless sometimes quite distinct from the French and Dutch-speaking communities. For the French-speakers, it can vary from Francophone Belgian, (French demonym for an inhabitant of Brussels), Walloon (for people who migrated from the Walloon Region at an adult age); for Flemings living in Brussels, it is mainly either Dutch-speaking Belgian, Flemish or (Dutch demonym for an inhabitant), and often both. For the Brusseleers, many simply consider themselves as belonging to Brussels. Religions Historically, Brussels has been predominantly Roman Catholic, especially since the expulsion of Protestants in the 16th century. This is clear from the large number of historical churches in the region, particularly in the City of Brussels. The pre-eminent Catholic cathedral in Brussels is the Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula, serving as the co-cathedral of the Archdiocese of Mechelen–Brussels. On the north-western side of the region, the National Basilica of the Sacred Heart is a Minor Basilica and parish church, as well as one of the largest churches by area in the world. The Church of Our Lady of Laeken holds the tombs of many members of the Belgian Royal Family, including all the former Belgian monarchs, within the Royal Crypt. In reflection of its multicultural makeup, Brussels hosts a variety of religious communities, as well as large numbers of atheists and agnostics. Minority faiths include Islam, Anglicanism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Judaism, and Buddhism. According to a 2016 survey, approximately 40% of residents of Brussels declared themselves Catholics (12% were practising Catholics and 28% were non-practising Catholics), 30% were non-religious, 23% were Muslim (19% practising, 4% non-practising), 3% were Protestants and 4% were of another religion. As guaranteed by Belgian law, recognised religions and non-religious philosophical organisations (, ) enjoy public funding and school courses. It was once the case that every pupil in an official school from 6 to 18 years old had to choose two hours per week of compulsory religious—or non-religious-inspired morals—courses. However, in 2015, the Belgian Constitutional Court ruled religious studies could no longer be required in the primary and secondary educational systems. Brussels has a large concentration of Muslims, mostly of Moroccan, Turkish, Syrian and Guinean ancestry. The Great Mosque of Brussels, located in the Parc du Cinquantenaire/Jubelpark, is the oldest mosque in Brussels. Belgium does not collect statistics by ethnic background or religious beliefs, so exact figures are unknown. It was estimated that, in 2005, people of Muslim background living in the Brussels Region numbered 256,220 and accounted for 25.5% of the city's population, a much higher concentration than those of the other regions of Belgium. Culture Architecture The architecture in Brussels is diverse, and spans from the clashing combination of Gothic, Baroque, and Louis XIV styles on the Grand-Place to the postmodern buildings of the EU institutions. Very little medieval architecture is preserved in Brussels. Buildings from that period are mostly found in the historical centre (called ), Saint Géry/Sint-Goriks and / neighbourhoods. The Brabantine Gothic Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula remains a prominent feature in the skyline of downtown Brussels. Isolated portions of the first city walls were saved from destruction and can be seen to this day. One of the only remains of the second walls is the Halle Gate. The Grand-Place is the main attraction in the city centre and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1998. The square is dominated by the 15th century Flamboyant Town Hall, the neo-Gothic Breadhouse and the Baroque guildhalls of the former Guilds of Brussels. Manneken Pis, a fountain containing a small bronze sculpture of a urinating youth, is a tourist attraction and symbol of the city. The neoclassical style of the 18th and 19th centuries is represented in the Royal Quarter/Coudenberg area, around Brussels Park and the Place Royale/Koningsplein. Examples include the Royal Palace, the Church of St. James on Coudenberg, the Palace of the Nation (Parliament building), the Academy Palace, the Palace of Charles of Lorraine, the Palace of the Count of Flanders and the Egmont Palace. Other uniform neoclassical ensembles can be found around the Place des Martyrs/Martelaarsplein and the /. Some additional landmarks in the centre are the Royal Saint-Hubert Galleries (1847), one of the oldest covered shopping arcades in Europe, the Congress Column (1859), the former Brussels Stock Exchange building (1873) and the Palace of Justice (1883). The latter, designed by Joseph Poelaert, in eclectic style, is reputed to be the largest building constructed in the 19th century. Located outside the historical centre, in a greener environment bordering the European Quarter, are the Parc du Cinquantenaire/Jubelpark with its memorial arcade and nearby museums, and in Laeken, the Royal Palace of Laeken and the Royal Domain with its large greenhouses, as well as the Museums of the Far East. Also particularly striking are the buildings in the Art Nouveau style, most famously by the Belgian architects Victor Horta, Paul Hankar and Henry Van de Velde. Some of Brussels' municipalities, such as Schaerbeek, Etterbeek, Ixelles, and Saint-Gilles, were developed during the heyday of Art Nouveau and have many buildings in that style. The Major Town Houses of the Architect Victor Horta—Hôtel Tassel (1893), Hôtel Solvay (1894), Hôtel van Eetvelde (1895) and the Horta Museum (1901)—have been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2000. Another example of Brussels' Art Nouveau is the Stoclet Palace (1911), by the Viennese architect Josef Hoffmann, designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in June 2009. Art Deco structures in Brussels include the Résidence Palace (1927) (now part of the Europa building), the Centre for Fine Arts (1928), the Villa Empain (1934), the Town Hall of Forest (1938), and the Flagey Building (formerly known as the Maison de la Radio) on the Place Eugène Flagey/Eugène Flageyplein (1938) in Ixelles. Some religious buildings from the interwar era were also constructed in that style, such as the Church of St. John the Baptist (1932) in Molenbeek and the Church of St. Augustine (1935) in Forest. Completed only in 1969, and combining Art Deco with neo-Byzantine elements, the Basilica of the Sacred Heart in Koekelberg is one of the largest churches by area in the world, and its cupola provides a panoramic view of Brussels and its outskirts. Another example are the exhibition halls of the Centenary Palace, built for the 1935 World's Fair on the Heysel/Heizel Plateau in northern Brussels, home to the Brussels Exhibition Centre (Brussels Expo). The Atomium is a symbolic modernist structure, located on the Heysel Plateau, which was originally built for the 1958 World's Fair (Expo 58). It consists of nine steel spheres connected by tubes, and forms a model of an iron crystal (specifically, a unit cell), magnified 165 billion times. The architect André Waterkeyn devoted the building to science. It is now considered a landmark of Brussels. Next to the Atomium, is Mini-Europe miniature park, with 1:25 scale maquettes of famous buildings from across Europe. Since the second half of the 20th century, modern office towers have been built in Brussels (Madou Tower, Rogier Tower, Proximus Towers, Finance Tower, the World Trade Center, among others). There are some thirty towers, mostly concentrated in the city's main business district: the Northern Quarter (also called Little Manhattan), near Brussels-North railway station. The South Tower, standing adjacent to Brussels-South railway station, is the tallest building in Belgium, at . Along the North–South connection, is the State Administrative City, an administrative complex in the International Style. The postmodern buildings of the Espace Léopold complete the picture. The city's embrace of modern architecture translated into an ambivalent approach towards historic preservation, leading to the destruction of notable architectural landmarks, most famously the Maison du Peuple/Volkshuis by Victor Horta, a process known as Brusselisation. Arts Brussels contains over 80 museums. The Royal Museums of Fine Arts has an extensive collection of various painters, such as Flemish old masters like Bruegel, Rogier van der Weyden, Robert Campin, Anthony van Dyck, Jacob Jordaens, and Peter Paul Rubens. The Magritte Museum houses the world's largest collection of the works of the surrealist René Magritte. Museums dedicated to the national history of Belgium include the BELvue Museum, the Royal Museums of Art and History, and the Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History. The Musical Instruments Museum (MIM), housed in the Old England building, is part of the Royal Museums of Art and History, and is internationally renowned for its collection of over 8,000 instruments. The Brussels Museums Council is an independent body for all the museums in the Brussels-Capital Region, covering around 100 federal, private, municipal, and community museums. It promotes member museums through the Brussels Card (giving access to public transport and 30 of the 100 museums), the Brussels Museums Nocturnes (every Thursday from 5 p.m. to 10 p.m. from mid-September to mid-December) and the Museum Night Fever (an event for and by young people on a Saturday night in late February or early March). Brussels has had a distinguished artist scene for many years. The famous Belgian surrealists René Magritte and Paul Delvaux, for instance, studied and lived there, as did the avant-garde dramatist Michel de Ghelderode. The city was also home of the impressionist painter Anna Boch from the artists' group Les XX, and includes other famous Belgian painters such as Léon Spilliaert. Brussels is also a capital of the comic strip; some treasured Belgian characters are Tintin, Lucky Luke, The Smurfs, Spirou, Gaston, Marsupilami, Blake and Mortimer, Boule et Bill and Cubitus (see Belgian comics). Throughout the city, walls are painted with large motifs of comic book characters; these murals taken together are known as Brussels' Comic Book Route. Also, the interiors of some Metro stations are designed by artists. The Belgian Comic Strip Center combines two artistic leitmotifs of Brussels, being a museum devoted to Belgian comic strips, housed in the former Magasins Waucquez textile department store, designed by Victor Horta in the Art Nouveau style. In addition, street art is changing the landscape of this multicultural city. Brussels is well known for its performing arts scene, with the Royal Theatre of La Monnaie, the Royal Park Theatre, the Théâtre Royal des Galeries and the Kaaitheater among the most notable institutions. The Kunstenfestivaldesarts, an international performing arts festival, is organised every year in May in about twenty different cultural houses and theatres throughout the city. The King Baudouin Stadium is a concert and competition facility with a 50,000 seat capacity, the largest in Belgium. The site was formerly occupied by the Heysel Stadium. The Center for Fine Arts (often referred to as BOZAR in French or PSK in Dutch), a multi-purpose centre for theatre, cinema, music, literature and art exhibitions, is home to the National Orchestra of Belgium and to the annual Queen Elisabeth Competition for classical singers and instrumentalists, one of the most challenging and prestigious competitions of the kind. Studio 4 in Le Flagey cultural centre hosts the Brussels Philharmonic. Other concert venues include Forest National/Vorst Nationaal, the Ancienne Belgique, the Cirque Royal/Koninklijk Circus, the Botanique and Palais 12/Paleis 12. Furthermore, the Jazz Station in Saint-Josse-ten-Noode is a museum and archive on jazz, and a venue for jazz concerts. Folklore Brussels' identity owes much to its rich folklore and traditions, among the liveliest in the country. The Ommegang, a folkloric costumed procession, commemorating the Joyous Entry of Emperor Charles V and his son Philip II in the city in 1549, takes place every year in July. The colourful parade includes floats, traditional processional giants, such as Saint Michael and Saint Gudula, and scores of folkloric groups, either on foot or on horseback, dressed in medieval garb. The parade ends in a pageant on the Grand-Place. Since 2019, it is recognised as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. The Meyboom, an even-older folk tradition of Brussels (1308), celebrating the "May tree"—in fact, a corruption of the Dutch tree of joy—takes place paradoxically on 9 August. After parading a young beech in the city, it is planted in a joyful spirit with lots of music, Brusseleir songs, and processional giants. It was also recognised as an expression of intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO, as part of the bi-national inscription "Processional giants and dragons in Belgium and France". The celebration is reminiscent of the town's long-standing (folkloric) feud with Leuven, which dates back to the Middle Ages. Another good introduction to the Brusseleir local dialect and way of life can be obtained at the Royal Theatre Toone, a folkloric theatre of marionettes, located a stone's throw away from the Grand-Place. The Saint-Verhaegen (often shortened to St V), a folkloric student procession, celebrating the anniversary of the founding of the (ULB) and the (VUB), is held on 20 November. Cultural events and festivals Many events are organised or hosted in Brussels throughout the year. In addition, many festivals animate the Brussels scene. The Iris Festival is the official festival of the Brussels-Capital Region and is held annually in spring. The International Fantastic Film Festival of Brussels (BIFFF) is organised during the Easter holidays and the Magritte Awards in February. The Festival of Europe, an open day and activities in and around the institutions of the European Union, is held on 9 May. On Belgian National Day, on 21 July, a military parade and celebrations take place on the / and in Brussels Park, ending with a display of fireworks in the evening. Some summer festivities include Couleur Café Festival, a festival of world and urban music, around the end of June or early July, the Brussels Summer Festival (BSF), a music festival in August, the Brussels Fair, the most important yearly fair in Brussels, lasting more than a month, in July and August, and Brussels Beach, when the banks of the canal are turned into a temporary urban beach. Other biennial events are the Zinneke Parade, a colourful, multicultural parade through the city, which has been held since 2000 in May, as well as the popular Flower Carpet at the Grand-Place in August. Heritage Days are organised on the third weekend of September (sometimes coinciding with the car-free day) and are a good opportunity to discover the wealth of buildings, institutions and real estate in Brussels. The "Winter Wonders" animate the heart of Brussels in December; these winter activities were launched in Brussels in 2001. Cuisine Brussels is well known for its local waffle, its chocolate, its French fries and its numerous types of beers. The Brussels sprout, which has long been popular in Brussels, and may have originated there, is also named after the city. The gastronomic offer includes approximately 1,800 restaurants (including three 2-starred and ten 1-starred Michelin restaurants), and a number of bars. In addition to the traditional restaurants, there are many cafés, bistros and the usual range of international fast food chains. The cafés are similar to bars, and offer beer and light dishes; coffee houses are called (literally "tea salons"). Also widespread are brasseries, which usually offer a variety of beers and typical national dishes. Belgian cuisine is known among connoisseurs as one of the best in Europe. It is characterised by the combination of French cuisine with the more hearty Flemish fare. Notable specialities include Brussels waffles (gaufres) and mussels (usually as moules-frites, served with fries). The city is a stronghold of chocolate and praline manufacturers with renowned companies like Côte d'Or, Neuhaus, Leonidas and Godiva. Pralines were first introduced in 1912 by Jean Neuhaus II, a Belgian chocolatier of Swiss origin, in the Royal Saint-Hubert Galleries. Numerous friteries are spread throughout the city, and in tourist areas, fresh hot waffles are also sold on the street. As well as other Belgian beers, the spontaneously fermented lambic style, brewed in and around Brussels, is widely available there and in the nearby Senne valley where the wild yeasts that ferment it have their origin. Kriek, a cherry lambic, is available in almost every bar or restaurant in Brussels. Brussels is known as the birthplace of the Belgian endive. The technique for growing blanched endives was accidentally discovered in the 1850s at the Botanical Garden of Brussels in Saint-Josse-ten-Noode. Shopping Famous shopping areas in Brussels include the pedestrian-only Rue Neuve/Nieuwstraat, the second busiest shopping street in Belgium (after the Meir, in Antwerp) with a weekly average of 230,000 visitors, home to popular international chains (H&M, C&A, Zara, Primark), as well as the City 2 and Anspach galleries. The Royal Saint-Hubert Galleries hold a variety of luxury shops and some six million people stroll through them each year. The neighbourhood around the / has become, in recent years, a focal point for fashion and design; this main street and its side streets also feature Belgium's young and most happening artistic talent. In Ixelles, the / and the Namur Gate area offer a blend of luxury shops, fast food restaurants and entertainment venues, and the /, in the mainly-Congolese Matongé district, offers a great taste of African fashion and lifestyle. The nearby Avenue Louise/Louizalaan is lined with high-end fashion stores and boutiques, making it one of the most expensive streets in Belgium. There are shopping centres outside the inner ring: Basilix, Woluwe Shopping Center, Westland Shopping Center, and Docks Bruxsel, which opened in October 2017. In addition, Brussels ranks as one of Europe's best capital cities for flea market shopping. The Old Market, on the Place du Jeu de Balle/Vossenplein, in the Marolles/Marollen neighbourhood, is particularly renowned. The nearby Sablon/Zavel area is home to many of Brussels' antique dealers. The Midi Market around Brussels-South station and the / is reputed to be one of the largest markets in Europe. Sports Sport in Brussels is under the responsibility of the Communities. The (ADEPS) is responsible for recognising the various French-speaking sports federations and also runs three sports centres in the Brussels-Capital Region. Its Dutch-speaking counterpart is (formerly called BLOSO). The King Baudouin Stadium (formerly the Heysel Stadium) is the largest in the country and home to the national teams in football and rugby union. It hosted the final of the 1972 UEFA European Football Championship, and the opening game of the 2000 edition. Several European club finals have been held at the ground, including the 1985 European Cup Final which saw 39 deaths due to hooliganism and structural collapse. The King Baudouin Stadium is also home of the annual Memorial Van Damme athletics event, Belgium's foremost track and field competition, which is part of the Diamond League. Other important athletics events are the Brussels Marathon and the 20 km of Brussels, an annual run with 30,000 participants. Cycling Brussels is home to notable cycling races. The city is the arrival location of the Brussels Cycling Classic, formerly known as Paris–Brussels, which is one of the oldest semi classic bicycle races on the international calendar. From World War I until the early 1970s, the Six Days of Brussels was organised regularly. In the last decades of the 20th century, the Grand Prix Eddy Merckx was also held in Brussels. Association football R.S.C. Anderlecht, based in the Constant Vanden Stock Stadium in Anderlecht, is the most successful Belgian football club in the Belgian Pro League, with 34 titles. It has also won the most major European tournaments for a Belgian side, with 6 European titles. Brussels is also home to Union Saint-Gilloise, the most successful Belgian club before World War II, with 11 titles. The club was founded in Saint-Gilles but is based in nearby Forest, and plays in the Belgian Pro League. Racing White Daring Molenbeek, based in Molenbeek-Saint-Jean, and often referred to as RWDM, is a very popular football club that, since 2023, is back playing in the Belgian Pro League. Other Brussels clubs that played in the national series over the years were Royal White Star Bruxelles, Ixelles SC, Crossing Club de Schaerbeek (born from a merger between RCS de Schaerbeek and Crossing Club Molenbeek), Scup Jette, RUS de Laeken, Racing Jet de Bruxelles, AS Auderghem, KV Wosjot Woluwe and FC Ganshoren. Economy Serving as the centre of administration for Belgium and Europe, Brussels' economy is largely service-oriented. It is dominated by regional and world headquarters of multinationals, by European institutions, by various local and federal administrations, and by related services companies, though it does have a number of notable craft industries, such as the Cantillon Brewery, a lambic brewery founded in 1900. Brussels has a robust economy. The region contributes to one fifth of Belgium's GDP, and its 550,000 jobs account for 17.7% of Belgium's employment. Its GDP per capita is nearly double that of Belgium as a whole, and it has the highest GDP per capita of any NUTS 1 region in the EU, at ~$80,000 in 2016. That being said, the GDP is boosted by a massive inflow of commuters from neighbouring regions; over half of those who work in Brussels live in Flanders or Wallonia, with 230,000 and 130,000 commuters per day respectively. Conversely, only 16.0% of people from Brussels work outside Brussels (68,827 (68.5%) of them in Flanders and 21,035 (31.5%) in Wallonia). Not all of the wealth generated in Brussels remains in Brussels itself, and , the unemployment among residents of Brussels is 20.4%. There are approximately 50,000 businesses in Brussels, of which around 2,200 are foreign. This number is constantly increasing and can well explain the role of Brussels in Europe. The city's infrastructure is very favourable in terms of starting up a new business. House prices have also increased in recent years, especially with the increase of young professionals settling down in Brussels, making it the most expensive city to live in Belgium. In addition, Brussels holds more than 1,000 business conferences annually, making it the ninth most popular conference city in Europe. Brussels is rated as the 34th most important financial centre in the world as of 2020, according to the Global Financial Centres Index. The Brussels Stock Exchange, abbreviated to BSE, now called Euronext Brussels, is part of the European stock exchange Euronext, along with Paris Bourse, Lisbon Stock Exchange and Amsterdam Stock Exchange. Its benchmark stock market index is the BEL20. Media Brussels is a centre of both media and communications in Belgium, with many Belgian television stations, radio stations, newspapers and telephone companies having their headquarters in the region. The French-language public broadcaster RTBF, the Dutch-language public broadcaster VRT, the two regional channels BX1 (formerly Télé Bruxelles) and Bruzz (formerly TV Brussel), the encrypted BeTV channel and private channels RTL-TVI and VTM are headquartered in Brussels. Some national newspapers such as Le Soir, La Libre, De Morgen and the news agency Belga are based in or around Brussels. The Belgian postal company bpost, as well as the telecommunication companies and mobile operators Proximus, Orange Belgium and Telenet are all located there. As English is spoken widely, several English media organisations operate in Brussels. The most popular of these are the English-language daily news media platform and bi-monthly magazine The Brussels Times and the quarterly magazine and website The Bulletin. The multilingual pan-European news channel Euronews also maintains an office in Brussels. Education Tertiary education There are several universities in Brussels. Except for the Royal Military Academy, a federal military college established in 1834, all universities in Brussels are private and autonomous. The Royal Military Academy also the only Belgian university organised on the boarding school model. The Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), a French-speaking university, with about 20,000 students, has three campuses in the city, and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), its Dutch-speaking sister university, has about 10,000 students. Both universities originate from a single ancestor university, founded in 1834, namely the Free University of Brussels, which was split in 1970, at about the same time the Flemish and French Communities gained legislative power over the organisation of higher education. Saint-Louis University, Brussels (also known as UCLouvain Saint-Louis – Bruxelles) was founded in 1858 and is specialised in social and human sciences, with 4,000 students, and located on two campuses in the City of Brussels and Ixelles. From September 2018 on, the university uses the name UCLouvain, together with the Catholic University of Louvain, in the context of a merger between both universities. Still other universities have campuses in Brussels, such as the French-speaking Catholic University of Louvain (UCLouvain), which has 10,000 students in the city with its medical faculties at UCLouvain Bruxelles Woluwe since 1973, in addition to its Faculty of Architecture, Architectural Engineering and Urban Planning and UCLouvain's Dutch-speaking sister Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KU Leuven) (offering bachelor's and master's degrees in economics & business, law, arts, and architecture; 4,400 students). In addition, the University of Kent's Brussels School of International Studies is a specialised postgraduate school offering advanced international studies. Also a dozen of university colleges are located in Brussels, including two drama schools, founded in 1832: the French-speaking Conservatoire Royal and its Dutch-speaking equivalent, the Koninklijk Conservatorium. Primary and secondary education Most of Brussels pupils between the ages of 3 and 18 go to schools organised by the French-speaking Community or the Flemish Community, with close to 80% going to French-speaking schools, and roughly 20% to Dutch-speaking schools. Due to the post-war international presence in the city, there are also a number of international schools, including the International School of Brussels, with 1,450 pupils, between the ages of and 18, the British School of Brussels, and the four European Schools, which provide free education for the children of those working in the EU institutions. The combined student population of the four European Schools in Brussels is around 10,000. Libraries Brussels has a number of public or private-owned libraries on its territory. Most public libraries in Brussels fall under the competence of the Communities and are usually separated between French-speaking and Dutch-speaking institutions, although some are mixed. The Royal Library of Belgium (KBR) is the national library of Belgium and one of the most prestigious libraries in the world. It owns several collections of historical importance, like the famous Fétis archives, and is the depository for all books ever published in Belgium or abroad by Belgian authors. It is located on the Mont des Arts/Kunstberg in central Brussels, near the Central Station. There are several academic libraries and archives in Brussels. The libraries of the Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB) and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) constitute the largest ensemble of university libraries in the city. In addition to the Solbosch location, there are branches in La Plaine and Erasme/Erasmus. Other academic libraries include those of Saint-Louis University, Brussels and the Catholic University of Louvain (UCLouvain). Science and technology Science and technology in Brussels is well developed with the presence of several universities and research institutes. The Brussels-Capital Region is home to several national science and technology institutes including the National Fund for Scientific Research (NFSR), the Institute for the Encouragement of Scientific Research and Innovation of Brussels (ISRIB), the Royal Academies for Science and the Arts of Belgium (RASAB) and the Belgian Academy Council of Applied Sciences (BACAS). Several science parks associated with the universities are also spread over the region. The Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, located in Leopold Park, houses the world's largest hall completely dedicated to dinosaurs, with its collection of 30 fossilised Iguanodon skeletons. In addition, the Planetarium of the Royal Observatory of Belgium (part of the institutions of the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office), on the Heysel Plateau in Laeken, is one of the largest in Europe. Healthcare Brussels is home to a thriving pharmaceutical and health care industry which includes pioneering biotechnology research. The health sector employs 70,000 employees in 30,000 companies. There are 3,000 life sciences researchers in the city and two large science parks: Da Vinci Research Park and Erasmus Research Park. There are five university hospitals, a military hospital and more than 40 general hospitals and specialist clinics. Due to its bilingual nature, hospitals in the Brussels-Capital Region can be either monolingual French, monolingual Dutch, or bilingual, depending on their nature. University hospitals belong to one of the two linguistic communities and are thus monolingual French or Dutch by law. Other hospitals managed by a public authority must be legally bilingual. Private hospitals are legally not bound to either language, but most cater to both. However, all hospital emergency services in the Capital Region (whether part of a public or private hospital) are required to be bilingual, since patients transported by emergency ambulance cannot choose the hospital they will be brought to. Transport Brussels has an extensive network of both private or public transportation means. Public transportation includes Brussels buses, trams, and metro (all three operated by the Brussels Intercommunal Transport Company (STIB/MIVB)), as well as a set of railway lines (operated by Infrabel) and railway stations served by public trains (operated by the National Railway Company of Belgium (NMBS/SNCB)). Air transport is available via one of the city's two airports (Brussels Airport and Brussels South Charleroi Airport), and boat transport is available via the Port of Brussels. Bicycle-sharing and car-sharing public systems are also available. The complexity of the Belgian political landscape makes some transportation issues difficult to solve. The Brussels-Capital Region is surrounded by the Flemish and Walloon regions, which means that the airports, as well as many roads serving Brussels (most notably the Brussels Ring) are located in the other two Belgian regions. The city is relatively car-dependent by northern European standards and is considered to be the most congested city in the world according to the INRIX traffic survey. Air The Brussels-Capital Region is served by two airports, both located outside of the administrative territory of the region. The most notable is Brussels Airport, located in the nearby Flemish municipality of Zaventem, east of the capital, which can be accessed by highway (A201), train and bus. The secondary airport is Brussels South Charleroi Airport, located in Gosselies, a part of the city of Charleroi (Wallonia), some south-west of Brussels, which can be accessed by highway (E19 then E420) or a private bus. There is also Melsbroek Air Base, located in Steenokkerzeel, a military airport which shares its infrastructure with Brussels Airport. The aforementioned airports are also the main airports of Belgium. Water Since the 16th century, Brussels has had its own harbour, the Port of Brussels. It has been enlarged throughout the centuries to become the second Belgian inland port. Historically situated near the /, it lies today to the north-west of the region, on the Brussels–Scheldt Maritime Canal (commonly called Willebroek Canal), which connects Brussels to Antwerp via the Scheldt. Ships and large barges up to can penetrate deep into the country, avoiding break-ups and load transfers between Antwerp and the centre of Brussels, hence reducing the cost for companies using the canal, and thus offering a competitive advantage. Moreover, the connection of the Willebroek Canal with the Brussels–Charleroi Canal, in the very heart of the capital, creates a north–south link, by means of waterways, between the Netherlands, Flanders and the industrial zone of Hainaut (Wallonia). There, navigation can access the network of French canals, thanks to the important inclined plane of Ronquières and the lifts of Strépy-Bracquegnies. The importance of river traffic in Brussels makes it possible to avoid the road equivalent of 740,000 trucks per year—almost 2,000 per day—which, in addition to easing traffic problems, represents an estimated carbon dioxide saving of per year. Train The Brussels-Capital Region has three main train stations: Brussels-South, Brussels-Central and Brussels-North, which are also the busiest of the country. Brussels-South is also served by direct high-speed rail links: to London by Eurostar trains via the Channel Tunnel (1hr 51min); to Amsterdam by Thalys and InterCity connections; to Amsterdam, Paris (1hr 50min and 1hr 25min respectively ), and Cologne by Thalys; and to Cologne (1hr 50min) and Frankfurt (2hr 57min) by the German ICE. The train rails in Brussels go underground, near the centre, through the North–South connection, with Brussels Central Station also being largely underground. The tunnel itself is only six tracks wide at its narrowest point, which often causes congestion and delays due to heavy use of the route. The City of Brussels has minor railway stations at Bockstael, Brussels-Chapel, Brussels-Congres, Brussels-Luxembourg, Brussels-Schuman, Brussels-West, Haren, Haren-South and Simonis. In the Brussels Region, there are also railways stations at Berchem-Sainte-Agathe, Boitsfort, Boondael, Bordet (Evere), Etterbeek, Evere, Forest-East, Forest-South, Jette, Meiser (Schaerbeek), Moensberg (Uccle), Saint-Job (Uccle), Schaarbeek, Uccle-Calevoet, Uccle-Stalle, Vivier d'Oie-Diesdelle (Uccle), Merode and Watermael. Public transport The Brussels Intercommunal Transport Company (STIB/MIVB) is the local public transport operator in Brussels. It covers the 19 municipalities of the Brussels-Capital Region and some surface routes extend to the near suburbs in the other two regions, linking with the De Lijn network in Flanders and the TEC network in Wallonia. Metro, trams and buses The Brussels Metro dates back to 1976, but underground lines known as the premetro have been serviced by tramways since 1968. It is the only rapid transit system in Belgium (Antwerp and Charleroi both having light rail systems). The network consists of four conventional metro lines and three premetro lines. The metro-grade lines are M1, M2, M5, and M6, with some shared sections, covering a total of . , the Metro network within the region has a total of 69 metro and premetro stations. The Metro is an important means of transport, connecting with six railway stations of the National Railway Company of Belgium (NMBS/SNCB), and many tram and bus stops operated by STIB/MIVB, and with Flemish De Lijn and Walloon TEC bus stops. A comprehensive bus and tram network covers the region. , the Brussels tram system consists of 17 tram lines (three of which – lines T3, T4 and T7 – qualify as premetro lines that partly travel over underground sections that were intended to be eventually converted into metro lines). The total route length is , making it one of the largest tram networks in Europe. The Brussels bus network is complementary to the rail network. It consists of 50 bus routes and 11 night routes, spanning . Since April 2007, STIB/MIVB has also been operating a night bus network called Noctis on Friday and Saturday nights from midnight until 3 a.m. The service consists of 11 routes (N04, N05, N06, N08, N09, N10, N11, N12, N13, N16 and N18). The fare on these night buses is the same as during the day. All the lines leave from the Place de la Bourse/Beursplein in the city centre at 30 minutes intervals and cover all the main streets in the capital, as they radiate outwards to the suburbs. Noctis services returned from 2 July 2021 after over a year of disruption due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium. Ticketing MoBIB is the STIB/MIVB electronic smart card, introduced in 2007, replacing the discontinued paper tickets. The hourly travel fare includes all means of transport (metro, tram and bus) operated by STIB/MIVB. Each trip has a different cost depending on the type of support purchased. Passengers can purchase monthly passes, yearly passes, 1 and 10-trip tickets and daily and 3-day passes. These can be bought over the Internet, but require customers to have a smart card reader. GO vending machines accept coins, local and international chip and PIN credit and debit cards. Moreover, a complimentary interticketing system means that a combined STIB/MIVB ticket holder can, depending on the option, also use the train network operated by NMBS/SNCB and/or long-distance buses and commuter services operated by De Lijn or TEC. With this ticket, a single journey can include multiple stages across the different modes of transport and networks. Other public transport Since 2003, Brussels has had a car-sharing service operated by the Bremen company Cambio, in partnership with STIB/MIVB and the local ridesharing company Taxi Stop. In 2006, a public bicycle-sharing programme was introduced. The scheme was subsequently taken over by Villo!. Since 2008, this night-time public transport service has been supplemented by Collecto, a shared taxi system, which operates on weekdays between 11 p.m. and 6 a.m. In 2012, the Zen Car electric car-sharing scheme was launched in the university and European areas. Road network In medieval times, Brussels stood at the intersection of routes running north–south (the modern /) and east–west (/–/–/). The ancient pattern of streets, radiating from the Grand-Place, in large part remains, but has been overlaid by boulevards built over the river Senne, over the city walls and over the railway connection between the North and South Stations. Today, Brussels has the most congested traffic in North America and Europe, according to US traffic information platform INRIX. Brussels is the hub of a range of national roads, the main ones being clockwise: the N1 (N to Breda), N2 (E to Maastricht), N3 (E to Aachen), N4 (SE to Luxembourg), N5 (S to Rheims), N6 (S to Maubeuge), N7 (SW to Lille), N8 (W to Koksijde) and N9 (NW to Ostend). Usually named /, these highways normally run in a straight line, but sometimes lose themselves in a maze of narrow shopping streets. The region is skirted by the European route E19 (N-S) and the E40 (E-W), while the E411 leads away to the SE. Brussels has an orbital motorway, numbered R0 (R-zero) and commonly referred to as the Ring. It is pear-shaped, as the southern side was never built as originally conceived, owing to residents' objections. The city centre, sometimes known as the Pentagon, is surrounded by an inner ring road, the Small Ring (, ), a sequence of boulevards formally numbered R20 or N0. These were built upon the site of the second set of city walls following their demolition. The Metro line 2 runs under much of these. Since June 2015, a number of central boulevards inside the Pentagon have become car-free, limiting transit traffic through the old city. On the eastern side of the region, the R21 or Greater Ring (, ) is formed by a string of boulevards that curves round from Laeken to Uccle. Some premetro stations (see Brussels Metro) were built on that route. A little further out, a stretch numbered R22 leads from Zaventem to Saint-Job. Security and emergency services Police The Brussels local police, supported by the federal police, is responsible for law enforcement in Brussels. The 19 municipalities of the Brussels-Capital Region are divided into six police zones, all bilingual (French and Dutch): 5339 Brussels Capital Ixelles: the City of Brussels and Ixelles 5340 Brussels West: Berchem-Sainte-Agathe, Ganshoren, Jette, Koekelberg and Molenbeek-Saint-Jean 5341 South: Anderlecht, Forest and Saint-Gilles 5342 Uccle/Watermael-Boitsfort/Auderghem: Auderghem, Uccle and Watermael-Boitsfort 5343 Montgomery: Etterbeek, Woluwe-Saint-Lambert and Woluwe-Saint-Pierre 5344 Polbruno: Evere, Saint-Josse-ten-Noode and Schaerbeek Fire department The Brussels Fire and Emergency Medical Care Service, commonly known by its acronym SIAMU (DBDMH), operates in the 19 municipalities of Brussels. It is a class X fire department and the largest fire service in Belgium in terms of annual operations, equipment, and personnel. It has 9 fire stations, spread over the entire Brussels-Capital Region, and employs about 1,000 professional firefighters. As well as preventing and fighting fires, SIAMU also provides emergency medical care services in Brussels via its centralised 100 number (and the single 112 emergency number for the 27 countries of the European Union). It is bilingual (French–Dutch). Parks and green spaces Brussels is one of the greenest capitals in Europe, with over 8,000 hectares of green spaces. Vegetation cover and natural areas are higher in the outskirts, where they have limited the peri-urbanisation of the capital, but they decrease sharply towards the centre of Brussels; 10% in the central Pentagon, 30% of the municipalities in the first ring, and 71% of the municipalities in the second ring are occupied by green spaces. Many parks and gardens, both public and privately owned, are scattered throughout the city. In addition to this, the Sonian Forest is located in its southern part and stretches out over the three Belgian regions. , it has been inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the only Belgian component to the multinational inscription 'Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe'. Notable people Twin towns – sister cities Brussels is twinned with the following cities: Atlanta, United States Beijing, China Berlin, Germany Breda, Netherlands Casablanca, Morocco Kinshasa, Congo Kyiv, Ukraine Macao, China Madrid, Spain Ljubljana, Slovenia Prague, Czech Republic Washington, D.C., United States See also Bourgeois of Brussels Brussels Regional Investment Company Outline of Belgium Seven Noble Houses of Brussels Statue of Europe List of urban areas in the European Union Dielegembos References Footnotes Notes Bibliography External links Brussels-Capital Region Official tourism website Interactive map Brabant Regions of Belgium Regions of Europe with multiple official languages Enclaves and exclaves French-speaking countries and territories Autonomous regions NUTS 1 statistical regions of the European Union Populated places established in the 1st millennium
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Brussels", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Brussels ( or ; ), officially the Brussels-Capital Region (; ), is a region of Belgium comprising 19 municipalities, including the City of Brussels, which is the capital of Belgium. The Brussels-Capital Region is located in the central portion of the country and is a part of both the French Community of Belgium and the Flemish Community, but is separate from the Flemish Region (within which it forms an enclave) and the Walloon Region.\n\nBrussels is the most densely populated region in Belgium, and although it has the highest GDP per capita, it has the lowest available income per household. The Brussels Region covers , a relatively small area compared to the two other regions, and has a population of over 1.2 million. The five times larger metropolitan area of Brussels comprises over 2.5 million people, which makes it the largest in Belgium. It is also part of a large conurbation extending towards the cities of Ghent, Antwerp, and Leuven and the province of Walloon Brabant, in total home to over 5 million people.\n\nBrussels grew from a small rural settlement on the river Senne to become an important city-region in Europe. Since the end of the Second World War, it has been a major centre for international politics and home to numerous international organisations, politicians, diplomats and civil servants. Brussels is the de facto capital of the European Union, as it hosts a number of principal EU institutions, including its administrative-legislative, executive-political, and legislative branches (though the judicial branch is located in Luxembourg, and the European Parliament meets for a minority of the year in Strasbourg). Because of this, its name is sometimes used metonymically to describe the EU and its institutions. The secretariat of the Benelux and the headquarters of NATO are also located in Brussels.\n\nAs the economic capital of Belgium and a top financial centre of Western Europe with Euronext Brussels, Brussels is classified as an Alpha global city. It is also a national and international hub for rail, road and air traffic, and are sometimes considered, together with Belgium, as the geographic, economic and cultural crossroads of Europe. The Brussels Metro is the only rapid transit system in Belgium. In addition, both its airport and railway stations are the largest and busiest in the country.\n\t\nHistorically Dutch-speaking, Brussels saw a language shift to French from the late 19th century. Nowadays, the Brussels-Capital Region is officially bilingual in French and Dutch, although French is the majority language and lingua franca with over 90% of the inhabitants being able to speak it. Brussels is also increasingly becoming multilingual. English is spoken as a second language by nearly a third of the population and many migrants and expatriates speak other languages as well.\n\nBrussels is known for its cuisine and gastronomic offer (including its local waffle, its chocolate, its French fries and its numerous types of beers), as well as its historical and architectural landmarks; some of them are registered as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Principal attractions include its historic Grand-Place/Grote Markt (main square), Manneken Pis, the Atomium, and cultural institutions such as La Monnaie/De Munt and the Museums of Art and History. Due to its long tradition of Belgian comics, Brussels is also hailed as a capital of the comic strip.\n\nToponymy\n\nEtymology\nThe most common theory of the origin of the name Brussels is that it derives from the Old Dutch , or , meaning ( / ) and ( / / ) or . Saint Vindicianus, the Bishop of Cambrai, made the first recorded reference to the place in 695, when it was still a hamlet. The names of all the municipalities in the Brussels-Capital Region are also of Dutch origin, except for Evere, which is Celtic.\n\nPronunciation\nIn French, is pronounced (the x is pronounced , like in English, and the final s is silent) and in Dutch, is pronounced . Inhabitants of Brussels are known in French as (pronounced ) and in Dutch as (pronounced ). In the Brabantian dialect of Brussels (known as Brusselian, and also sometimes referred to as Marols or Marollien), they are called Brusseleers or Brusseleirs.\n\nOriginally, the written x noted the group . In the Belgian French pronunciation as well as in Dutch, the k eventually disappeared and z became s, as reflected in the current Dutch spelling, whereas in the more conservative French form, the spelling remained. The pronunciation in French only dates from the 18th century, but this modification did not affect the traditional Brussels usage. In France, the pronunciations and (for ) are often heard, but are rather rare in Belgium.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly history\n\nThe history of Brussels is closely linked to that of Western Europe. Traces of human settlement go back to the Stone Age, with vestiges and place-names related to the civilisation of megaliths, dolmens and standing stones (Plattesteen near the Grand-Place/Grote Markt and Tomberg in Woluwe-Saint-Lambert, for example). During late antiquity, the region was home to Roman occupation, as attested by archaeological evidence discovered on the current site of Tour & Taxis, north-west of the Pentagon (Brussels' city centre). Following the decline of the Western Roman Empire, it was incorporated into the Frankish Empire.\n\nAccording to local legend, the origin of the settlement which was to become Brussels lies in Saint Gaugericus' construction of a chapel on an island in the river Senne around 580. The official founding of Brussels is usually said to be around 979, when Duke Charles of Lower Lorraine transferred the relics of the martyr Saint Gudula from Moorsel (located in today's province of East Flanders) to Saint Gaugericus' chapel. When King Lothair II appointed the same Charles (his brother) to become Duke of Lower Lotharingia in 977, Charles ordered the construction of the city's first permanent fortification, doing so on that same island.\n\nMiddle Ages\nLambert I of Leuven, Count of Leuven, gained the County of Brussels around 1000, by marrying Charles' daughter. Because of its location on the banks of the Senne, on an important trade route between Bruges and Ghent, and Cologne, Brussels became a commercial centre specialised in the textile trade. The town grew quite rapidly and extended towards the upper town (Treurenberg, Coudenberg and Sablon/Zavel areas), where there was a smaller risk of floods. As it grew to a population of around 30,000, the surrounding marshes were drained to allow for further expansion. Around this time, work began on what is now the Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula (1225), replacing an older Romanesque church. In 1183, the Counts of Leuven became Dukes of Brabant. Brabant, unlike the county of Flanders, was not fief of the king of France but was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire.\n\nIn the early 13th century, the first walls of Brussels were built, and after this, the city grew significantly. To let the city expand, a second set of walls was erected between 1356 and 1383. Traces of these walls can still be seen, although the Small Ring, a series of boulevards bounding the historical city centre, follows their former course.\n\nEarly modern\n\nIn the 15th century, the marriage between heiress Margaret III of Flanders and Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, produced a new Duke of Brabant of the House of Valois, namely Antoine, their son. In 1477, the Burgundian duke Charles the Bold perished in the Battle of Nancy. Through the marriage of his daughter Mary of Burgundy (who was born in Brussels) to Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, the Low Countries fell under Habsburg sovereignty. Brabant was integrated into this composite state, and Brussels flourished as the Princely Capital of the prosperous Burgundian Netherlands, also known as the Seventeen Provinces. After the death of Mary in 1482, her son Philip the Handsome succeeded as Duke of Burgundy and Brabant.\n\nPhilip died in 1506, and he was succeeded by his son Charles V who then also became King of Spain (crowned in the Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula) and even Holy Roman Emperor at the death of his grandfather Maximilian I in 1519. Charles was now the ruler of a Habsburg Empire \"on which the sun never sets\" with Brussels serving as one of his main capitals. It was in the Coudenberg Palace that Charles V was declared of age in 1515, and it was there in 1555 that he abdicated all of his possessions and passed the Habsburg Netherlands to King Philip II of Spain. This palace, famous all over Europe, had greatly expanded since it had first become the seat of the Dukes of Brabant, but it was destroyed by fire in 1731.\n\nIn the 16th and 17th centuries, Brussels was a centre for the lace industry. In addition, Brussels tapestry hung on the walls of castles throughout Europe. In 1695, during the Nine Years' War, King Louis XIV of France sent troops to bombard Brussels with artillery. Together with the resulting fire, it was the most destructive event in the entire history of Brussels. The Grand-Place was destroyed, along with 4,000 buildings—a third of all the buildings in the city. The reconstruction of the city centre, effected during subsequent years, profoundly changed its appearance and left numerous traces still visible today.\n\nFollowing the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, Spanish sovereignty over the Southern Netherlands was transferred to the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg. This event started the era of the Austrian Netherlands. Brussels was captured by France in 1746, during the War of the Austrian Succession, but was handed back to Austria three years later. It remained with Austria until 1795, when the Southern Netherlands were captured and annexed by France, and the city became the capital of the department of the Dyle. The French rule ended in 1815, with the defeat of Napoleon on the battlefield of Waterloo, located south of today's Brussels-Capital Region. With the Congress of Vienna, the Southern Netherlands joined the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, under King William I of Orange. The former Dyle department became the province of South Brabant, with Brussels as its capital.\n\nLate modern\n\nIn 1830, the Belgian Revolution began in Brussels, after a performance of Auber's opera La Muette de Portici at the Royal Theatre of La Monnaie. The city became the capital and seat of government of the new nation. South Brabant was renamed simply Brabant, with Brussels as its administrative centre. On 21 July 1831, Leopold I, the first King of the Belgians, ascended the throne, undertaking the destruction of the city walls and the construction of many buildings.\n\nFollowing independence, Brussels underwent many more changes. It became a financial centre, thanks to the dozens of companies launched by the Société Générale de Belgique. The Industrial Revolution and the opening of the Brussels–Charleroi Canal in 1832 brought prosperity to the city through commerce and manufacturing. The Free University of Brussels was established in 1834 and Saint-Louis University in 1858. In 1835, the first passenger railway built outside England linked the municipality of Molenbeek-Saint-Jean with Mechelen.\n\nDuring the 19th century, the population of Brussels grew considerably; from about 80,000 to more than 625,000 people for the city and its surroundings. The Senne had become a serious health hazard, and from 1867 to 1871, under the tenure of the city's then-mayor, Jules Anspach, its entire course through the urban area was completely covered over. This allowed urban renewal and the construction of modern buildings of Haussmann-esque style along grand central boulevards, characteristic of downtown Brussels today. Buildings such as the Brussels Stock Exchange (1873), the Palace of Justice (1883) and Saint Mary's Royal Church (1885) date from this period. This development continued throughout the reign of King Leopold II. The International Exposition of 1897 contributed to the promotion of the infrastructure. Among other things, the Palace of the Colonies, present-day Royal Museum for Central Africa, in the suburb of Tervuren, was connected to the capital by the construction of an grand alley.\n\nBrussels became one of the major European cities for the development of the Art Nouveau style in the 1890s and early 1900s. The architects Victor Horta, Paul Hankar, and Henry van de Velde were known for their designs, many of which survive today.\n\n20th century\n\nDuring the 20th century, the city hosted various fairs and conferences, including the Solvay Conference on Physics and on Chemistry, and three world's fairs: the Brussels International Exposition of 1910, the Brussels International Exposition of 1935 and the 1958 Brussels World's Fair (Expo 58). During World War I, Brussels was an occupied city, but German troops did not cause much damage. During World War II, it was again occupied by German forces, and spared major damage, before it was liberated by the British Guards Armoured Division on 3 September 1944. Brussels Airport, in the suburb of Zaventem, dates from the occupation.\n\nAfter World War II, Brussels underwent extensive modernisation. The construction of the North–South connection, linking the main railway stations in the city, was completed in 1952, while the first premetro (underground tram) service was launched in 1969, and the first Metro line was opened in 1976. Starting from the early 1960s, Brussels became the de facto capital of what would become the European Union (EU), and many modern offices were built. Development was allowed to proceed with little regard to the aesthetics of newer buildings, and numerous architectural landmarks were demolished to make way for newer buildings that often clashed with their surroundings, giving name to the process of Brusselisation.\n\nContemporary\nThe Brussels-Capital Region was formed on 18 June 1989, after a constitutional reform in 1988. It is one of the three federal regions of Belgium, along with Flanders and Wallonia, and has bilingual status. The yellow iris is the emblem of the region (referring to the presence of these flowers on the city's original site) and a stylised version is featured on its official flag.\n\nIn recent years, Brussels has become an important venue for international events. In 2000, it was named European Capital of Culture alongside eight other European cities. In 2013, the city was the site of the Brussels Agreement. In 2014, it hosted the 40th G7 summit, and in 2017, 2018 and 2021 respectively the 28th, 29th and 31st NATO Summits.\n\nOn 22 March 2016, three coordinated nail bombings were detonated by ISIL in Brussels—two at Brussels Airport in Zaventem and one at Maalbeek/Maelbeek metro station—resulting in 32 victims and three suicide bombers killed, and 330 people were injured. It was the deadliest act of terrorism in Belgium.\n\nGeography\n\nLocation and topography\n\nBrussels lies in the north-central part of Belgium, about from the Belgian coast and about from Belgium's southern tip. It is located in the heartland of the Brabantian Plateau, about south of Antwerp (Flanders), and north of Charleroi (Wallonia). Its average elevation is above sea level, varying from a low point in the valley of the almost completely covered Senne, which cuts the Brussels-Capital Region from east to west, up to high points in the Sonian Forest, on its southeastern side. In addition to the Senne, tributary streams such as the Maalbeek and the Woluwe, to the east of the region, account for significant elevation differences. Brussels' central boulevards are above sea level. Contrary to popular belief, the highest point (at ) is not near the / in Forest, but at the / in the Sonian Forest.\n\nClimate\nBrussels experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb) with warm summers and cool winters. Proximity to coastal areas influences the area's climate by sending marine air masses from the Atlantic Ocean. Nearby wetlands also ensure a maritime temperate climate. On average (based on measurements in the period 1981–2010), there are approximately 135 days of rain per year in the Brussels-Capital Region. Snowfall is infrequent, averaging 24 days per year. The city also often experiences violent thunderstorms in summer months.\n\nBrussels as a capital\nDespite its name, the Brussels-Capital Region is not the capital of Belgium. Article 194 of the Belgian Constitution establishes that the capital of Belgium is the City of Brussels, the municipality in the region that is the city's core.\n\nThe City of Brussels is the location of many national institutions. The Royal Palace of Brussels, where the King of the Belgians exercises his prerogatives as head of state, is situated alongside Brussels Park (not to be confused with the Royal Palace of Laeken, the official home of the Belgian Royal Family). The Palace of the Nation is located on the opposite side of this park, and is the seat of the Belgian Federal Parliament. The office of the Prime Minister of Belgium, colloquially called Law Street 16 (, ), is located adjacent to this building. It is also where the Council of Ministers holds its meetings. The Court of Cassation, Belgium's main court, has its seat in the Palace of Justice. Other important institutions in the City of Brussels are the Constitutional Court, the Council of State, the Court of Audit, the Royal Belgian Mint and the National Bank of Belgium.\n\nThe City of Brussels is also the capital of both the French Community of Belgium and the Flemish Community. The Flemish Parliament and Flemish Government have their seats in Brussels, and so do the Parliament of the French Community and the Government of the French Community.\n\nMunicipalities\n\nThe 19 municipalities (, ) of the Brussels-Capital Region are political subdivisions with individual responsibilities for the handling of local level duties, such as law enforcement and the upkeep of schools and roads within its borders. Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive.\n\nIn 1831, Belgium was divided into 2,739 municipalities, including the 19 in the Brussels-Capital Region. Unlike most of the municipalities in Belgium, the ones located in the Brussels-Capital Region were not merged with others during mergers occurring in 1964, 1970, and 1975. However, several municipalities outside the Brussels-Capital Region have been merged with the City of Brussels throughout its history, including Laeken, Haren and Neder-Over-Heembeek in 1921.\n\nThe largest municipality in area and population is the City of Brussels, covering and with 145,917 inhabitants; the least populous is Koekelberg with 18,541 inhabitants. The smallest in area is Saint-Josse-ten-Noode, which is only , but still has the highest population density in the region, with . Watermael-Boitsfort has the lowest population density in the region, with .\n\nThere is much controversy on the division of 19 municipalities for a highly urbanised region, which is considered as (half of) one city by most people. Some politicians mock the \"19 baronies\" and want to merge the municipalities under one city council and one mayor. That would lower the number of politicians needed to govern Brussels, and centralise the power over the city to make decisions easier, thus reduce the overall running costs. The current municipalities could be transformed into districts with limited responsibilities, similar to the current structure of Antwerp or to structures of other capitals like the boroughs in London or arrondissements in Paris, to keep politics close enough to the citizen.\n\nIn early 2016, Molenbeek-Saint-Jean held a reputation as a safe haven for jihadists in relation to the support shown by some residents towards the bombers who carried out the Paris and Brussels attacks.\n\nBrussels-Capital Region\n\nPolitical status\nThe Brussels-Capital Region is one of the three federated regions of Belgium, alongside the Walloon Region and the Flemish Region. Geographically and linguistically, it is a bilingual enclave in the monolingual Flemish Region. Regions are one component of Belgium's institutions; the three communities being the other component. Brussels' inhabitants deal with either the French Community or the Flemish Community for matters such as culture and education, as well as a Common Community for competencies which do not belong exclusively to either Community, such as healthcare and social welfare.\n\nSince the split of Brabant in 1995, the Brussels Region does not belong to any of the provinces of Belgium, nor is it subdivided into provinces itself. Within the Region, 99% of the areas of provincial jurisdiction are assumed by the Brussels regional institutions and community commissions. Remaining is only the governor of Brussels-Capital and some aides, analogously to provinces. Its status is roughly akin to that of a federal district.\n\nInstitutions\n\nThe Brussels-Capital Region is governed by a parliament of 89 members (72 French-speaking, 17 Dutch-speaking—parties are organised on a linguistic basis) and an eight-member regional cabinet consisting of a minister-president, four ministers and three state secretaries. By law, the cabinet must comprise two French-speaking and two Dutch-speaking ministers, one Dutch-speaking secretary of state and two French-speaking secretaries of state. The minister-president does not count against the language quota, but in practice every minister-president has been a bilingual francophone. The regional parliament can enact ordinances (, ), which have equal status as a national legislative act.\n\nNineteen of the 72 French-speaking members of the Brussels Parliament are also members of the Parliament of the French Community of Belgium, and, until 2004, this was also the case for six Dutch-speaking members, who were at the same time members of the Flemish Parliament. Now, people voting for a Flemish party have to vote separately for 6 directly elected members of the Flemish Parliament.\n\nAgglomeration of Brussels\nBefore the creation of the Brussels-Capital Region, regional competences in the 19 municipalities were performed by the Brussels Agglomeration. The Brussels Agglomeration was an administrative division established in 1971. This decentralised administrative public body also assumed jurisdiction over areas which, elsewhere in Belgium, were exercised by municipalities or provinces.\n\nThe Brussels Agglomeration had a separate legislative council, but the by-laws enacted by it did not have the status of a legislative act. The only election of the council took place on 21 November 1971. The working of the council was subject to many difficulties caused by the linguistic and socio-economic tensions between the two communities.\n\nAfter the creation of the Brussels-Capital Region, the Brussels Agglomeration was never formally abolished, although it no longer has a purpose.\n\nFrench and Flemish communities\n\nThe French Community and the Flemish Community exercise their powers in Brussels through two community-specific public authorities: the French Community Commission ( or COCOF) and the Flemish Community Commission ( or VGC). These two bodies each have an assembly composed of the members of each linguistic group of the Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region. They also have a board composed of the ministers and secretaries of state of each linguistic group in the Government of the Brussels-Capital Region.\n\nThe French Community Commission has also another capacity: some legislative powers of the French Community have been devolved to the Walloon Region (for the French language area of Belgium) and to the French Community Commission (for the bilingual language area). The Flemish Community, however, did the opposite; it merged the Flemish Region into the Flemish Community. This is related to different conceptions in the two communities, one focusing more on the Communities and the other more on the Regions, causing an asymmetrical federalism. Because of this devolution, the French Community Commission can enact decrees, which are legislative acts.\n\nCommon Community Commission\nA bi-communitarian public authority, the Common Community Commission (, COCOM, , GGC) also exists. Its assembly is composed of the members of the regional parliament, and its board are the ministers—not the secretaries of state—of the region, with the minister-president not having the right to vote. This commission has two capacities: it is a decentralised administrative public body, responsible for implementing cultural policies of common interest. It can give subsidies and enact by-laws. In another capacity, it can also enact ordinances, which have equal status as a national legislative act, in the field of the welfare powers of the communities: in the Brussels-Capital Region, both the French Community and the Flemish Community can exercise powers in the field of welfare, but only in regard to institutions that are unilingual (for example, a private French-speaking retirement home or the Dutch-speaking hospital of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel). The Common Community Commission is responsible for policies aiming directly at private persons or at bilingual institutions (for example, the centres for social welfare of the 19 municipalities). Its ordinances have to be enacted with a majority in both linguistic groups. Failing such a majority, a new vote can be held, where a majority of at least one third in each linguistic group is sufficient.\n\nBrussels and the European Union\n\nBrussels serves as de facto capital of the European Union (EU), hosting the major political institutions of the Union. The EU has not declared a capital formally, though the Treaty of Amsterdam formally gives Brussels the seat of the European Commission (the executive branch of government) and the Council of the European Union (a legislative institution made up from executives of member states). It locates the formal seat of European Parliament in Strasbourg, where votes take place, with the council, on the proposals made by the commission. However, meetings of political groups and committee groups are formally given to Brussels, along with a set number of plenary sessions. Three quarters of Parliament sessions now take place at its Brussels hemicycle. Between 2002 and 2004, the European Council also fixed its seat in the city. In 2014, the Union hosted a G7 summit in the city.\n\nBrussels, along with Luxembourg and Strasbourg, began to host European institutions in 1957, soon becoming the centre of activities, as the Commission and Council based their activities in what has become the European Quarter, in the east of the city. Early building in Brussels was sporadic and uncontrolled, with little planning. The current major buildings are the Berlaymont building of the commission, symbolic of the quarter as a whole, the Europa building of the Council and the Espace Léopold of the Parliament. Today, the presence has increased considerably, with the Commission alone occupying within the European Quarter (a quarter of the total office space in Brussels). The concentration and density has caused concern that the presence of the institutions has created a ghetto effect in that part of the city. However, the European presence has contributed significantly to the importance of Brussels as an international centre.\n\nInternational institutions\nBrussels has, since World War II, become the administrative centre of many international organisations. The city is the political and administrative centre of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). NATO's Brussels headquarters houses 29 embassies and brings together over 4,500 staff from allied nations, their militaries, and civil service personnel. Many other international organisations such as the World Customs Organization and Eurocontrol, as well as international corporations, have their main institutions in the city. In addition, the main international trade union confederations have their headquarters there: the European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC), the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) and the World Confederation of Labour (WCL).\n\nBrussels is third in the number of international conferences it hosts, also becoming one of the largest convention centres in the world. The presence of the EU and the other international bodies has, for example, led to there being more ambassadors and journalists in Brussels than in Washington, D.C. The city hosts 120 international institutions, 181 embassies () and more than 2,500 diplomats, making it the second centre of diplomatic relations in the world (after New York City). International schools have also been established to serve this presence. The \"international community\" in Brussels numbers at least 70,000 people. In 2009, there were an estimated 286 lobbying consultancies known to work in Brussels. Finally, Brussels has more than 1,400 NGOs.\n\nNorth Atlantic Treaty Organisation\n\nThe Treaty of Brussels, which was signed on 17 March 1948 between Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, was a prelude to the establishment of the intergovernmental military alliance which later became the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Today, the alliance consists of 29 independent member countries across North America and Europe. Several countries also have diplomatic missions to NATO through embassies in Belgium. Since 1949, a number of NATO Summits have been held in Brussels, the most recent taking place in June 2021. The organisation's political and administrative headquarters are located on the / in Haren, on the north-eastern perimeter of the City of Brussels. A new €750 million headquarters building begun in 2010 and was completed in 2017.\n\nEurocontrol\n\nThe European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation, commonly known as Eurocontrol, is an international organisation which coordinates and plans air traffic control across European airspace. The corporation was founded in 1960 and has 41 member states. Its headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels.\n\nDemographics\n\nPopulation\n\nBrussels is located in one of the most urbanised regions of Europe, between Paris, London, the Rhine-Ruhr (Germany), and the Randstad (Netherlands). The Brussels-Capital Region has a population of around 1.2 million and has witnessed, in recent years, a remarkable increase in its population. In general, the population of Brussels is younger than the national average, and the gap between rich and poor is wider.\n\nBrussels is the core of a built-up area that extends well beyond the region's limits. Sometimes referred to as the urban area of Brussels (, ) or Greater Brussels (, ), this area extends over a large part of the two Brabant provinces, including much of the surrounding arrondissement of Halle-Vilvoorde and some small parts of the arrondissement of Leuven in Flemish Brabant, as well as the northern part of Walloon Brabant.\n\nThe metropolitan area of Brussels is divided into three levels. Firstly, the central agglomeration (within the regional borders), with a population of 1,218,255 inhabitants. Adding the closest suburbs (, ) gives a total population of 1,831,496. Including the outer commuter zone (Brussels Regional Express Network (RER/GEN) area), the population is 2,676,701. Brussels is also part of a wider diamond-shaped conurbation, with Ghent, Antwerp and Leuven, which has about 4.4 million inhabitants (a little more than 40% of the Belgium's total population).\n\nNationalities\n\nThere have been numerous migrations towards Brussels since the end of the 18th century, when the city acted as a common destination for political refugees from neighbouring or more distant countries, particularly France. From 1871, many of the Paris Communards fled to Brussels, where they received political asylum. Other notable international exiles living in Brussels at the time included Victor Hugo, Karl Marx, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Georges Boulanger, and Léon Daudet, to name a few. Attracted by the industrial opportunities, many workers moved in, first from the other Belgian provinces (mainly rural residents from Flanders) and France, then from Southern European, and more recently from Eastern European and African countries.\n\nNowadays, Brussels is home to a large number of immigrants and émigré communities, as well as labour migrants, former foreign students or expatriates, and many Belgian families in Brussels can claim at least one foreign grandparent. At the last Belgian census in 1991, 63.7% of inhabitants in Brussels-Capital Region answered that they were Belgian citizens, born as such in Belgium, indicating that more than a third of residents had not been born in the country. According to Statbel (the Belgian Statistical Office), in 2020, taking into account the nationality of birth of the parents, 74.3% of the population of the Brussels-Capital Region was of foreign origin and 41.8% was of non-European origin (including 28.7% of African origin). Among those aged under 18, 88% were of foreign origin and 57% of non-European origin (including 42.4% of African origin).\n\nThis large concentration of immigrants and their descendants includes many of Moroccan (mainly Riffian and other Berbers) and Turkish ancestry, together with French-speaking black Africans from former Belgian colonies, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi. Many immigrants were naturalised following the great 1991 reform of the naturalisation process. In 2012, about 32% of city residents were of non-Belgian European origin (mainly expatriates from France, Romania, Italy, Spain, Poland, and Portugal) and 36% were of another background, mostly from Morocco, Turkey and Sub-Saharan Africa. Among all major migrant groups from outside the EU, a majority of the permanent residents have acquired Belgian nationality.\n\nLanguages\n\nBrussels was historically Dutch-speaking, using the Brabantian dialect, but over the two past centuries French has become the predominant language of the city. The main cause of this transition was the rapid assimilation of the local Flemish population, amplified by immigration from France and Wallonia. The rise of French in public life gradually began by the end of the 18th century, quickly accelerating after Belgian independence. Dutch — of which standardisation in Belgium was still very weak — could not compete with French, which was the exclusive language of the judiciary, the administration, the army, education, cultural life and the media, and thus necessary for social mobility. The value and prestige of the French language was universally acknowledged to such an extent that after 1880, and more particularly after the turn of the 20th century, proficiency in French among Dutch-speakers in Brussels increased spectacularly.\n\nAlthough a majority of the population remained bilingual until the second half of the 20th century, family transmission of the historic Brabantian dialect declined, leading to an increase of monolingual French-speakers from 1910 onwards. From the mid-20th century, the number of monolingual French-speakers surpassed the number of mostly bilingual Flemish inhabitants. This process of assimilation weakened after the 1960s, as the language border was fixed, the status of Dutch as an official language of Belgium was reinforced, and the economic centre of gravity shifted northward to Flanders. However, with the continuing arrival of immigrants and the post-war emergence of Brussels as a centre of international politics, the relative position of Dutch continued to decline. Furthermore, as Brussels' urban area expanded, a further number of Dutch-speaking municipalities in the Brussels periphery also became predominantly French-speaking. This phenomenon of expanding Francisation — dubbed \"oil slick\" by its opponents — is, together with the future of Brussels, one of the most controversial topics in Belgian politics.\n\nToday, the Brussels-Capital Region is legally bilingual, with both French and Dutch having official status, as is the administration of the 19 municipalities. The creation of this bilingual, full-fledged region, with its own competencies and jurisdiction, had long been hampered by different visions of Belgian federalism. Nevertheless, some communitarian issues remain. Flemish political parties demanded, for decades, that the Flemish part of Brussels-Halle-Vilvoorde (BHV) arrondissement be separated from the Brussels Region (which made Halle-Vilvoorde a monolingual Flemish electoral and judicial district). BHV was divided mid-2012. The French-speaking population regards the language border as artificial and demands the extension of the bilingual region to at least all six municipalities with language facilities in the surroundings of Brussels. Flemish politicians have strongly rejected these proposals.\n\nOwing to migration and to its international role, Brussels is home to a large number of native speakers of languages other than French or Dutch. Currently, about half of the population speaks a home language other than these two. In 2013, academic research showed that approximately 17% of families spoke none of the official languages in the home, while in a further 23% a foreign language was used alongside French. The share of unilingual French-speaking families had fallen to 38% and that of Dutch-speaking families to 5%, while the percentage of bilingual Dutch-French families reached 17%. At the same time, French remains widely spoken: in 2013, French was spoken \"well to perfectly\" by 88% of the population, while for Dutch this percentage was only 23% (down from 33% in 2000); the other most commonly known languages were English (30%), Arabic (18%), Spanish (9%), German (7%) and Italian and Turkish (5% each). Despite the rise of English as a second language in Brussels, including as an unofficial compromise language between French and Dutch, as well as the working language for some of its international businesses and institutions, French remains the lingua franca and all public services are conducted exclusively in French or Dutch.\n\nThe original dialect of Brussels (known as Brusselian, and also sometimes referred to as Marols or Marollien), a form of Brabantic (the variant of Dutch spoken in the ancient Duchy of Brabant) with a significant number of loanwords from French, still survives among a small minority of inhabitants called Brusseleers (or Brusseleirs), many of them quite bi- and multilingual, or educated in French and not writing in Dutch. The ethnic and national self-identification of Brussels' inhabitants is nonetheless sometimes quite distinct from the French and Dutch-speaking communities. For the French-speakers, it can vary from Francophone Belgian, (French demonym for an inhabitant of Brussels), Walloon (for people who migrated from the Walloon Region at an adult age); for Flemings living in Brussels, it is mainly either Dutch-speaking Belgian, Flemish or (Dutch demonym for an inhabitant), and often both. For the Brusseleers, many simply consider themselves as belonging to Brussels.\n\nReligions\n\nHistorically, Brussels has been predominantly Roman Catholic, especially since the expulsion of Protestants in the 16th century. This is clear from the large number of historical churches in the region, particularly in the City of Brussels. The pre-eminent Catholic cathedral in Brussels is the Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula, serving as the co-cathedral of the Archdiocese of Mechelen–Brussels. On the north-western side of the region, the National Basilica of the Sacred Heart is a Minor Basilica and parish church, as well as one of the largest churches by area in the world. The Church of Our Lady of Laeken holds the tombs of many members of the Belgian Royal Family, including all the former Belgian monarchs, within the Royal Crypt.\n\nIn reflection of its multicultural makeup, Brussels hosts a variety of religious communities, as well as large numbers of atheists and agnostics. Minority faiths include Islam, Anglicanism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Judaism, and Buddhism. According to a 2016 survey, approximately 40% of residents of Brussels declared themselves Catholics (12% were practising Catholics and 28% were non-practising Catholics), 30% were non-religious, 23% were Muslim (19% practising, 4% non-practising), 3% were Protestants and 4% were of another religion.\n\nAs guaranteed by Belgian law, recognised religions and non-religious philosophical organisations (, ) enjoy public funding and school courses. It was once the case that every pupil in an official school from 6 to 18 years old had to choose two hours per week of compulsory religious—or non-religious-inspired morals—courses. However, in 2015, the Belgian Constitutional Court ruled religious studies could no longer be required in the primary and secondary educational systems.\n\nBrussels has a large concentration of Muslims, mostly of Moroccan, Turkish, Syrian and Guinean ancestry. The Great Mosque of Brussels, located in the Parc du Cinquantenaire/Jubelpark, is the oldest mosque in Brussels. Belgium does not collect statistics by ethnic background or religious beliefs, so exact figures are unknown. It was estimated that, in 2005, people of Muslim background living in the Brussels Region numbered 256,220 and accounted for 25.5% of the city's population, a much higher concentration than those of the other regions of Belgium.\n\nCulture\n\nArchitecture\nThe architecture in Brussels is diverse, and spans from the clashing combination of Gothic, Baroque, and Louis XIV styles on the Grand-Place to the postmodern buildings of the EU institutions.\n\nVery little medieval architecture is preserved in Brussels. Buildings from that period are mostly found in the historical centre (called ), Saint Géry/Sint-Goriks and / neighbourhoods. The Brabantine Gothic Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula remains a prominent feature in the skyline of downtown Brussels. Isolated portions of the first city walls were saved from destruction and can be seen to this day. One of the only remains of the second walls is the Halle Gate. The Grand-Place is the main attraction in the city centre and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1998. The square is dominated by the 15th century Flamboyant Town Hall, the neo-Gothic Breadhouse and the Baroque guildhalls of the former Guilds of Brussels. Manneken Pis, a fountain containing a small bronze sculpture of a urinating youth, is a tourist attraction and symbol of the city.\n\nThe neoclassical style of the 18th and 19th centuries is represented in the Royal Quarter/Coudenberg area, around Brussels Park and the Place Royale/Koningsplein. Examples include the Royal Palace, the Church of St. James on Coudenberg, the Palace of the Nation (Parliament building), the Academy Palace, the Palace of Charles of Lorraine, the Palace of the Count of Flanders and the Egmont Palace. Other uniform neoclassical ensembles can be found around the Place des Martyrs/Martelaarsplein and the /. Some additional landmarks in the centre are the Royal Saint-Hubert Galleries (1847), one of the oldest covered shopping arcades in Europe, the Congress Column (1859), the former Brussels Stock Exchange building (1873) and the Palace of Justice (1883). The latter, designed by Joseph Poelaert, in eclectic style, is reputed to be the largest building constructed in the 19th century.\n\nLocated outside the historical centre, in a greener environment bordering the European Quarter, are the Parc du Cinquantenaire/Jubelpark with its memorial arcade and nearby museums, and in Laeken, the Royal Palace of Laeken and the Royal Domain with its large greenhouses, as well as the Museums of the Far East.\n\nAlso particularly striking are the buildings in the Art Nouveau style, most famously by the Belgian architects Victor Horta, Paul Hankar and Henry Van de Velde. Some of Brussels' municipalities, such as Schaerbeek, Etterbeek, Ixelles, and Saint-Gilles, were developed during the heyday of Art Nouveau and have many buildings in that style. The Major Town Houses of the Architect Victor Horta—Hôtel Tassel (1893), Hôtel Solvay (1894), Hôtel van Eetvelde (1895) and the Horta Museum (1901)—have been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2000. Another example of Brussels' Art Nouveau is the Stoclet Palace (1911), by the Viennese architect Josef Hoffmann, designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in June 2009.\n\nArt Deco structures in Brussels include the Résidence Palace (1927) (now part of the Europa building), the Centre for Fine Arts (1928), the Villa Empain (1934), the Town Hall of Forest (1938), and the Flagey Building (formerly known as the Maison de la Radio) on the Place Eugène Flagey/Eugène Flageyplein (1938) in Ixelles. Some religious buildings from the interwar era were also constructed in that style, such as the Church of St. John the Baptist (1932) in Molenbeek and the Church of St. Augustine (1935) in Forest. Completed only in 1969, and combining Art Deco with neo-Byzantine elements, the Basilica of the Sacred Heart in Koekelberg is one of the largest churches by area in the world, and its cupola provides a panoramic view of Brussels and its outskirts. Another example are the exhibition halls of the Centenary Palace, built for the 1935 World's Fair on the Heysel/Heizel Plateau in northern Brussels, home to the Brussels Exhibition Centre (Brussels Expo).\n\nThe Atomium is a symbolic modernist structure, located on the Heysel Plateau, which was originally built for the 1958 World's Fair (Expo 58). It consists of nine steel spheres connected by tubes, and forms a model of an iron crystal (specifically, a unit cell), magnified 165 billion times. The architect André Waterkeyn devoted the building to science. It is now considered a landmark of Brussels. Next to the Atomium, is Mini-Europe miniature park, with 1:25 scale maquettes of famous buildings from across Europe.\n\nSince the second half of the 20th century, modern office towers have been built in Brussels (Madou Tower, Rogier Tower, Proximus Towers, Finance Tower, the World Trade Center, among others). There are some thirty towers, mostly concentrated in the city's main business district: the Northern Quarter (also called Little Manhattan), near Brussels-North railway station. The South Tower, standing adjacent to Brussels-South railway station, is the tallest building in Belgium, at . Along the North–South connection, is the State Administrative City, an administrative complex in the International Style. The postmodern buildings of the Espace Léopold complete the picture.\n\nThe city's embrace of modern architecture translated into an ambivalent approach towards historic preservation, leading to the destruction of notable architectural landmarks, most famously the Maison du Peuple/Volkshuis by Victor Horta, a process known as Brusselisation.\n\nArts\n\nBrussels contains over 80 museums. The Royal Museums of Fine Arts has an extensive collection of various painters, such as Flemish old masters like Bruegel, Rogier van der Weyden, Robert Campin, Anthony van Dyck, Jacob Jordaens, and Peter Paul Rubens. The Magritte Museum houses the world's largest collection of the works of the surrealist René Magritte. Museums dedicated to the national history of Belgium include the BELvue Museum, the Royal Museums of Art and History, and the Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History. The Musical Instruments Museum (MIM), housed in the Old England building, is part of the Royal Museums of Art and History, and is internationally renowned for its collection of over 8,000 instruments.\n\nThe Brussels Museums Council is an independent body for all the museums in the Brussels-Capital Region, covering around 100 federal, private, municipal, and community museums. It promotes member museums through the Brussels Card (giving access to public transport and 30 of the 100 museums), the Brussels Museums Nocturnes (every Thursday from 5 p.m. to 10 p.m. from mid-September to mid-December) and the Museum Night Fever (an event for and by young people on a Saturday night in late February or early March).\n\nBrussels has had a distinguished artist scene for many years. The famous Belgian surrealists René Magritte and Paul Delvaux, for instance, studied and lived there, as did the avant-garde dramatist Michel de Ghelderode. The city was also home of the impressionist painter Anna Boch from the artists' group Les XX, and includes other famous Belgian painters such as Léon Spilliaert. Brussels is also a capital of the comic strip; some treasured Belgian characters are Tintin, Lucky Luke, The Smurfs, Spirou, Gaston, Marsupilami, Blake and Mortimer, Boule et Bill and Cubitus (see Belgian comics). Throughout the city, walls are painted with large motifs of comic book characters; these murals taken together are known as Brussels' Comic Book Route. Also, the interiors of some Metro stations are designed by artists. The Belgian Comic Strip Center combines two artistic leitmotifs of Brussels, being a museum devoted to Belgian comic strips, housed in the former Magasins Waucquez textile department store, designed by Victor Horta in the Art Nouveau style. In addition, street art is changing the landscape of this multicultural city.\n\nBrussels is well known for its performing arts scene, with the Royal Theatre of La Monnaie, the Royal Park Theatre, the Théâtre Royal des Galeries and the Kaaitheater among the most notable institutions. The Kunstenfestivaldesarts, an international performing arts festival, is organised every year in May in about twenty different cultural houses and theatres throughout the city. The King Baudouin Stadium is a concert and competition facility with a 50,000 seat capacity, the largest in Belgium. The site was formerly occupied by the Heysel Stadium. The Center for Fine Arts (often referred to as BOZAR in French or PSK in Dutch), a multi-purpose centre for theatre, cinema, music, literature and art exhibitions, is home to the National Orchestra of Belgium and to the annual Queen Elisabeth Competition for classical singers and instrumentalists, one of the most challenging and prestigious competitions of the kind. Studio 4 in Le Flagey cultural centre hosts the Brussels Philharmonic. Other concert venues include Forest National/Vorst Nationaal, the Ancienne Belgique, the Cirque Royal/Koninklijk Circus, the Botanique and Palais 12/Paleis 12. Furthermore, the Jazz Station in Saint-Josse-ten-Noode is a museum and archive on jazz, and a venue for jazz concerts.\n\nFolklore\n\nBrussels' identity owes much to its rich folklore and traditions, among the liveliest in the country.\n The Ommegang, a folkloric costumed procession, commemorating the Joyous Entry of Emperor Charles V and his son Philip II in the city in 1549, takes place every year in July. The colourful parade includes floats, traditional processional giants, such as Saint Michael and Saint Gudula, and scores of folkloric groups, either on foot or on horseback, dressed in medieval garb. The parade ends in a pageant on the Grand-Place. Since 2019, it is recognised as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.\n The Meyboom, an even-older folk tradition of Brussels (1308), celebrating the \"May tree\"—in fact, a corruption of the Dutch tree of joy—takes place paradoxically on 9 August. After parading a young beech in the city, it is planted in a joyful spirit with lots of music, Brusseleir songs, and processional giants. It was also recognised as an expression of intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO, as part of the bi-national inscription \"Processional giants and dragons in Belgium and France\". The celebration is reminiscent of the town's long-standing (folkloric) feud with Leuven, which dates back to the Middle Ages.\n Another good introduction to the Brusseleir local dialect and way of life can be obtained at the Royal Theatre Toone, a folkloric theatre of marionettes, located a stone's throw away from the Grand-Place.\n The Saint-Verhaegen (often shortened to St V), a folkloric student procession, celebrating the anniversary of the founding of the (ULB) and the (VUB), is held on 20 November.\n\nCultural events and festivals\n\nMany events are organised or hosted in Brussels throughout the year. In addition, many festivals animate the Brussels scene.\n\nThe Iris Festival is the official festival of the Brussels-Capital Region and is held annually in spring. The International Fantastic Film Festival of Brussels (BIFFF) is organised during the Easter holidays and the Magritte Awards in February. The Festival of Europe, an open day and activities in and around the institutions of the European Union, is held on 9 May. On Belgian National Day, on 21 July, a military parade and celebrations take place on the / and in Brussels Park, ending with a display of fireworks in the evening.\n\nSome summer festivities include Couleur Café Festival, a festival of world and urban music, around the end of June or early July, the Brussels Summer Festival (BSF), a music festival in August, the Brussels Fair, the most important yearly fair in Brussels, lasting more than a month, in July and August, and Brussels Beach, when the banks of the canal are turned into a temporary urban beach. Other biennial events are the Zinneke Parade, a colourful, multicultural parade through the city, which has been held since 2000 in May, as well as the popular Flower Carpet at the Grand-Place in August. Heritage Days are organised on the third weekend of September (sometimes coinciding with the car-free day) and are a good opportunity to discover the wealth of buildings, institutions and real estate in Brussels. The \"Winter Wonders\" animate the heart of Brussels in December; these winter activities were launched in Brussels in 2001.\n\nCuisine\n\nBrussels is well known for its local waffle, its chocolate, its French fries and its numerous types of beers. The Brussels sprout, which has long been popular in Brussels, and may have originated there, is also named after the city.\n\nThe gastronomic offer includes approximately 1,800 restaurants (including three 2-starred and ten 1-starred Michelin restaurants), and a number of bars. In addition to the traditional restaurants, there are many cafés, bistros and the usual range of international fast food chains. The cafés are similar to bars, and offer beer and light dishes; coffee houses are called (literally \"tea salons\"). Also widespread are brasseries, which usually offer a variety of beers and typical national dishes.\n\nBelgian cuisine is known among connoisseurs as one of the best in Europe. It is characterised by the combination of French cuisine with the more hearty Flemish fare. Notable specialities include Brussels waffles (gaufres) and mussels (usually as moules-frites, served with fries). The city is a stronghold of chocolate and praline manufacturers with renowned companies like Côte d'Or, Neuhaus, Leonidas and Godiva. Pralines were first introduced in 1912 by Jean Neuhaus II, a Belgian chocolatier of Swiss origin, in the Royal Saint-Hubert Galleries. Numerous friteries are spread throughout the city, and in tourist areas, fresh hot waffles are also sold on the street.\n\nAs well as other Belgian beers, the spontaneously fermented lambic style, brewed in and around Brussels, is widely available there and in the nearby Senne valley where the wild yeasts that ferment it have their origin. Kriek, a cherry lambic, is available in almost every bar or restaurant in Brussels.\n\nBrussels is known as the birthplace of the Belgian endive. The technique for growing blanched endives was accidentally discovered in the 1850s at the Botanical Garden of Brussels in Saint-Josse-ten-Noode.\n\nShopping\n\nFamous shopping areas in Brussels include the pedestrian-only Rue Neuve/Nieuwstraat, the second busiest shopping street in Belgium (after the Meir, in Antwerp) with a weekly average of 230,000 visitors, home to popular international chains (H&M, C&A, Zara, Primark), as well as the City 2 and Anspach galleries. The Royal Saint-Hubert Galleries hold a variety of luxury shops and some six million people stroll through them each year. The neighbourhood around the / has become, in recent years, a focal point for fashion and design; this main street and its side streets also feature Belgium's young and most happening artistic talent.\n\nIn Ixelles, the / and the Namur Gate area offer a blend of luxury shops, fast food restaurants and entertainment venues, and the /, in the mainly-Congolese Matongé district, offers a great taste of African fashion and lifestyle. The nearby Avenue Louise/Louizalaan is lined with high-end fashion stores and boutiques, making it one of the most expensive streets in Belgium.\n\nThere are shopping centres outside the inner ring: Basilix, Woluwe Shopping Center, Westland Shopping Center, and Docks Bruxsel, which opened in October 2017. In addition, Brussels ranks as one of Europe's best capital cities for flea market shopping. The Old Market, on the Place du Jeu de Balle/Vossenplein, in the Marolles/Marollen neighbourhood, is particularly renowned. The nearby Sablon/Zavel area is home to many of Brussels' antique dealers. The Midi Market around Brussels-South station and the / is reputed to be one of the largest markets in Europe.\n\nSports\n\nSport in Brussels is under the responsibility of the Communities. The (ADEPS) is responsible for recognising the various French-speaking sports federations and also runs three sports centres in the Brussels-Capital Region. Its Dutch-speaking counterpart is (formerly called BLOSO).\n\nThe King Baudouin Stadium (formerly the Heysel Stadium) is the largest in the country and home to the national teams in football and rugby union. It hosted the final of the 1972 UEFA European Football Championship, and the opening game of the 2000 edition. Several European club finals have been held at the ground, including the 1985 European Cup Final which saw 39 deaths due to hooliganism and structural collapse. The King Baudouin Stadium is also home of the annual Memorial Van Damme athletics event, Belgium's foremost track and field competition, which is part of the Diamond League. Other important athletics events are the Brussels Marathon and the 20 km of Brussels, an annual run with 30,000 participants.\n\nCycling\nBrussels is home to notable cycling races. The city is the arrival location of the Brussels Cycling Classic, formerly known as Paris–Brussels, which is one of the oldest semi classic bicycle races on the international calendar. From World War I until the early 1970s, the Six Days of Brussels was organised regularly. In the last decades of the 20th century, the Grand Prix Eddy Merckx was also held in Brussels.\n\nAssociation football\n\nR.S.C. Anderlecht, based in the Constant Vanden Stock Stadium in Anderlecht, is the most successful Belgian football club in the Belgian Pro League, with 34 titles. It has also won the most major European tournaments for a Belgian side, with 6 European titles. Brussels is also home to Union Saint-Gilloise, the most successful Belgian club before World War II, with 11 titles. The club was founded in Saint-Gilles but is based in nearby Forest, and plays in the Belgian Pro League. Racing White Daring Molenbeek, based in Molenbeek-Saint-Jean, and often referred to as RWDM, is a very popular football club that, since 2023, is back playing in the Belgian Pro League.\n\nOther Brussels clubs that played in the national series over the years were Royal White Star Bruxelles, Ixelles SC, Crossing Club de Schaerbeek (born from a merger between RCS de Schaerbeek and Crossing Club Molenbeek), Scup Jette, RUS de Laeken, Racing Jet de Bruxelles, AS Auderghem, KV Wosjot Woluwe and FC Ganshoren.\n\nEconomy\n\nServing as the centre of administration for Belgium and Europe, Brussels' economy is largely service-oriented. It is dominated by regional and world headquarters of multinationals, by European institutions, by various local and federal administrations, and by related services companies, though it does have a number of notable craft industries, such as the Cantillon Brewery, a lambic brewery founded in 1900.\n\nBrussels has a robust economy. The region contributes to one fifth of Belgium's GDP, and its 550,000 jobs account for 17.7% of Belgium's employment. Its GDP per capita is nearly double that of Belgium as a whole, and it has the highest GDP per capita of any NUTS 1 region in the EU, at ~$80,000 in 2016. That being said, the GDP is boosted by a massive inflow of commuters from neighbouring regions; over half of those who work in Brussels live in Flanders or Wallonia, with 230,000 and 130,000 commuters per day respectively. Conversely, only 16.0% of people from Brussels work outside Brussels (68,827 (68.5%) of them in Flanders and 21,035 (31.5%) in Wallonia). Not all of the wealth generated in Brussels remains in Brussels itself, and , the unemployment among residents of Brussels is 20.4%.\n\nThere are approximately 50,000 businesses in Brussels, of which around 2,200 are foreign. This number is constantly increasing and can well explain the role of Brussels in Europe. The city's infrastructure is very favourable in terms of starting up a new business. House prices have also increased in recent years, especially with the increase of young professionals settling down in Brussels, making it the most expensive city to live in Belgium. In addition, Brussels holds more than 1,000 business conferences annually, making it the ninth most popular conference city in Europe.\n\nBrussels is rated as the 34th most important financial centre in the world as of 2020, according to the Global Financial Centres Index. The Brussels Stock Exchange, abbreviated to BSE, now called Euronext Brussels, is part of the European stock exchange Euronext, along with Paris Bourse, Lisbon Stock Exchange and Amsterdam Stock Exchange. Its benchmark stock market index is the BEL20.\n\nMedia\n\nBrussels is a centre of both media and communications in Belgium, with many Belgian television stations, radio stations, newspapers and telephone companies having their headquarters in the region. The French-language public broadcaster RTBF, the Dutch-language public broadcaster VRT, the two regional channels BX1 (formerly Télé Bruxelles) and Bruzz (formerly TV Brussel), the encrypted BeTV channel and private channels RTL-TVI and VTM are headquartered in Brussels. Some national newspapers such as Le Soir, La Libre, De Morgen and the news agency Belga are based in or around Brussels. The Belgian postal company bpost, as well as the telecommunication companies and mobile operators Proximus, Orange Belgium and Telenet are all located there.\n\nAs English is spoken widely, several English media organisations operate in Brussels. The most popular of these are the English-language daily news media platform and bi-monthly magazine The Brussels Times and the quarterly magazine and website The Bulletin. The multilingual pan-European news channel Euronews also maintains an office in Brussels.\n\nEducation\n\nTertiary education\n\nThere are several universities in Brussels. Except for the Royal Military Academy, a federal military college established in 1834, all universities in Brussels are private and autonomous. The Royal Military Academy also the only Belgian university organised on the boarding school model.\n\nThe Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), a French-speaking university, with about 20,000 students, has three campuses in the city, and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), its Dutch-speaking sister university, has about 10,000 students. Both universities originate from a single ancestor university, founded in 1834, namely the Free University of Brussels, which was split in 1970, at about the same time the Flemish and French Communities gained legislative power over the organisation of higher education.\n\nSaint-Louis University, Brussels (also known as UCLouvain Saint-Louis – Bruxelles) was founded in 1858 and is specialised in social and human sciences, with 4,000 students, and located on two campuses in the City of Brussels and Ixelles. From September 2018 on, the university uses the name UCLouvain, together with the Catholic University of Louvain, in the context of a merger between both universities.\n\nStill other universities have campuses in Brussels, such as the French-speaking Catholic University of Louvain (UCLouvain), which has 10,000 students in the city with its medical faculties at UCLouvain Bruxelles Woluwe since 1973, in addition to its Faculty of Architecture, Architectural Engineering and Urban Planning and UCLouvain's Dutch-speaking sister Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KU Leuven) (offering bachelor's and master's degrees in economics & business, law, arts, and architecture; 4,400 students). In addition, the University of Kent's Brussels School of International Studies is a specialised postgraduate school offering advanced international studies.\n\nAlso a dozen of university colleges are located in Brussels, including two drama schools, founded in 1832: the French-speaking Conservatoire Royal and its Dutch-speaking equivalent, the Koninklijk Conservatorium.\n\nPrimary and secondary education\nMost of Brussels pupils between the ages of 3 and 18 go to schools organised by the French-speaking Community or the Flemish Community, with close to 80% going to French-speaking schools, and roughly 20% to Dutch-speaking schools. Due to the post-war international presence in the city, there are also a number of international schools, including the International School of Brussels, with 1,450 pupils, between the ages of and 18, the British School of Brussels, and the four European Schools, which provide free education for the children of those working in the EU institutions. The combined student population of the four European Schools in Brussels is around 10,000.\n\nLibraries\n\nBrussels has a number of public or private-owned libraries on its territory. Most public libraries in Brussels fall under the competence of the Communities and are usually separated between French-speaking and Dutch-speaking institutions, although some are mixed.\n\nThe Royal Library of Belgium (KBR) is the national library of Belgium and one of the most prestigious libraries in the world. It owns several collections of historical importance, like the famous Fétis archives, and is the depository for all books ever published in Belgium or abroad by Belgian authors. It is located on the Mont des Arts/Kunstberg in central Brussels, near the Central Station.\n\nThere are several academic libraries and archives in Brussels. The libraries of the Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB) and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) constitute the largest ensemble of university libraries in the city. In addition to the Solbosch location, there are branches in La Plaine and Erasme/Erasmus. Other academic libraries include those of Saint-Louis University, Brussels and the Catholic University of Louvain (UCLouvain).\n\nScience and technology\n\nScience and technology in Brussels is well developed with the presence of several universities and research institutes. The Brussels-Capital Region is home to several national science and technology institutes including the National Fund for Scientific Research (NFSR), the Institute for the Encouragement of Scientific Research and Innovation of Brussels (ISRIB), the Royal Academies for Science and the Arts of Belgium (RASAB) and the Belgian Academy Council of Applied Sciences (BACAS). Several science parks associated with the universities are also spread over the region.\n\nThe Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, located in Leopold Park, houses the world's largest hall completely dedicated to dinosaurs, with its collection of 30 fossilised Iguanodon skeletons. In addition, the Planetarium of the Royal Observatory of Belgium (part of the institutions of the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office), on the Heysel Plateau in Laeken, is one of the largest in Europe.\n\nHealthcare\n\nBrussels is home to a thriving pharmaceutical and health care industry which includes pioneering biotechnology research. The health sector employs 70,000 employees in 30,000 companies. There are 3,000 life sciences researchers in the city and two large science parks: Da Vinci Research Park and Erasmus Research Park. There are five university hospitals, a military hospital and more than 40 general hospitals and specialist clinics.\n\nDue to its bilingual nature, hospitals in the Brussels-Capital Region can be either monolingual French, monolingual Dutch, or bilingual, depending on their nature. University hospitals belong to one of the two linguistic communities and are thus monolingual French or Dutch by law. Other hospitals managed by a public authority must be legally bilingual. Private hospitals are legally not bound to either language, but most cater to both. However, all hospital emergency services in the Capital Region (whether part of a public or private hospital) are required to be bilingual, since patients transported by emergency ambulance cannot choose the hospital they will be brought to.\n\nTransport\n\nBrussels has an extensive network of both private or public transportation means. Public transportation includes Brussels buses, trams, and metro (all three operated by the Brussels Intercommunal Transport Company (STIB/MIVB)), as well as a set of railway lines (operated by Infrabel) and railway stations served by public trains (operated by the National Railway Company of Belgium (NMBS/SNCB)). Air transport is available via one of the city's two airports (Brussels Airport and Brussels South Charleroi Airport), and boat transport is available via the Port of Brussels. Bicycle-sharing and car-sharing public systems are also available.\n\nThe complexity of the Belgian political landscape makes some transportation issues difficult to solve. The Brussels-Capital Region is surrounded by the Flemish and Walloon regions, which means that the airports, as well as many roads serving Brussels (most notably the Brussels Ring) are located in the other two Belgian regions. The city is relatively car-dependent by northern European standards and is considered to be the most congested city in the world according to the INRIX traffic survey.\n\nAir\n\nThe Brussels-Capital Region is served by two airports, both located outside of the administrative territory of the region. The most notable is Brussels Airport, located in the nearby Flemish municipality of Zaventem, east of the capital, which can be accessed by highway (A201), train and bus. The secondary airport is Brussels South Charleroi Airport, located in Gosselies, a part of the city of Charleroi (Wallonia), some south-west of Brussels, which can be accessed by highway (E19 then E420) or a private bus. There is also Melsbroek Air Base, located in Steenokkerzeel, a military airport which shares its infrastructure with Brussels Airport. The aforementioned airports are also the main airports of Belgium.\n\nWater\n\nSince the 16th century, Brussels has had its own harbour, the Port of Brussels. It has been enlarged throughout the centuries to become the second Belgian inland port. Historically situated near the /, it lies today to the north-west of the region, on the Brussels–Scheldt Maritime Canal (commonly called Willebroek Canal), which connects Brussels to Antwerp via the Scheldt. Ships and large barges up to can penetrate deep into the country, avoiding break-ups and load transfers between Antwerp and the centre of Brussels, hence reducing the cost for companies using the canal, and thus offering a competitive advantage.\n\nMoreover, the connection of the Willebroek Canal with the Brussels–Charleroi Canal, in the very heart of the capital, creates a north–south link, by means of waterways, between the Netherlands, Flanders and the industrial zone of Hainaut (Wallonia). There, navigation can access the network of French canals, thanks to the important inclined plane of Ronquières and the lifts of Strépy-Bracquegnies.\n\nThe importance of river traffic in Brussels makes it possible to avoid the road equivalent of 740,000 trucks per year—almost 2,000 per day—which, in addition to easing traffic problems, represents an estimated carbon dioxide saving of per year.\n\nTrain\n\nThe Brussels-Capital Region has three main train stations: Brussels-South, Brussels-Central and Brussels-North, which are also the busiest of the country. Brussels-South is also served by direct high-speed rail links: to London by Eurostar trains via the Channel Tunnel (1hr 51min); to Amsterdam by Thalys and InterCity connections; to Amsterdam, Paris (1hr 50min and 1hr 25min respectively ), and Cologne by Thalys; and to Cologne (1hr 50min) and Frankfurt (2hr 57min) by the German ICE.\n\nThe train rails in Brussels go underground, near the centre, through the North–South connection, with Brussels Central Station also being largely underground. The tunnel itself is only six tracks wide at its narrowest point, which often causes congestion and delays due to heavy use of the route.\n\nThe City of Brussels has minor railway stations at Bockstael, Brussels-Chapel, Brussels-Congres, Brussels-Luxembourg, Brussels-Schuman, Brussels-West, Haren, Haren-South and Simonis. In the Brussels Region, there are also railways stations at Berchem-Sainte-Agathe, Boitsfort, Boondael, Bordet (Evere), Etterbeek, Evere, Forest-East, Forest-South, Jette, Meiser (Schaerbeek), Moensberg (Uccle), Saint-Job (Uccle), Schaarbeek, Uccle-Calevoet, Uccle-Stalle, Vivier d'Oie-Diesdelle (Uccle), Merode and Watermael.\n\nPublic transport\nThe Brussels Intercommunal Transport Company (STIB/MIVB) is the local public transport operator in Brussels. It covers the 19 municipalities of the Brussels-Capital Region and some surface routes extend to the near suburbs in the other two regions, linking with the De Lijn network in Flanders and the TEC network in Wallonia.\n\nMetro, trams and buses\n\nThe Brussels Metro dates back to 1976, but underground lines known as the premetro have been serviced by tramways since 1968. It is the only rapid transit system in Belgium (Antwerp and Charleroi both having light rail systems). The network consists of four conventional metro lines and three premetro lines. The metro-grade lines are M1, M2, M5, and M6, with some shared sections, covering a total of . , the Metro network within the region has a total of 69 metro and premetro stations. The Metro is an important means of transport, connecting with six railway stations of the National Railway Company of Belgium (NMBS/SNCB), and many tram and bus stops operated by STIB/MIVB, and with Flemish De Lijn and Walloon TEC bus stops.\n\nA comprehensive bus and tram network covers the region. , the Brussels tram system consists of 17 tram lines (three of which – lines T3, T4 and T7 – qualify as premetro lines that partly travel over underground sections that were intended to be eventually converted into metro lines). The total route length is , making it one of the largest tram networks in Europe. The Brussels bus network is complementary to the rail network. It consists of 50 bus routes and 11 night routes, spanning .\n\nSince April 2007, STIB/MIVB has also been operating a night bus network called Noctis on Friday and Saturday nights from midnight until 3 a.m. The service consists of 11 routes (N04, N05, N06, N08, N09, N10, N11, N12, N13, N16 and N18). The fare on these night buses is the same as during the day. All the lines leave from the Place de la Bourse/Beursplein in the city centre at 30 minutes intervals and cover all the main streets in the capital, as they radiate outwards to the suburbs. Noctis services returned from 2 July 2021 after over a year of disruption due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium.\n\nTicketing\nMoBIB is the STIB/MIVB electronic smart card, introduced in 2007, replacing the discontinued paper tickets. The hourly travel fare includes all means of transport (metro, tram and bus) operated by STIB/MIVB. Each trip has a different cost depending on the type of support purchased. Passengers can purchase monthly passes, yearly passes, 1 and 10-trip tickets and daily and 3-day passes. These can be bought over the Internet, but require customers to have a smart card reader. GO vending machines accept coins, local and international chip and PIN credit and debit cards.\n\nMoreover, a complimentary interticketing system means that a combined STIB/MIVB ticket holder can, depending on the option, also use the train network operated by NMBS/SNCB and/or long-distance buses and commuter services operated by De Lijn or TEC. With this ticket, a single journey can include multiple stages across the different modes of transport and networks.\n\nOther public transport\n\nSince 2003, Brussels has had a car-sharing service operated by the Bremen company Cambio, in partnership with STIB/MIVB and the local ridesharing company Taxi Stop. In 2006, a public bicycle-sharing programme was introduced. The scheme was subsequently taken over by Villo!. Since 2008, this night-time public transport service has been supplemented by Collecto, a shared taxi system, which operates on weekdays between 11 p.m. and 6 a.m. In 2012, the Zen Car electric car-sharing scheme was launched in the university and European areas.\n\nRoad network\n\nIn medieval times, Brussels stood at the intersection of routes running north–south (the modern /) and east–west (/–/–/). The ancient pattern of streets, radiating from the Grand-Place, in large part remains, but has been overlaid by boulevards built over the river Senne, over the city walls and over the railway connection between the North and South Stations. Today, Brussels has the most congested traffic in North America and Europe, according to US traffic information platform INRIX.\n\nBrussels is the hub of a range of national roads, the main ones being clockwise: the N1 (N to Breda), N2 (E to Maastricht), N3 (E to Aachen), N4 (SE to Luxembourg), N5 (S to Rheims), N6 (S to Maubeuge), N7 (SW to Lille), N8 (W to Koksijde) and N9 (NW to Ostend). Usually named /, these highways normally run in a straight line, but sometimes lose themselves in a maze of narrow shopping streets. The region is skirted by the European route E19 (N-S) and the E40 (E-W), while the E411 leads away to the SE. Brussels has an orbital motorway, numbered R0 (R-zero) and commonly referred to as the Ring. It is pear-shaped, as the southern side was never built as originally conceived, owing to residents' objections.\n\nThe city centre, sometimes known as the Pentagon, is surrounded by an inner ring road, the Small Ring (, ), a sequence of boulevards formally numbered R20 or N0. These were built upon the site of the second set of city walls following their demolition. The Metro line 2 runs under much of these. Since June 2015, a number of central boulevards inside the Pentagon have become car-free, limiting transit traffic through the old city.\n\nOn the eastern side of the region, the R21 or Greater Ring (, ) is formed by a string of boulevards that curves round from Laeken to Uccle. Some premetro stations (see Brussels Metro) were built on that route. A little further out, a stretch numbered R22 leads from Zaventem to Saint-Job.\n\nSecurity and emergency services\n\nPolice\n\nThe Brussels local police, supported by the federal police, is responsible for law enforcement in Brussels. The 19 municipalities of the Brussels-Capital Region are divided into six police zones, all bilingual (French and Dutch):\n5339 Brussels Capital Ixelles: the City of Brussels and Ixelles\n5340 Brussels West: Berchem-Sainte-Agathe, Ganshoren, Jette, Koekelberg and Molenbeek-Saint-Jean\n5341 South: Anderlecht, Forest and Saint-Gilles\n5342 Uccle/Watermael-Boitsfort/Auderghem: Auderghem, Uccle and Watermael-Boitsfort\n5343 Montgomery: Etterbeek, Woluwe-Saint-Lambert and Woluwe-Saint-Pierre\n5344 Polbruno: Evere, Saint-Josse-ten-Noode and Schaerbeek\n\nFire department\nThe Brussels Fire and Emergency Medical Care Service, commonly known by its acronym SIAMU (DBDMH), operates in the 19 municipalities of Brussels. It is a class X fire department and the largest fire service in Belgium in terms of annual operations, equipment, and personnel. It has 9 fire stations, spread over the entire Brussels-Capital Region, and employs about 1,000 professional firefighters. As well as preventing and fighting fires, SIAMU also provides emergency medical care services in Brussels via its centralised 100 number (and the single 112 emergency number for the 27 countries of the European Union). It is bilingual (French–Dutch).\n\nParks and green spaces\n\nBrussels is one of the greenest capitals in Europe, with over 8,000 hectares of green spaces. Vegetation cover and natural areas are higher in the outskirts, where they have limited the peri-urbanisation of the capital, but they decrease sharply towards the centre of Brussels; 10% in the central Pentagon, 30% of the municipalities in the first ring, and 71% of the municipalities in the second ring are occupied by green spaces.\n\nMany parks and gardens, both public and privately owned, are scattered throughout the city. In addition to this, the Sonian Forest is located in its southern part and stretches out over the three Belgian regions. , it has been inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the only Belgian component to the multinational inscription 'Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe'.\n\nNotable people\n\nTwin towns – sister cities\n\nBrussels is twinned with the following cities:\n\n Atlanta, United States\n Beijing, China\n Berlin, Germany\n Breda, Netherlands\n Casablanca, Morocco\n Kinshasa, Congo\n Kyiv, Ukraine\n Macao, China\n Madrid, Spain\n Ljubljana, Slovenia\n Prague, Czech Republic\n Washington, D.C., United States\n\nSee also\n\nBourgeois of Brussels\nBrussels Regional Investment Company\nOutline of Belgium\nSeven Noble Houses of Brussels\nStatue of Europe\nList of urban areas in the European Union\nDielegembos\n\nReferences\n\nFootnotes\n\nNotes\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links\n\n Brussels-Capital Region \n Official tourism website \n Interactive map\n\n \nBrabant\nRegions of Belgium\nRegions of Europe with multiple official languages\nEnclaves and exclaves\nFrench-speaking countries and territories\nAutonomous regions\nNUTS 1 statistical regions of the European Union\nPopulated places established in the 1st millennium", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic%20vision%20system
A synthetic vision system (SVS) is a computer-mediated reality system for aerial vehicles, that uses 3D to provide pilots with clear and intuitive means of understanding their flying environment. Functionality Synthetic vision provides situational awareness to the operators by using terrain, obstacle, geo-political, hydrological and other databases. A typical SVS application uses a set of databases stored on board the aircraft, an image generator computer, and a display. Navigation solution is obtained through the use of GPS and inertial reference systems. Highway In The Sky (HITS), or Path-In-The-Sky, is often used to depict the projected path of the aircraft in perspective view. Pilots acquire instantaneous understanding of the current as well as the future state of the aircraft with respect to the terrain, towers, buildings and other environment features. History A forerunner to such systems existed in the 1960s, with the debut into U.S. Navy service of the Grumman A-6 Intruder carrier-based medium-attack aircraft. Designed with a side-by-side seating arrangement for the crew, the Intruder featured an advanced navigation/attack system, called the Digital Integrated Attack and Navigation Equipment (DIANE), which linked the aircraft's radar, navigation and air data systems to a digital computer known as the AN/ASQ-61. Information from DIANE was displayed to both the Pilot and Bombardier/Navigator (BN) through cathode ray tube display screens. In particular, one of those screens, the AN/AVA-1 Vertical Display Indicator (VDI), showed the pilot a synthetic view of the world in front of the aircraft and, in Search Radar Terrain Clearance mode (SRTC), depicted the terrain detected by the radar, which was then displayed as coded lines that represented preset range increments. Called 'Contact Analog', this technology allowed the A-6 to be flown at night, in all weather conditions, at low altitude, and through rugged or mountainous terrain without the need for any visual references. Synthetic vision was developed by NASA and the U.S. Air Force in the late 1970s and 1980s in support of advanced cockpit research, and in 1990s as part of the Aviation Safety Program. Development of the High Speed Civil Transport fueled NASA research in the 1980s and 1990s. In the early 1980s, the USAF recognized the need to improve cockpit situation awareness to support piloting ever more complex aircraft, and pursued SVS (also called pictorial format avionics) as an integrating technology for both manned and remotely piloted systems. Simulations and remotely piloted vehicles In 1979, the FS1 Flight Simulator by Bruce Artwick for the Apple II microcomputer introduced recreational uses of synthetic vision. NASA used synthetic vision for remotely piloted vehicles (RPVs), such as the High Maneuverability Aerial Testbed or HiMAT. According to the report by NASA, the aircraft was flown by a pilot in a remote cockpit, and control signals up-linked from the flight controls in the remote cockpit on the ground to the aircraft, and aircraft telemetry downlinked to the remote cockpit displays (see photo). The remote cockpit could be configured with either nose camera video or with a 3D synthetic vision display. SV was also used for simulations of the HiMAT. Sarrafian reports that the test pilots found the visual display to be comparable to output of camera on board the RPV. The 1986 RC Aerochopper simulation by Ambrosia Microcomputer Products, Inc. used synthetic vision to aid aspiring RC aircraft pilots in learning to fly. The system included joystick flight controls which would connect to an Amiga computer and display. The software included a three-dimensional terrain database for the ground as well as some man-made objects. This database was basic, representing the terrain with relatively small numbers of polygons by today's standards. The program simulated the dynamic three-dimensional position and attitude of the aircraft using the terrain database to create a projected 3D perspective display. The realism of this RPV pilot training display was enhanced by allowing the user to adjust the simulated control system delays and other parameters. Similar research continued in the U.S. military services, and at Universities around the world. In 1995-1996, North Carolina State University flew a 17.5% scale F-18 RPV using Microsoft Flight Simulator to create the three-dimensional projected terrain environment. In flight In 2005 a synthetic vision system was installed on a Gulfstream V test aircraft as part of NASA's "Turning Goals Into Reality" program. Much of the experience gained during that program led directly to the introduction of certified SVS on future aircraft. NASA initiated industry involvement in early 2000 with major avionics manufacturers. Eric Theunissen, a researcher at Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands, contributed to the development of SVS technology. At the end of 2007 and early 2008, the FAA certified the Gulfstream Synthetic Vision-Primary flight display (SV-PFD) system for the G350/G450 and G500/G550 business jet aircraft, displaying 3D color terrain images from the Honeywell EGPWS data overlaid with the PFD symbology. It replaces the traditional blue-over-brown artificial horizon. In 2017, Avidyne Corporation certified Synthetic Vision capability for its air navigation avionics. Other glass cockpit systems such as the Garmin G1000 and the Rockwell Collins Pro Line Fusion offer synthetic terrain. Lower-cost, non-certified avionics offer synthetic vision like apps available for Android or iPad tablet computers from ForeFlight, Garmin, or Hilton Software Regulations and standards See also Aircraft collision avoidance systems Enhanced flight vision system External vision system Instrument landing system References External links Avionics Augmented reality Aircraft collision avoidance systems ja:バーチャルリアリティー
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic%20vision%20system", "role": "user" }, { "content": "A synthetic vision system (SVS) is a computer-mediated reality system for aerial vehicles, that uses 3D to provide pilots with clear and intuitive means of understanding their flying environment.\n\nFunctionality\n\nSynthetic vision provides situational awareness to the operators by using terrain, obstacle, geo-political, hydrological and other databases. A typical SVS application uses a set of databases stored on board the aircraft, an image generator computer, and a display. Navigation solution is obtained through the use of GPS and inertial reference systems.\n\nHighway In The Sky (HITS), or Path-In-The-Sky, is often used to depict the projected path of the aircraft in perspective view. Pilots acquire instantaneous understanding of the current as well as the future state of the aircraft with respect to the terrain, towers, buildings and other environment features.\n\nHistory\n\nA forerunner to such systems existed in the 1960s, with the debut into U.S. Navy service of the Grumman A-6 Intruder carrier-based medium-attack aircraft. Designed with a side-by-side seating arrangement for the crew, the Intruder featured an advanced navigation/attack system, called the Digital Integrated Attack and Navigation Equipment (DIANE), which linked the aircraft's radar, navigation and air data systems to a digital computer known as the AN/ASQ-61. Information from DIANE was displayed to both the Pilot and Bombardier/Navigator (BN) through cathode ray tube display screens. In particular, one of those screens, the AN/AVA-1 Vertical Display Indicator (VDI), showed the pilot a synthetic view of the world in front of the aircraft and, in Search Radar Terrain Clearance mode (SRTC), depicted the terrain detected by the radar, which was then displayed as coded lines that represented preset range increments. Called 'Contact Analog', this technology allowed the A-6 to be flown at night, in all weather conditions, at low altitude, and through rugged or mountainous terrain without the need for any visual references.\n\nSynthetic vision was developed by NASA and the U.S. Air Force in the late 1970s and 1980s in support of advanced cockpit research, and in 1990s as part of the Aviation Safety Program. Development of the High Speed Civil Transport fueled NASA research in the 1980s and 1990s. In the early 1980s, the USAF recognized the need to improve cockpit situation awareness to support piloting ever more complex aircraft, and pursued SVS (also called pictorial format avionics) as an integrating technology for both manned and remotely piloted systems.\n\nSimulations and remotely piloted vehicles\nIn 1979, the FS1 Flight Simulator by Bruce Artwick for the Apple II microcomputer introduced recreational uses of synthetic vision.\n\nNASA used synthetic vision for remotely piloted vehicles (RPVs), such as the High Maneuverability Aerial Testbed or HiMAT. According to the report by NASA, the aircraft was flown by a pilot in a remote cockpit, and control signals up-linked from the flight controls in the remote cockpit on the ground to the aircraft, and aircraft telemetry downlinked to the remote cockpit displays (see photo). The remote cockpit could be configured with either nose camera video or with a 3D synthetic vision display. SV was also used for simulations of the HiMAT. Sarrafian reports that the test pilots found the visual display to be comparable to output of camera on board the RPV.\n\nThe 1986 RC Aerochopper simulation by Ambrosia Microcomputer Products, Inc. used synthetic vision to aid aspiring RC aircraft pilots in learning to fly. The system included joystick flight controls which would connect to an Amiga computer and display. The software included a three-dimensional terrain database for the ground as well as some man-made objects. This database was basic, representing the terrain with relatively small numbers of polygons by today's standards. The program simulated the dynamic three-dimensional position and attitude of the aircraft using the terrain database to create a projected 3D perspective display. The realism of this RPV pilot training display was enhanced by allowing the user to adjust the simulated control system delays and other parameters.\n\nSimilar research continued in the U.S. military services, and at Universities around the world. In 1995-1996, North Carolina State University flew a 17.5% scale F-18 RPV using Microsoft Flight Simulator to create the three-dimensional projected terrain environment.\n\nIn flight \n\nIn 2005 a synthetic vision system was installed on a Gulfstream V test aircraft as part of NASA's \"Turning Goals Into Reality\" program. Much of the experience gained during that program led directly to the introduction of certified SVS on future aircraft. NASA initiated industry involvement in early 2000 with major avionics manufacturers.\n\nEric Theunissen, a researcher at Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands, contributed to the development of SVS technology.\n\nAt the end of 2007 and early 2008, the FAA certified the Gulfstream Synthetic Vision-Primary flight display (SV-PFD) system for the G350/G450 and G500/G550 business jet aircraft, displaying 3D color terrain images from the Honeywell EGPWS data overlaid with the PFD symbology.\nIt replaces the traditional blue-over-brown artificial horizon.\n\nIn 2017, Avidyne Corporation certified Synthetic Vision capability for its air navigation avionics.\nOther glass cockpit systems such as the Garmin G1000 and the Rockwell Collins Pro Line Fusion offer synthetic terrain.\n\nLower-cost, non-certified avionics offer synthetic vision like apps available for Android or iPad tablet computers from ForeFlight, Garmin, or Hilton Software\n\nRegulations and standards\n\nSee also\n Aircraft collision avoidance systems\n Enhanced flight vision system\n External vision system\n Instrument landing system\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n\nAvionics\nAugmented reality\nAircraft collision avoidance systems\n\nja:バーチャルリアリティー", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Birney
David Edwin Birney (April 23, 1939 – April 27, 2022) was an American actor and director whose career included performances in both contemporary and classical roles in theatre, film, and television. He is noted for having played the title role in the television series Serpico. He also starred in Bridget Loves Bernie, an early 1970s TV series about an interfaith marriage that also starred Meredith Baxter (whom he married after the series ended). He also portrayed Dr. Ben Samuels in St. Elsewhere from 1982 until 1983. Early life Birney was born in Washington, D.C., on April 23, 1939. His father, Edwin, worked as a special agent for the FBI; his mother, Jeanne (McGee), was a housewife before becoming a real estate agent. Birney attended schools in Brooklyn, Ohio, and graduated from West High School in Cleveland. Named to the National Honor Society, he lettered in basketball, football, and track. He held a B.A. degree from Dartmouth College with "High Distinction" in English literature, English Honors. At the University of California, Los Angeles, Birney earned an M.A. in theatre arts, acting and directing, studying with Ralph Freud and William Melnitz. He held a teaching assistant fellowship and was awarded an honorary Ph.D. in Humanities from Southern Utah University. Stage While in the U.S. Army, Birney won an All Army Entertainment contest and received the "Barter Theatre Award" in 1965. Since the award was an equity contract with the Company for an entire season, he consequently spent the next season with the Barter Theatre, the State Theatre of Virginia, starring or appearing in fifteen shows, directing two others. In the following two years he went on to perform with a range of companies and productions, off-Broadway and in several regional repertory theatres. His New York debut was with Joe Papp's New York Shakespeare Festival as Antipholus of Syracuse in William Shakespeare’s The Comedy of Errors. Birney worked continually in the theatre performing leading roles with some of the most important theatres in the country. His stage credits included starring roles on Broadway in Amadeus, Benefactors, and Man and Superman. He also had major roles at the American Shakespeare Festival, New York's Lincoln Center Repertory Theatre, the New York Shakespeare Festival, Los Angeles' Mark Taper Forum, Washington, D.C.'s Shakespeare Theatre, Princeton's McCarter Theatre, the Great Lakes Shakespeare Festival, and numerous regional theatres around the country. Representative roles included: Prince Hamlet, Macbeth, Romeo and Mercutio in Romeo and Juliet, Richard II, Richard III, Benedick in Much Ado About Nothing, Shylock in The Merchant of Venice, Orsino in Twelfth Night, Atticus Finch in To Kill a Mockingbird, Jack Tanner in Man and Superman, Christy Mahon in The Playboy of the Western World, Young Man in Summertree, Cusins in Major Barbara, Jerry in The Zoo Story, Algernon in The Importance of Being Earnest, Arthur in Camelot, Higgins in My Fair Lady, Matt Friedman in Talley's Folly, David in Social Security, Andrew in Love Letters, Jamie in A Moon for the Misbegotten, Victor in The Price, Jaques in As You Like It, the Dauphin in King John, and Shaw in Dear Liar. Audiobooks Birney recorded numerous audiobook bestsellers, including works by Dean Koontz, Paul Theroux, Annie Dillard, and Orson Scott Card. He was conferred the Audie Award for his reading of Julie Salomon's The Christmas Tree, and was also bestowed several AudioFile Magazine Earphone Awards. He played Anakin Skywalker in the radio adaptation of Return of the Jedi. Television Aside from his title role in Bridget Loves Bernie, Birney appeared frequently on television, building a career in TV movies, regular series and miniseries. He starred in such series as Live Shot, Cannon, St. Elsewhere, The Adams Chronicles, Glitter, Serpico, Fantasy Island, Hawaii Five-O, McMillan & Wife, The F.B.I., Murder, She Wrote, and he starred in the episode "The Nomads" from the 1977 series Quinn Martin's Tales of the Unexpected, known in the United Kingdom as Twist in the Tale. His miniseries credits include Testimony of Two Men, Valley of the Dolls, Night of the Fox, and Master of the Game. He also appeared in the TV series the Love Boat with his wife where he played an Italian escort to an American woman whose friend arranged the encounter. Birney also appeared in leading roles in many television films, including Long Journey Home and The Deadly Game. He also appeared in the soap operas The Best of Everything and Love Is a Many Splendored Thing. Writing and directing Birney edited and adapted for the stage a two-character play based on some of Mark Twain’s shorter works and letters. The piece, Mark Twain's The Diaries of Adam and Eve, was presented on the PBS series American Playhouse. Developing the play subsequently for the stage, Birney directed and starred in productions for regional theatres such as the Hartford Stage (opening the Mark Twain Festival in Hartford), the Capital Repertory Theatre, and on tour in performing arts centers across the country. A second play, A Christmas Pudding, a Christmas collage of song, story and poetry of the season was published by Samuel French, Inc. Professional associations Birney served on the Large Theatre Panel of the National Endowment for the Arts and was a board member of the Foundation for Biomedical Research. He also served on the Theatre and Dance Panel of the Jacob Javits Fellowship Foundation. For Dartmouth College he served as a member of the Board of Overseers for the Hopkins Center for the Arts. He initiated and chaired the Class of '61 Legacy: The American Tradition in Performance, helping to create a substantial endowment dedicated to live performance at the Hopkins Center at Dartmouth College. For five years, Birney co-chaired the American Diabetes Association, speaking and fund raising for the Association. He was an advisor for the Children’s Rights Council, a national nonprofit organization advocating access to both parents after divorce or separation. His contribution to classical theatre was recognized with Washington's Shakespeare Theatre's Millennium Award. Personal life Birney married actress Meredith Baxter in 1974. They had starred together in the 1972–73 TV series Bridget Loves Bernie. During their marriage, she was known as Meredith Baxter Birney. Together, they had three children: Kate, Mollie, and Peter. They divorced in 1989. In 2011, she said Birney emotionally and physically abused her during their marriage. He published a lengthy statement on his website disputing the allegations. In the December 2017 edition of the Wide Wide World newsletter for Dartmouth College class of 1961 alumni, it was disclosed that Birney had been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. Birney died on April 27, 2022, at his home in Santa Monica, California, four days after his 83rd birthday. At the time of his death, he was in a domestic partnership with Michele Roberge. Filmography Film Caravan to Vaccarès (1974) - Bowman Trial by Combat (1976) - Sir John Gifford Bye, See You Monday (1979) - Frank Oh, God! Book II (1980) - Don Richards Prettykill (1987) - Larry Turner Nightfall (1988) - Aton The Naked Truth (1992) - Fed. #2 The Comedy of Errors (2000) - The Duke Films for television Ghost Story (1972 pilot) - John Travis Someone's Watching Me! (1978) - Paul Winkless OHMS (1980) - Jack Coker ABC Afterschool Special (1981, Episode: "I Think I'm Having a Baby") - Mr. Fenning The Long Journey Home (1987) - Carter Wells Night of the Fox (1990) - Hugh Kelso Always Remember I Love You (1990) - Philip Mendham Keeping Secrets (1991) - Alan TV Mini Series The Adams Chronicles (1976) - John Quincy Adams Testimony of Two Men (1977) - Jonathan 'Jon' Ferrier Jacqueline Susann's Valley of the Dolls (1981) - Lyon Burke Master of the Game (1984) - David Blackwell References External links The Papers of David E. Birney at Dartmouth College Library 1939 births 2022 deaths 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors American male film actors American male radio actors American male television actors Dartmouth College alumni Deaths from Alzheimer's disease Male actors from Cleveland Male actors from Washington, D.C. Deaths from dementia in California UCLA Film School alumni University of California, Los Angeles alumni
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Birney", "role": "user" }, { "content": "David Edwin Birney (April 23, 1939 – April 27, 2022) was an American actor and director whose career included performances in both contemporary and classical roles in theatre, film, and television. He is noted for having played the title role in the television series Serpico. He also starred in Bridget Loves Bernie, an early 1970s TV series about an interfaith marriage that also starred Meredith Baxter (whom he married after the series ended). He also portrayed Dr. Ben Samuels in St. Elsewhere from 1982 until 1983.\n\nEarly life\nBirney was born in Washington, D.C., on April 23, 1939. His father, Edwin, worked as a special agent for the FBI; his mother, Jeanne (McGee), was a housewife before becoming a real estate agent. Birney attended schools in Brooklyn, Ohio, and graduated from West High School in Cleveland. Named to the National Honor Society, he lettered in basketball, football, and track. He held a B.A. degree from Dartmouth College with \"High Distinction\" in English literature, English Honors. At the University of California, Los Angeles, Birney earned an M.A. in theatre arts, acting and directing, studying with Ralph Freud and William Melnitz. He held a teaching assistant fellowship and was awarded an honorary Ph.D. in Humanities from Southern Utah University.\n\nStage\nWhile in the U.S. Army, Birney won an All Army Entertainment contest and received the \"Barter Theatre Award\" in 1965. Since the award was an equity contract with the Company for an entire season, he consequently spent the next season with the Barter Theatre, the State Theatre of Virginia, starring or appearing in fifteen shows, directing two others. In the following two years he went on to perform with a range of companies and productions, off-Broadway and in several regional repertory theatres. His New York debut was with Joe Papp's New York Shakespeare Festival as Antipholus of Syracuse in William Shakespeare’s The Comedy of Errors.\n\nBirney worked continually in the theatre performing leading roles with some of the most important theatres in the country. His stage credits included starring roles on Broadway in Amadeus, Benefactors, and Man and Superman. He also had major roles at the American Shakespeare Festival, New York's Lincoln Center Repertory Theatre, the New York Shakespeare Festival, Los Angeles' Mark Taper Forum, Washington, D.C.'s Shakespeare Theatre, Princeton's McCarter Theatre, the Great Lakes Shakespeare Festival, and numerous regional theatres around the country.\n\nRepresentative roles included: Prince Hamlet, Macbeth, Romeo and Mercutio in Romeo and Juliet, Richard II, Richard III, Benedick in Much Ado About Nothing, Shylock in The Merchant of Venice, Orsino in Twelfth Night, Atticus Finch in To Kill a Mockingbird, Jack Tanner in Man and Superman, Christy Mahon in The Playboy of the Western World, Young Man in Summertree, Cusins in Major Barbara, Jerry in The Zoo Story, Algernon in The Importance of Being Earnest, Arthur in Camelot, Higgins in My Fair Lady, Matt Friedman in Talley's Folly, David in Social Security, Andrew in Love Letters, Jamie in A Moon for the Misbegotten, Victor in The Price, Jaques in As You Like It, the Dauphin in King John, and Shaw in Dear Liar.\n\nAudiobooks\nBirney recorded numerous audiobook bestsellers, including works by Dean Koontz, Paul Theroux, Annie Dillard, and Orson Scott Card. He was conferred the Audie Award for his reading of Julie Salomon's The Christmas Tree, and was also bestowed several AudioFile Magazine Earphone Awards. He played Anakin Skywalker in the radio adaptation of Return of the Jedi.\n\nTelevision\nAside from his title role in Bridget Loves Bernie, Birney appeared frequently on television, building a career in TV movies, regular series and miniseries. He starred in such series as Live Shot, Cannon, St. Elsewhere, The Adams Chronicles, Glitter, Serpico, Fantasy Island, Hawaii Five-O, McMillan & Wife, The F.B.I., Murder, She Wrote, and he starred in the episode \"The Nomads\" from the 1977 series Quinn Martin's Tales of the Unexpected, known in the United Kingdom as Twist in the Tale. His miniseries credits include Testimony of Two Men, Valley of the Dolls, Night of the Fox, and Master of the Game. He also appeared in the TV series the Love Boat with his wife where he played an Italian escort to an American woman whose friend arranged the encounter. \n\nBirney also appeared in leading roles in many television films, including Long Journey Home and The Deadly Game. He also appeared in the soap operas The Best of Everything and Love Is a Many Splendored Thing.\n\nWriting and directing\nBirney edited and adapted for the stage a two-character play based on some of Mark Twain’s shorter works and letters. The piece, Mark Twain's The Diaries of Adam and Eve, was presented on the PBS series American Playhouse. \n\nDeveloping the play subsequently for the stage, Birney directed and starred in productions for regional theatres such as the Hartford Stage (opening the Mark Twain Festival in Hartford), the Capital Repertory Theatre, and on tour in performing arts centers across the country. A second play, A Christmas Pudding, a Christmas collage of song, story and poetry of the season was published by Samuel French, Inc.\n\nProfessional associations\nBirney served on the Large Theatre Panel of the National Endowment for the Arts and was a board member of the Foundation for Biomedical Research. He also served on the Theatre and Dance Panel of the Jacob Javits Fellowship Foundation. For Dartmouth College he served as a member of the Board of Overseers for the Hopkins Center for the Arts. He initiated and chaired the Class of '61 Legacy: The American Tradition in Performance, helping to create a substantial endowment dedicated to live performance at the Hopkins Center at Dartmouth College. \n\nFor five years, Birney co-chaired the American Diabetes Association, speaking and fund raising for the Association. He was an advisor for the Children’s Rights Council, a national nonprofit organization advocating access to both parents after divorce or separation. His contribution to classical theatre was recognized with Washington's Shakespeare Theatre's Millennium Award.\n\nPersonal life\nBirney married actress Meredith Baxter in 1974. They had starred together in the 1972–73 TV series Bridget Loves Bernie. During their marriage, she was known as Meredith Baxter Birney. Together, they had three children: Kate, Mollie, and Peter. They divorced in 1989. In 2011, she said Birney emotionally and physically abused her during their marriage. He published a lengthy statement on his website disputing the allegations.\n\nIn the December 2017 edition of the Wide Wide World newsletter for Dartmouth College class of 1961 alumni, it was disclosed that Birney had been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. Birney died on April 27, 2022, at his home in Santa Monica, California, four days after his 83rd birthday. At the time of his death, he was in a domestic partnership with Michele Roberge.\n\nFilmography\n\nFilm\nCaravan to Vaccarès (1974) - Bowman\nTrial by Combat (1976) - Sir John Gifford\nBye, See You Monday (1979) - Frank\nOh, God! Book II (1980) - Don Richards\nPrettykill (1987) - Larry Turner\nNightfall (1988) - Aton\nThe Naked Truth (1992) - Fed. #2\nThe Comedy of Errors (2000) - The Duke\n\nFilms for television\nGhost Story (1972 pilot) - John Travis\nSomeone's Watching Me! (1978) - Paul Winkless\nOHMS (1980) - Jack Coker\nABC Afterschool Special (1981, Episode: \"I Think I'm Having a Baby\") - Mr. Fenning\nThe Long Journey Home (1987) - Carter Wells\nNight of the Fox (1990) - Hugh Kelso\nAlways Remember I Love You (1990) - Philip Mendham\nKeeping Secrets (1991) - Alan\n\nTV Mini Series\nThe Adams Chronicles (1976) - John Quincy Adams\nTestimony of Two Men (1977) - Jonathan 'Jon' Ferrier\nJacqueline Susann's Valley of the Dolls (1981) - Lyon Burke\nMaster of the Game (1984) - David Blackwell\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n \n \n \n The Papers of David E. Birney at Dartmouth College Library\n\n1939 births\n2022 deaths\n20th-century American male actors\n21st-century American male actors\nAmerican male film actors\nAmerican male radio actors\nAmerican male television actors\nDartmouth College alumni\nDeaths from Alzheimer's disease\nMale actors from Cleveland\nMale actors from Washington, D.C.\nDeaths from dementia in California\nUCLA Film School alumni\nUniversity of California, Los Angeles alumni", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Schickler
David Schickler (born July 30, 1969, in Rochester, New York) is an American screenwriter and author, most recently of the memoir The Dark Path, published by Riverhead Books in September 2013. He is the co-creator and an executive producer of the Cinemax television series Banshee, which premiered in 2013. He is the author of the New York Times bestselling short story collection Kissing in Manhattan (2001) and the nationally bestselling novel Sweet and Vicious (2004). He has written original and adapted scripts for Universal, Lions Gate, Sidney Kimmel and Wildwood Films. His books have been published in nine countries and his stories have appeared in The New Yorker, Travel + Leisure, and Zoetrope: All-Story, as well as on Selected Shorts. His short story "The Smoker" won an O. Henry Award and was optioned by Paramount Pictures. Schickler graduated from McQuaid Jesuit High School. He received his undergraduate degree from Georgetown University and Masters from Columbia University. He now lives in Rochester, NY with his wife and children. Works Filmography Television Creator Producer Writer Bibliography Kissing in Manhattan (short story collection) (2001) Sweet and Vicious (novel) (2004) The Dark Path (memoir) (2013) References External links David Schickler Home Banshee David Schickler Interview Full text of "Fourth Angry Mouse" by David Schickler 'Banshee,’ Cinemax’s Deliciously Over-the-Top Carnival of Sex and Violence, Is Must-See TV 21st-century American novelists American male novelists Walsh School of Foreign Service alumni Columbia University alumni 1969 births Living people American male short story writers 21st-century American short story writers 21st-century American male writers
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Schickler", "role": "user" }, { "content": "David Schickler (born July 30, 1969, in Rochester, New York) is an American screenwriter and author, most recently of the memoir The Dark Path, published by Riverhead Books in September 2013. He is the co-creator and an executive producer of the Cinemax television series Banshee, which premiered in 2013. He is the author of the New York Times bestselling short story collection Kissing in Manhattan (2001) and the nationally bestselling novel Sweet and Vicious (2004). He has written original and adapted scripts for Universal, Lions Gate, Sidney Kimmel and Wildwood Films.\n\nHis books have been published in nine countries and his stories have appeared in The New Yorker, Travel + Leisure, and Zoetrope: All-Story, as well as on Selected Shorts. His short story \"The Smoker\" won an O. Henry Award and was optioned by Paramount Pictures.\n\nSchickler graduated from McQuaid Jesuit High School. He received his undergraduate degree from Georgetown University and Masters from Columbia University. He now lives in Rochester, NY with his wife and children.\n\nWorks\n\nFilmography\n\nTelevision\n\nCreator\n\nProducer\n\nWriter\n\nBibliography \n Kissing in Manhattan (short story collection) (2001) \n Sweet and Vicious (novel) (2004) \n The Dark Path (memoir) (2013)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n David Schickler Home\n \n Banshee\n David Schickler Interview\n Full text of \"Fourth Angry Mouse\" by David Schickler\n 'Banshee,’ Cinemax’s Deliciously Over-the-Top Carnival of Sex and Violence, Is Must-See TV\n\n21st-century American novelists\nAmerican male novelists\nWalsh School of Foreign Service alumni\nColumbia University alumni\n1969 births\nLiving people\nAmerican male short story writers\n21st-century American short story writers\n21st-century American male writers", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatal%20Fury%203%3A%20Road%20to%20the%20Final%20Victory
Fatal Fury 3: Road to the Final Victory is a 1995 head-to-head fighting game released by SNK for the Neo-Geo arcade and home platforms. It is the fourth game in the Fatal Fury series after Fatal Fury Special (which was an updated version of Fatal Fury 2). Console versions of Fatal Fury 3 were released for the Neo Geo CD, Sega Saturn, Windows-based computers and on the Wii Virtual Console. The game is also included in the compilation Fatal Fury Battle Archives Volume 1 for the PlayStation 2. Gameplay Fatal Fury 3 retains the format and controls of the previous game in the series, Fatal Fury Special. However, the two-plane battle stages have been revamped into a three-plane format known as the Oversway System. The player fights primarily in the middle plane or the main plane, but can move or "oversway" into either of the sway lines at the background (LP+LK) or foreground (LK+HP). When the player performs an attack in a sway plane (or an Oversway Attack), their character will return to the main plane. Likewise, the player can attack an opponent who is in a Sway Plane with an Anti-Oversway Attack. The player can also do a "Quick Sway" to avoid an attack, leaving the opponent vulnerable to a regular attack. Other new techniques introduced in this installment includes controlling the height of the character's jump, block an opponent's attack at mid-air (Air Guard), and a new type of combo techniques known as Combination Arts, allowing the player to cancel a specific series (which varies between characters) of regular attacks from one to the other. In addition to the regular Special Moves, and the Super Special Moves which can only be performed when the life gauge is flashing red, each character also has a "Hidden Ability", which is a stronger version of a Super Special Move. A Hidden Ability occurs once in every 1024 chances whenever the player inputs the command for the character's Super Special Move. A Hidden Ability can also be used by activating "Super Mode" before a match using a secret code. The player then enters a specific command for the Hidden Ability when the life gauge is flashing red. Unlike Super Special Moves, a Hidden Ability can only be used once per round. Fatal Fury 3 also features a Fighting Level system when fighting against the computer. When the player completes a round, their performance is graded from E to S. The final opponents the player faces at the end of the Single Player Mode is determined then by the player's average. The player will have a choice among four characters as their first opponent (Joe, Mary, Bob, and Franco). After the first four opponents are defeated, the player will fight against Ryuji Yamazaki for a plot-based match in which the player must win only one round. The player will then proceed to fight against Mai, Andy, Hon-Fu, Sokaku, Terry, and Geese, in that order, before fighting Yamazaki again for a full match. Depending on the grade average, the game will either end against Yamazaki, or the player will fight against either, or both, of the Jin twins, starting with Chon Shu and ending with Chon Rei. Plot Three years have passed since Terry Bogard had defeated Wolfgang Krauser and won the second "King of Fighters" tournament. Ever since then, Terry has traveled throughout the world, meeting new friends and battling many opponents along the way. Upon returning home to South Town, Terry rendezvouses with his young brother Andy and his good friends Joe and Mai at the grand opening of the Pao Pao Cafe 2 that's being headed by Richard Meyer and his capoeira apprentice Bob Wilson. During the opening, Joe explains to Terry a disturbing rumor that he had gotten from Cheng Sinzan via a private message in that Geese Howard is supposedly alive, having survived his fatal fall from his personal tower four years prior and faking his death to the public so that he could slowly recover in secret and plan his revenge against Terry, who had defeated him in the first "King of Fighters" tournament. Upon hearing and learning of this, Terry and his friends set out to confirm on whether or not Geese is still alive, not knowing that their personal investigation is only a small part of a bigger threat which involves a dangerous Japanese criminal, two young Chinese orphans, and three sacred scrolls that could easily endanger South Town and the rest of the world. Fighters Returning fighters: Terry Bogard (v.b. Satoshi Hashimoto) Andy Bogard (v.b. Keiichi Nanba) Joe Higashi (v.b. Nobuyuki Hiyama) Mai Shiranui (v.b. Akoya Sogi) Geese Howard (v.b. Kong Kuwata) New fighters: Sokaku Mochizuki (v.b. Kōji Ishii) - a Japanese Buddhist monk whose clan are the sworn enemies of the Shiranui school. Bob Wilson (v.b. Toshiyuki Morikawa) - a capoeira master from Brazil who is employed as a waiter by Richard Meyer. Hon-Fu (v.b. Toshiyuki Morikawa) - a nunchaku-wielding cop from Hong Kong who has come to South Town in order to find and arrest Yamazaki. Blue Mary (v.b. Harumi Ikoma) - a blonde-haired female agent who uses combat sambo and is Terry's love interest. Franco Bash (v.b. B. J. Love) - an Italian American kickboxer who is fighting to rescue and save his kidnapped young son from Yamazaki. Bosses: Ryuji Yamazaki (v.b. Kōji Ishii) - a dangerous Japanese criminal who fights with one hand in his pocket. Jin Chonshu (v.b. by Kappei Yamaguchi) - a young Chinese orphan boy who is seeking the Sacred Scrolls of the Jin. Jin Chonrei (v.b. Kappei Yamaguchi) - Chonshu's elder twin brother, who aids and assists his young twin brother as both his personal protector and bodyguard. Reception In Japan, Game Machine listed Fatal Fury 3: Road to the Final Victory on their May 1, 1995 issue as being the second most-popular arcade game at the time. According to Famitsu, the AES version sold over 34,810 copies in its first week on the market. On release, Famicom Tsūshin scored the Neo Geo version of the game a 32 out of 40. The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly scored it a 7.675 out of 10. They had widely varied reactions to the game, and two of them remarked that it lacked the "feel" of a Fatal Fury game, but all four rated it as a very playable fighting game which is worth at least trying in the arcade. While acknowledging that Fatal Fury fans might be disappointed by the reduced roster of fighters, GamePro praised the new third fighting plane and ranking system, and concluded that "Instead of simply adding more fighters, FF3 does more with fewer fighters (hidden moves and so on) and a unique method of gameplay." They gave the Neo Geo CD a generally positive review as well, remarking that Bob and Franco are "uninteresting" new characters but praising the detailed stages, the controls, and the modifications to Mai's Swan Dive attack. In a retrospective review, Maximum highly praised the game's adaptation of combos and special moves, and argued that if it were not for the difficulty in executing super power moves, Fatal Fury 3 would have become the leading action game in the arcades. They gave it 4 out of 5 stars. Next Generation reviewed the Neo-Geo version of the game, rating it two stars out of five, and stated that "The players are all able, even if just for a few seconds, to slip out of the line of fire either to avoid enemy attack or to set up for an offensive move. Beyond this feature the game is standard fare." Notes References External links GAMEBANK page Fatal Fury 3: Road to the Final Victory at GameFAQs Fatal Fury 3: Road to the Final Victory at Giant Bomb Fatal Fury 3: Road to the Final Victory at Killer List of Videogames Fatal Fury 3: Road to the Final Victory at MobyGames 1995 video games ACA Neo Geo games Arcade video games D4 Enterprise games Fatal Fury Fighting games Kinesoft games Multiplayer and single-player video games Neo Geo games Neo Geo CD games Nintendo Switch games NuFX games PlayStation 4 games PlayStation Network games Sega Saturn games SIMS Co., Ltd. games SNK games SNK Playmore games Video games scored by Masahiko Hataya Virtual Console games Windows games Video games developed in Japan Xbox One games Hamster Corporation games CyberFront games
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatal%20Fury%203%3A%20Road%20to%20the%20Final%20Victory", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Fatal Fury 3: Road to the Final Victory is a 1995 head-to-head fighting game released by SNK for the Neo-Geo arcade and home platforms. It is the fourth game in the Fatal Fury series after Fatal Fury Special (which was an updated version of Fatal Fury 2). Console versions of Fatal Fury 3 were released for the Neo Geo CD, Sega Saturn, Windows-based computers and on the Wii Virtual Console. The game is also included in the compilation Fatal Fury Battle Archives Volume 1 for the PlayStation 2.\n\nGameplay \n\nFatal Fury 3 retains the format and controls of the previous game in the series, Fatal Fury Special. However, the two-plane battle stages have been revamped into a three-plane format known as the Oversway System. The player fights primarily in the middle plane or the main plane, but can move or \"oversway\" into either of the sway lines at the background (LP+LK) or foreground (LK+HP). When the player performs an attack in a sway plane (or an Oversway Attack), their character will return to the main plane. Likewise, the player can attack an opponent who is in a Sway Plane with an Anti-Oversway Attack. The player can also do a \"Quick Sway\" to avoid an attack, leaving the opponent vulnerable to a regular attack.\n\nOther new techniques introduced in this installment includes controlling the height of the character's jump, block an opponent's attack at mid-air (Air Guard), and a new type of combo techniques known as Combination Arts, allowing the player to cancel a specific series (which varies between characters) of regular attacks from one to the other. In addition to the regular Special Moves, and the Super Special Moves which can only be performed when the life gauge is flashing red, each character also has a \"Hidden Ability\", which is a stronger version of a Super Special Move. A Hidden Ability occurs once in every 1024 chances whenever the player inputs the command for the character's Super Special Move. A Hidden Ability can also be used by activating \"Super Mode\" before a match using a secret code. The player then enters a specific command for the Hidden Ability when the life gauge is flashing red. Unlike Super Special Moves, a Hidden Ability can only be used once per round.\n\nFatal Fury 3 also features a Fighting Level system when fighting against the computer. When the player completes a round, their performance is graded from E to S. The final opponents the player faces at the end of the Single Player Mode is determined then by the player's average.\n\nThe player will have a choice among four characters as their first opponent (Joe, Mary, Bob, and Franco). After the first four opponents are defeated, the player will fight against Ryuji Yamazaki for a plot-based match in which the player must win only one round. The player will then proceed to fight against Mai, Andy, Hon-Fu, Sokaku, Terry, and Geese, in that order, before fighting Yamazaki again for a full match. Depending on the grade average, the game will either end against Yamazaki, or the player will fight against either, or both, of the Jin twins, starting with Chon Shu and ending with Chon Rei.\n\nPlot\nThree years have passed since Terry Bogard had defeated Wolfgang Krauser and won the second \"King of Fighters\" tournament. Ever since then, Terry has traveled throughout the world, meeting new friends and battling many opponents along the way. Upon returning home to South Town, Terry rendezvouses with his young brother Andy and his good friends Joe and Mai at the grand opening of the Pao Pao Cafe 2 that's being headed by Richard Meyer and his capoeira apprentice Bob Wilson. During the opening, Joe explains to Terry a disturbing rumor that he had gotten from Cheng Sinzan via a private message in that Geese Howard is supposedly alive, having survived his fatal fall from his personal tower four years prior and faking his death to the public so that he could slowly recover in secret and plan his revenge against Terry, who had defeated him in the first \"King of Fighters\" tournament. Upon hearing and learning of this, Terry and his friends set out to confirm on whether or not Geese is still alive, not knowing that their personal investigation is only a small part of a bigger threat which involves a dangerous Japanese criminal, two young Chinese orphans, and three sacred scrolls that could easily endanger South Town and the rest of the world.\n\nFighters\nReturning fighters:\n Terry Bogard (v.b. Satoshi Hashimoto)\n Andy Bogard (v.b. Keiichi Nanba)\n Joe Higashi (v.b. Nobuyuki Hiyama)\n Mai Shiranui (v.b. Akoya Sogi)\n Geese Howard (v.b. Kong Kuwata)\n\nNew fighters:\n Sokaku Mochizuki (v.b. Kōji Ishii) - a Japanese Buddhist monk whose clan are the sworn enemies of the Shiranui school.\n Bob Wilson (v.b. Toshiyuki Morikawa) - a capoeira master from Brazil who is employed as a waiter by Richard Meyer.\n Hon-Fu (v.b. Toshiyuki Morikawa) - a nunchaku-wielding cop from Hong Kong who has come to South Town in order to find and arrest Yamazaki.\n Blue Mary (v.b. Harumi Ikoma) - a blonde-haired female agent who uses combat sambo and is Terry's love interest.\n Franco Bash (v.b. B. J. Love) - an Italian American kickboxer who is fighting to rescue and save his kidnapped young son from Yamazaki.\n\nBosses:\n Ryuji Yamazaki (v.b. Kōji Ishii) - a dangerous Japanese criminal who fights with one hand in his pocket.\n Jin Chonshu (v.b. by Kappei Yamaguchi) - a young Chinese orphan boy who is seeking the Sacred Scrolls of the Jin.\n Jin Chonrei (v.b. Kappei Yamaguchi) - Chonshu's elder twin brother, who aids and assists his young twin brother as both his personal protector and bodyguard.\n\nReception\nIn Japan, Game Machine listed Fatal Fury 3: Road to the Final Victory on their May 1, 1995 issue as being the second most-popular arcade game at the time. According to Famitsu, the AES version sold over 34,810 copies in its first week on the market.\n\nOn release, Famicom Tsūshin scored the Neo Geo version of the game a 32 out of 40. The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly scored it a 7.675 out of 10. They had widely varied reactions to the game, and two of them remarked that it lacked the \"feel\" of a Fatal Fury game, but all four rated it as a very playable fighting game which is worth at least trying in the arcade. While acknowledging that Fatal Fury fans might be disappointed by the reduced roster of fighters, GamePro praised the new third fighting plane and ranking system, and concluded that \"Instead of simply adding more fighters, FF3 does more with fewer fighters (hidden moves and so on) and a unique method of gameplay.\" They gave the Neo Geo CD a generally positive review as well, remarking that Bob and Franco are \"uninteresting\" new characters but praising the detailed stages, the controls, and the modifications to Mai's Swan Dive attack.\n\nIn a retrospective review, Maximum highly praised the game's adaptation of combos and special moves, and argued that if it were not for the difficulty in executing super power moves, Fatal Fury 3 would have become the leading action game in the arcades. They gave it 4 out of 5 stars.\n\nNext Generation reviewed the Neo-Geo version of the game, rating it two stars out of five, and stated that \"The players are all able, even if just for a few seconds, to slip out of the line of fire either to avoid enemy attack or to set up for an offensive move. Beyond this feature the game is standard fare.\"\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nGAMEBANK page\nFatal Fury 3: Road to the Final Victory at GameFAQs\nFatal Fury 3: Road to the Final Victory at Giant Bomb\nFatal Fury 3: Road to the Final Victory at Killer List of Videogames\nFatal Fury 3: Road to the Final Victory at MobyGames\n\n1995 video games\nACA Neo Geo games\nArcade video games\nD4 Enterprise games\nFatal Fury\nFighting games\nKinesoft games\nMultiplayer and single-player video games\nNeo Geo games\nNeo Geo CD games\nNintendo Switch games\nNuFX games\nPlayStation 4 games\nPlayStation Network games\nSega Saturn games\nSIMS Co., Ltd. games\nSNK games\nSNK Playmore games\nVideo games scored by Masahiko Hataya\nVirtual Console games\nWindows games\nVideo games developed in Japan\nXbox One games\nHamster Corporation games\nCyberFront games", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodrich%20F.C.
Goodrich F.C. was a football club based in Wolverhampton, West Midlands, England. The team joined the West Midlands (Regional) League Division One North in 1997, having emerged from local works football. From 2004 until 2012 the team played in the West Midlands (Regional) League Premier Division. History The Goodrich club had links to Aero Lucas FC, who played in the West Midland (Regional) League between 1983 and 1989, and fielded a second team who played in the Wolverhampton Works League. When the first team dropped out of the West Midlands League in 1989, the second team took over, re-forming the club in 1995 as Lucas Flight Controls. In 2001 the club changed its name to Lucas Sports (Wolverhampton) before settling on Goodrich in 2003. Having originally joined the West Midlands League in 1997, in their first season as Goodrich, the club finished third in Division One (North) and were beaten finalists in the League Cup, before winning the title to gain promotion into the Premier Division the following season. During the course of the 2004–05 season, Goodrich ground-shared with local rivals Wednesfield while improvements were carried out to get their own ground and facilities up to the required Premier Division standard. After completion of the work, the club returned to the Goodrich Sports Ground for the 2005–06 campaign under new joint managers Martin Hughes and Steve Woodcock, who replaced Dean Parkes, who resigned after ten years in charge. Goodrich resigned from the West Midlands (Regional) League in May 2012, citing costs as the reason for their resignation. Youth team In July 2011, Goodrich set up a youth team to compete in the Midlands Floodlit Youth League. Honours West Midlands (Regional) League Division One champions 2003–04 Club records Best league performance: 6th in West Midlands (Regional) League Premier Division – 2006–07 Best FA Cup performance: Extra Preliminary Round – 2008–09, 2009–10 Best FA Vase performance: Second Qualifying Round – 2007–08, 2009–10 Sources External links Club website Defunct football clubs in England Sport in Wolverhampton Association football clubs established in 1995 Defunct football clubs in the West Midlands (county) 1995 establishments in England Works association football teams in England
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodrich%20F.C.", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Goodrich F.C. was a football club based in Wolverhampton, West Midlands, England. The team joined the West Midlands (Regional) League Division One North in 1997, having emerged from local works football. From 2004 until 2012 the team played in the West Midlands (Regional) League Premier Division.\n\nHistory\nThe Goodrich club had links to Aero Lucas FC, who played in the West Midland (Regional) League between 1983 and 1989, and fielded a second team who played in the Wolverhampton Works League. When the first team dropped out of the West Midlands League in 1989, the second team took over, re-forming the club in 1995 as Lucas Flight Controls. In 2001 the club changed its name to Lucas Sports (Wolverhampton) before settling on Goodrich in 2003.\n\nHaving originally joined the West Midlands League in 1997, in their first season as Goodrich, the club finished third in Division One (North) and were beaten finalists in the League Cup, before winning the title to gain promotion into the Premier Division the following season.\n\nDuring the course of the 2004–05 season, Goodrich ground-shared with local rivals Wednesfield while improvements were carried out to get their own ground and facilities up to the required Premier Division standard.\n\nAfter completion of the work, the club returned to the Goodrich Sports Ground for the 2005–06 campaign under new joint managers Martin Hughes and Steve Woodcock, who replaced Dean Parkes, who resigned after ten years in charge.\n\nGoodrich resigned from the West Midlands (Regional) League in May 2012, citing costs as the reason for their resignation.\n\nYouth team\nIn July 2011, Goodrich set up a youth team to compete in the Midlands Floodlit Youth League.\n\nHonours\nWest Midlands (Regional) League\nDivision One champions 2003–04\n\nClub records\nBest league performance: 6th in West Midlands (Regional) League Premier Division – 2006–07\nBest FA Cup performance: Extra Preliminary Round – 2008–09, 2009–10\nBest FA Vase performance: Second Qualifying Round – 2007–08, 2009–10\n\nSources\n\nExternal links\nClub website\n\nDefunct football clubs in England\nSport in Wolverhampton\nAssociation football clubs established in 1995\nDefunct football clubs in the West Midlands (county)\n1995 establishments in England\nWorks association football teams in England", "role": "assistant" } ]
Under Secretary of State for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment
The Under Secretary for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment is an undersecretary position within the United States Department of State. The Under Secretary for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment serves as senior economic advisor at the State Department and advises the Secretary of State on international economic policy and is often referred to as the senior economic diplomat of the United States. The Under Secretary also leads the work of the department on trade, agriculture, aviation, and bilateral trade relations with America's economic partners. The position is called the “E” within the government. Responsibilities include international trade and investment policy; international finance, development, and debt policy; economic sanctions and combating terrorist financing; international energy security policy; international telecommunications and transportation policies; support for U.S. businesses, and economic policy analysis, public diplomacy and private sector outreach. The E also serves as the Privacy Shield ombudsperson. History An Act of Congress first authorized an Under Secretary of State for Economic Affairs on August 1, 1946, for a 2-year period as the third-ranking officer in the department. The position was not renewed, however, and between 1947 and 1958 the ranking officer in the department handling foreign economic matters was either a Deputy Under Secretary or an Assistant Secretary of State. On June 30, 1958, Congress re-established the position of Under Secretary for Economic Affairs in the Mutual Security Act. The following year, the Department of State Organization Act of July 30, 1959, authorized the President to appoint either an Under Secretary for Political Affairs or an Under Secretary for Economic Affairs. Between 1959 and 1972, during periods when there was no Under Secretary of State for Economic Affairs, the ranking officer for foreign economic affairs was again either a Deputy Under Secretary or an Assistant Secretary of State. On July 13, 1972, Congress established separate and permanent positions at the Under Secretary of State level for Economic Affairs and for Political Affairs, in the Foreign Relations Authorization Act. On August 16, 1985, Congress changed the title to include Agricultural Affairs. The Under Secretary for Economic and Agricultural Affairs serves as the principal adviser to the Secretary and Deputy Secretary (previously Under Secretary) on matters relating to foreign economic and commercial policy. Specified duties, responsibilities, and assignments have varied over time. Each incumbent is commissioned with a functional designation as part of his title. On May 12, 1994, the title was changed to Under Secretary of State for Economic, Business, and Agricultural Affairs. It was changed again in 2011 to Under Secretary for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment after the reorganization of the EEB bureau to EB, and the spin off of two new bureaus under the Under Secretary. As of 2019, the E is also charged with advancing the State Department's economic development agenda; elevating and intensifying the department's efforts related to energy security, clean energy, and environmental sustainability; and fostering innovation through robust science, entrepreneurship, and technology policies. The E covers issues that reach from the vastness of space, through the Office of Space Affairs, to the depths of the oceans with the goal of advancing U.S. strategic interests through policy aimed at ensuring that economic growth and a healthy planet go hand in hand. List of Under Secretaries of State for Economic Affairs, 1946–1985 List of Under Secretaries of State for Economic and Agricultural Affairs, 1985–1994 The office of Under Secretary of State for Economic Affairs was renamed the Under Secretary of State for Economic and Agricultural Affairs on August 16, 1985. List of Under Secretaries of State for Economic, Business, and Agricultural Affairs, 1994–2011 The office of Under Secretary of State for Economic and Agricultural Affairs was renamed the Under Secretary of State for Economic, Business, and Agricultural Affairs on May 12, 1994. List of Under Secretaries of State for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment, 2011–present The office of Under Secretary of State for Economic, Business, and Agricultural Affairs was renamed the Under Secretary of State for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment on December 8, 2011. References External links The government website of the Under Secretary of State for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment The Office of the Historian's history of the position, and list of former Under Secretaries 1946 establishments in Washington, D.C. United States economic policy Energy policy of the United States Environmental policy in the United States United States diplomacy
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Under Secretary of State for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment", "role": "user" }, { "content": "The Under Secretary for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment is an undersecretary position within the United States Department of State. The Under Secretary for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment serves as senior economic advisor at the State Department and advises the Secretary of State on international economic policy and is often referred to as the senior economic diplomat of the United States. The Under Secretary also leads the work of the department on trade, agriculture, aviation, and bilateral trade relations with America's economic partners.\n\nThe position is called the “E” within the government. Responsibilities include international trade and investment policy; international finance, development, and debt policy; economic sanctions and combating terrorist financing; international energy security policy; international telecommunications and transportation policies; support for U.S. businesses, and economic policy analysis, public diplomacy and private sector outreach. The E also serves as the Privacy Shield ombudsperson.\n\nHistory\nAn Act of Congress first authorized an Under Secretary of State for Economic Affairs on August 1, 1946, for a 2-year period as the third-ranking officer in the department. The position was not renewed, however, and between 1947 and 1958 the ranking officer in the department handling foreign economic matters was either a Deputy Under Secretary or an Assistant Secretary of State. On June 30, 1958, Congress re-established the position of Under Secretary for Economic Affairs in the Mutual Security Act. The following year, the Department of State Organization Act of July 30, 1959, authorized the President to appoint either an Under Secretary for Political Affairs or an Under Secretary for Economic Affairs.\n\nBetween 1959 and 1972, during periods when there was no Under Secretary of State for Economic Affairs, the ranking officer for foreign economic affairs was again either a Deputy Under Secretary or an Assistant Secretary of State. On July 13, 1972, Congress established separate and permanent positions at the Under Secretary of State level for Economic Affairs and for Political Affairs, in the Foreign Relations Authorization Act. On August 16, 1985, Congress changed the title to include Agricultural Affairs. The Under Secretary for Economic and Agricultural Affairs serves as the principal adviser to the Secretary and Deputy Secretary (previously Under Secretary) on matters relating to foreign economic and commercial policy. Specified duties, responsibilities, and assignments have varied over time. Each incumbent is commissioned with a functional designation as part of his title. On May 12, 1994, the title was changed to Under Secretary of State for Economic, Business, and Agricultural Affairs. It was changed again in 2011 to Under Secretary for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment after the reorganization of the EEB bureau to EB, and the spin off of two new bureaus under the Under Secretary.\n\nAs of 2019, the E is also charged with advancing the State Department's economic development agenda; elevating and intensifying the department's efforts related to energy security, clean energy, and environmental sustainability; and fostering innovation through robust science, entrepreneurship, and technology policies. The E covers issues that reach from the vastness of space, through the Office of Space Affairs, to the depths of the oceans with the goal of advancing U.S. strategic interests through policy aimed at ensuring that economic growth and a healthy planet go hand in hand.\n\nList of Under Secretaries of State for Economic Affairs, 1946–1985\n\nList of Under Secretaries of State for Economic and Agricultural Affairs, 1985–1994\nThe office of Under Secretary of State for Economic Affairs was renamed the Under Secretary of State for Economic and Agricultural Affairs on August 16, 1985.\n\nList of Under Secretaries of State for Economic, Business, and Agricultural Affairs, 1994–2011\nThe office of Under Secretary of State for Economic and Agricultural Affairs was renamed the Under Secretary of State for Economic, Business, and Agricultural Affairs on May 12, 1994.\n\nList of Under Secretaries of State for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment, 2011–present\nThe office of Under Secretary of State for Economic, Business, and Agricultural Affairs was renamed the Under Secretary of State for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment on December 8, 2011.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nThe government website of the Under Secretary of State for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment\nThe Office of the Historian's history of the position, and list of former Under Secretaries\n\n \n1946 establishments in Washington, D.C.\nUnited States economic policy\nEnergy policy of the United States\nEnvironmental policy in the United States\nUnited States diplomacy", "role": "assistant" } ]
Indiana State Road 57
State Road 57 (SR 57) in the U.S. state of Indiana is a north–south, largely two-lane road in the southwestern portion of the state. Route description SR 57 begins at U.S. Highway 41 in Evansville and provides access to Evansville Regional Airport. It is routed concurrently with Interstate 69 to SR 68 just north of Interstate 64 then is concurrent with SR 68 for roughly 1 mile before resuming its original route. The highway serves a number of small communities and the cities of Oakland City, Petersburg and Washington. The final few miles of SR 57 are concurrent with US 231. SR 57 ends at the south junction of US 231 and SR 67, southwest of Worthington. In 2009, a portion of SR 57 was relocated onto the new I-69 route and overlapped with SR 68. The original route has been removed and now exists only as a service road to the Warrick County Industrial Park. Prior to Interstate 69, SR 57 had been a frequently congested highway with a number of dangerous intersections, such as SR 68 near Haubstadt, SR 168 in Mackey, SR 64 in Oakland City, SR 56 and SR 61 in Petersburg, US 50 in Washington and SR 58 in Elnora. The road had been widened in a number of spots to accommodate the heavy volume. Major intersections References External links 057 Transportation in Daviess County, Indiana Transportation in Gibson County, Indiana Transportation in Greene County, Indiana Transportation in Pike County, Indiana Transportation in Vanderburgh County, Indiana
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Indiana State Road 57", "role": "user" }, { "content": "State Road 57 (SR 57) in the U.S. state of Indiana is a north–south, largely two-lane road in the southwestern portion of the state.\n\nRoute description\n\nSR 57 begins at U.S. Highway 41 in Evansville and provides access to Evansville Regional Airport. It is routed concurrently with Interstate 69 to SR 68 just north of Interstate 64 then is concurrent with SR 68 for roughly 1 mile before resuming its original route. The highway serves a number of small communities and the cities of Oakland City, Petersburg and Washington. The final few miles of SR 57 are concurrent with US 231. SR 57 ends at the south junction of US 231 and SR 67, southwest of Worthington.\n\nIn 2009, a portion of SR 57 was relocated onto the new I-69 route and overlapped with SR 68. The original route has been removed and now exists only as a service road to the Warrick County Industrial Park. \n\nPrior to Interstate 69, SR 57 had been a frequently congested highway with a number of dangerous intersections, such as SR 68 near Haubstadt, SR 168 in Mackey, SR 64 in Oakland City, SR 56 and SR 61 in Petersburg, US 50 in Washington and SR 58 in Elnora. The road had been widened in a number of spots to accommodate the heavy volume.\n\nMajor intersections\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n057\nTransportation in Daviess County, Indiana\nTransportation in Gibson County, Indiana\nTransportation in Greene County, Indiana\nTransportation in Pike County, Indiana\nTransportation in Vanderburgh County, Indiana", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Namco%20games
Namco was a video game developer and publisher, originally from Japan. Bandai Namco Entertainment is the successor to Namco and continues manufacturing and distributing video games worldwide. For Namco games released following the 2006 merger with Bandai's video game division, see List of Bandai Namco video games. For a list of franchises owned by Bandai Namco, see List of Bandai Namco video game franchises. Arcade-based games Namco initially distributed its games in Japan, while relying on third-party companies, such as Atari and Midway Manufacturing to publish them internationally under their own brands. Later, it would handle its own publishing worldwide. Electro-mechanical games Namco proprietary arcade systems Namco console-based systems Namco PC-based systems Third-party systems Unknown hardware Atari releases in Japan Namco released a number of Atari arcade titles in Japan. Console-based games Published, developed, and/or produced Developed only Published only Compilations Ports and licensed games Other platforms Namco has ventured onto other platforms, either itself or through licensing agreements with other publishers. See also List of Bandai Namco video games List of Bandai Namco video game franchises References Namco
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Namco%20games", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Namco was a video game developer and publisher, originally from Japan.\n\nBandai Namco Entertainment is the successor to Namco and continues manufacturing and distributing video games worldwide. For Namco games released following the 2006 merger with Bandai's video game division, see List of Bandai Namco video games. For a list of franchises owned by Bandai Namco, see List of Bandai Namco video game franchises.\n\nArcade-based games\nNamco initially distributed its games in Japan, while relying on third-party companies, such as Atari and Midway Manufacturing to publish them internationally under their own brands. Later, it would handle its own publishing worldwide.\n\nElectro-mechanical games\n\nNamco proprietary arcade systems\n\nNamco console-based systems\n\nNamco PC-based systems\n\nThird-party systems\n\nUnknown hardware\n\nAtari releases in Japan\nNamco released a number of Atari arcade titles in Japan.\n\nConsole-based games\n\nPublished, developed, and/or produced\n\nDeveloped only\n\nPublished only\n\nCompilations\n\nPorts and licensed games\n\nOther platforms\nNamco has ventured onto other platforms, either itself or through licensing agreements with other publishers.\n\nSee also\n List of Bandai Namco video games\n List of Bandai Namco video game franchises\n\nReferences\n\nNamco", "role": "assistant" } ]
Banovići
Banovići () is a town and municipality located in Tuzla Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in northeastern Bosnia and Herzegovina. The intensive development of Banovići began with the construction of the railway Brčko-Banovići in the year 1946. Due to its quality, brown coal from Banovići is well-known all over Europe. Geography Banovići Municipality is situated on the foothills of Konjuh mountain. Town settlement of Banovići was built on the embankments of Litva river. Its average height above sea-level is 332 meters. The municipality encompasses 185 km2 and it includes the following settlements: Borovac, Banovići Selo, Ćatići, Milići, Mrgan, Repnik, Podgorje, Grivice, Treštenica Donja, Treštenica Gornja, Tulovići, Oskova, Željova, Omazići, Lozna, Seona, Pribitkovići, Stražbenica, and Gornji Bučik. According to the 1991 census, there were 26,507 inhabitants, out of the number there were 72% Bosniaks, 17% of Serbs, 2% of Croats and 9% of the others. According to some estimates in 2000, the population of Banovići is about 29,000, and a considerable number of them are refugees. History The oldest settlement known is located on Gradina hill at Tulovići village, dated from Pre-historical period, according to the material culture remaining. There is a system of caves in Pribitkovići village, rich in cave adornments. The origin of the central settlement's name is revealed by a stećak in Banović selo, which, beside ornaments and the lily flower carved into the stone, also has an inscription written in Bosnian Cyrillic script. There were several necropola of stećaks found, beside Banovići, that used to belong to Dramešin county: Stražba, Draganja, and Treštenica. The county and settlements are mentioned by this name also in Turkish sources. This name of the county was sustained until the 19th century. The intensive development of Banovići began with construction of the Brčko-Banovići railway in 1946. There were only a few houses at Banovići settlement, but by 1961 there were already 4,611 inhabitants. The settlement acquired all features of a modern urban town environment. This is due to exploitation of quality brown coal and construction of a large number of industrial facilities of metal and non-metal industry, as well as construction of a modern road between Živinice and Zavidovići. Due to its quality, brown coal from Banovići is well-known all over Europe. The exploitation of brown coal is the basis of further development of Banovići, as well as of Tuzla Canton. Tourism The Municipality of Banovići has good preconditions for the development of tourism based on hunting on the slopes of Konjuh, as well as for the development of tourism based on fishing in several mountain rivers: the Oskova, the Krabanja, the Zlaća and the Studešnica. „Zlaća“ mountain motel is one of the best mountain recreation facilities in Tuzla Canton. „Zobik“ mountain house is well known to all those in Bosnia and Herzegovina who like nature. In the village of Pribitkovići there is Borovac, an interesting series of caves rich with cave ornaments. Mountain Konjuh is habitat of following animals: brown bear, deer, wolf, fox, boar, capercaillie, squirrel. Economy "RMU Banovići" is a Bosnia and Herzegovina-based company principally engaged in the mining industry. The company’s main activities are: underground exploitation, surface exploitation, separation and distribution of brown coal. The company operates the Banovići mines and the coal separation facility in Oskova. "RMU Banovići" has about 2.600 employees. It is one of the most successful coal mining companies in Bosnia and ex-Yugoslavia. RMU sells 60% of its output to the Tuzla Power Plant (coal-fired) located nearby and also supplies coal to Bosnian households and exports to Croatia and Serbia. "RMU Banovići" has invested 40 million KM in modernising its equipment over the last few years, helping it generate combined profits of 20 million KM (convertible marks). Other important companies are: Stove factory "Helios", Building materials factory "FGO", Clothing factory "Borac", etc. Culture Building of "Radnički Dom" (Workers Dome/Centre) is a centre for cultural happenings. The building includes a radio station, city library, theatre and central restaurant. Radnički Dom is also "home" of a mural with motifs from Husinska buna (miners' rebellion in Husino) painted, in the early 1960s by one of the greatest Bosnian and ex-Yugoslavian painters, Ismet Mujezinović. The city cinema hall was renewed few years ago and has a new name (BKC = Bosanski kulturni centar/Bosnian culture centre). A youth centre "Pinkland" was created in 1995th to fill some of the social, cultural, and recreational gaps (those gaps resulted from the War in Bosnia). The centre offers classes in computers, music, painting, woodworking, and dance, as well as sports, summer camps, and picnics to more than 1,600 members. Pinkland cooperates also with the local schools, social authorities, police and other non-governmental organizations. The most important international partners are the Government of Canada, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), Finnish University Humak and Finnish NGO Etnokult. Sport FK Budućnost Banovići is the oldest sport club in the municipality of Banovići. In Bosnian Budućnost means "Future", which symbolizes the hope people had for the times to come when the club was founded in 1947. The club plays at the Gradski Stadion (eng. City Stadium), which has a capacity of 5,000. Their primary colours are dark green and black. This club has entered Republic league of Bosnia and Herzegovina in season 1978–79, which was their biggest success at that time. Today, FK Budućnost Banovići is a member of the Football Association of Bosnia and Herzegovina. FK Budućnost were promoted to the Premier League of Bosnia and Herzegovina in season 1998–99. Later, in season 2000–01, Budućnost played against FK Drnovice from the Czech Republic. Budućnost now plays in the First League of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Music There were several bands in Banovići in the last few years. Some of them are still active, for example: Impuls, Aquarius and Domavia. Impuls had tens of gigs in town and in other places. Aquarius has recorded one music video. Domavia participated on BH Radio Festival. Enver Lugavić - Kice (guitarist and singer of ex - Loše Vrijeme) took 2nd place on OBN Music Talents Show in 2003. Finnish NGO Etnokult and Finnish University Humak are organizers of the Bosna Faces world music festival in cooperation with Pinkland in Banovici Chomy chome. Scouting and mountaineering Scouting community "Plamen" was formed on 1 September 1956. Since then community works on process of non-formal life education, informing and fun for young people through promotions of scouting activities, organization of scout competitions, picnics, summer camps and education about ecology. Community counts 150 active members. Mountaineering club "Varda" exists for long time too. Their member, Miralem Husanović - Muri, has participated in several expeditions: Manaslu (Himalaya), Denali (Mount McKinley), Mont Blanc, Gran Paradiso, Matterhorn, etc. Demographics Twin towns – sister cities Banovići is twinned with: Bečej, Serbia Labin, Croatia Gallery References Official results from the book: Ethnic composition of Bosnia-Herzegovina population, by municipalities and settlements, 1991. census, Zavod za statistiku Bosne i Hercegovine - Bilten no.234, Sarajevo 1991. Script about Tuzla Canton, 2001 External links Official site Cities and towns in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Populated places in Banovići Municipalities of the Tuzla Canton
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Banovići", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Banovići () is a town and municipality located in Tuzla Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in northeastern Bosnia and Herzegovina. The intensive development of Banovići began with the construction of the railway Brčko-Banovići in the year 1946. Due to its quality, brown coal from Banovići is well-known all over Europe.\n\nGeography\nBanovići Municipality is situated on the foothills of Konjuh mountain. Town settlement of Banovići was built on the embankments of Litva river. Its average height above sea-level is 332 meters. The municipality encompasses 185 km2 and it includes the following settlements:\nBorovac, Banovići Selo, Ćatići, Milići, Mrgan, Repnik, Podgorje, Grivice, Treštenica Donja, Treštenica Gornja, Tulovići, Oskova, Željova, Omazići, Lozna, Seona, Pribitkovići, Stražbenica, and Gornji Bučik. According to the 1991 census, there were 26,507 inhabitants, out of the number there were 72% Bosniaks, 17% of Serbs, 2% of Croats and 9% of the others. According to some estimates in 2000, the population of Banovići is about 29,000, and a considerable number of them are refugees.\n\nHistory\nThe oldest settlement known is located on Gradina hill at Tulovići village, dated from Pre-historical period, according to the material culture remaining. There is a system of caves in Pribitkovići village, rich in cave adornments. The origin of the central settlement's name is revealed by a stećak in Banović selo, which, beside ornaments and the lily flower carved into the stone, also has an inscription written in Bosnian Cyrillic script. There were several necropola of stećaks found, beside Banovići, that used to belong to Dramešin county: Stražba, Draganja, and Treštenica. The county and settlements are mentioned by this name also in Turkish sources. This name of the county was sustained until the 19th century.\nThe intensive development of Banovići began with construction of the Brčko-Banovići railway in 1946. There were only a few houses at Banovići settlement, but by 1961 there were already 4,611 inhabitants. The settlement acquired all features of a modern urban town environment. This is due to exploitation of quality brown coal and construction of a large number of industrial facilities of metal and non-metal industry, as well as construction of a modern road between Živinice and Zavidovići. Due to its quality, brown coal from Banovići is well-known all over Europe. The exploitation of brown coal is the basis of further development of Banovići, as well as of Tuzla Canton.\n\nTourism\n\nThe Municipality of Banovići has good preconditions for the development of tourism based on hunting on the slopes of Konjuh, as well as for the development of tourism based on fishing in several mountain rivers: the Oskova, the Krabanja, the Zlaća and the Studešnica. „Zlaća“ mountain motel is one of the best mountain recreation facilities in Tuzla Canton. „Zobik“ mountain house is well known to all those in Bosnia and Herzegovina who like nature. In the village of Pribitkovići there is Borovac, an interesting series of caves rich with cave ornaments. Mountain Konjuh is habitat of following animals: brown bear, deer, wolf, fox, boar, capercaillie, squirrel.\n\nEconomy\n\"RMU Banovići\" is a Bosnia and Herzegovina-based company principally engaged in the mining industry. The company’s main activities are: underground exploitation, surface exploitation, separation and distribution of brown coal. The company operates the Banovići mines and the coal separation facility in Oskova. \"RMU Banovići\" has about 2.600 employees. It is one of the most successful coal mining companies in Bosnia and ex-Yugoslavia. RMU sells 60% of its output to the Tuzla Power Plant (coal-fired) located nearby and also supplies coal to Bosnian households and exports to Croatia and Serbia. \"RMU Banovići\" has invested 40 million KM in modernising its equipment over the last few years, helping it generate combined profits of 20 million KM (convertible marks).\n\nOther important companies are: Stove factory \"Helios\", Building materials factory \"FGO\", Clothing factory \"Borac\", etc.\n\nCulture\nBuilding of \"Radnički Dom\" (Workers Dome/Centre) is a centre for cultural happenings. The building includes a radio station, city library, theatre and central restaurant. Radnički Dom is also \"home\" of a mural with motifs from Husinska buna (miners' rebellion in Husino) painted, in the early 1960s by one of the greatest Bosnian and ex-Yugoslavian painters, Ismet Mujezinović.\n\nThe city cinema hall was renewed few years ago and has a new name (BKC = Bosanski kulturni centar/Bosnian culture centre).\n\nA youth centre \"Pinkland\" was created in 1995th to fill some of the social, cultural, and recreational gaps (those gaps resulted from the War in Bosnia). The centre offers classes in computers, music, painting, woodworking, and dance, as well as sports, summer camps, and picnics to more than 1,600 members. Pinkland cooperates also with the local schools, social authorities, police and other non-governmental organizations. The most important international partners are the Government of Canada, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), Finnish University Humak and Finnish NGO Etnokult.\n\nSport\nFK Budućnost Banovići is the oldest sport club in the municipality of Banovići. In Bosnian Budućnost means \"Future\", which symbolizes the hope people had for the times to come when the club was founded in 1947. The club plays at the Gradski Stadion (eng. City Stadium), which has a capacity of 5,000. Their primary colours are dark green and black. This club has entered Republic league of Bosnia and Herzegovina in season 1978–79, which was their biggest success at that time.\n\nToday, FK Budućnost Banovići is a member of the Football Association of Bosnia and Herzegovina. FK Budućnost were promoted to the Premier League of Bosnia and Herzegovina in season 1998–99. Later, in season 2000–01, Budućnost played against FK Drnovice from the Czech Republic. Budućnost now plays in the First League of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.\n\nMusic\nThere were several bands in Banovići in the last few years. Some of them are still active, for example: Impuls, Aquarius and Domavia. Impuls had tens of gigs in town and in other places. Aquarius has recorded one music video. Domavia participated on BH Radio Festival. Enver Lugavić - Kice (guitarist and singer of ex - Loše Vrijeme) took 2nd place on OBN Music Talents Show in 2003. Finnish NGO Etnokult and Finnish University Humak are organizers of the Bosna Faces world music festival in cooperation with Pinkland in Banovici Chomy chome.\n\nScouting and mountaineering\n\nScouting community \"Plamen\" was formed on 1 September 1956. Since then community works on process of non-formal life education, informing and fun for young people through promotions of scouting activities, organization of scout competitions, picnics, summer camps and education about ecology. Community counts 150 active members.\n\nMountaineering club \"Varda\" exists for long time too. Their member, Miralem Husanović - Muri, has participated in several expeditions: Manaslu (Himalaya), Denali (Mount McKinley), Mont Blanc, Gran Paradiso, Matterhorn, etc.\n\nDemographics\n\nTwin towns – sister cities\n\nBanovići is twinned with:\n Bečej, Serbia\n Labin, Croatia\n\nGallery\n\nReferences\n\n Official results from the book: Ethnic composition of Bosnia-Herzegovina population, by municipalities and settlements, 1991. census, Zavod za statistiku Bosne i Hercegovine - Bilten no.234, Sarajevo 1991.\n Script about Tuzla Canton, 2001\n\nExternal links\n Official site \n\nCities and towns in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina\nPopulated places in Banovići\nMunicipalities of the Tuzla Canton", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew%2027
Matthew 27 is the 27th chapter in the Gospel of Matthew, part of the New Testament in the Christian Bible. This chapter contains Matthew's record of the day of the trial, crucifixion and burial of Jesus. Scottish theologian William Robertson Nicoll notes that "the record of this single day is very nearly one-ninth of the whole book". Text The original text was written in Koine Greek. This chapter is divided into 66 verses. Textual witnesses Some early manuscripts containing the text of this chapter are: Papyrus 104 (~AD 250; extant verses 34–37, 43, 45) Codex Vaticanus (325-350) Codex Sinaiticus (330-360) Codex Bezae (c. 400; extant verses 1, 13–66) Codex Washingtonianus (c. 400) Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (c. 450; extant verses 1–10, 47–66) Papyrus 105 (5th/6th century; extant verses 62–64) Codex Purpureus Rossanensis (6th century) Codex Petropolitanus Purpureus (6th century; extant verses 27–33) Old Testament references : Psalm : Alexander Kirkpatrick notes that "allusion seems to be made to this passage ... though it is not actually quoted". : Psalm : Psalm : Psalm : Psalm : Psalm New Testament parallels Matthew 27:1-2, : ; ; : ; : ; ; : ; ; : ; ; Structure The New International Version (NIV) organises the material in this chapter as follows: Judas Hangs Himself (verses 1–10) Jesus Before Pilate (verses 11–26) The Soldiers Mock Jesus (verses 26-31) The Crucifixion of Jesus (verses 32–44) The Death of Jesus (verses 45–56) The Burial of Jesus (verses 57–61) The Guard at the Tomb (verses 62–66). Overview During the morning after his arrest, the trial of Jesus before the Sanhedrin is concluded with plans to have Jesus executed (verse 1), and he is taken to Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor (procurator) of Judea. As Jesus was being led away, Judas Iscariot, who had betrayed Jesus, sees that his former teacher has been condemned, and is overcome by remorse: in the words of the King James Version, he "repented himself". The word translated as "repented" (, metamelētheis) is not the same as the word for repentance which John the Baptist and Jesus himself used in their ministry (, metanoeite); Arthur Carr, in the Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges notes that "it implies no change of heart or life, but merely remorse or regret". Judas brings back the 30 pieces of silver which had been given to him by the priests of Judea as recompense for identifying his master to Caiaphas, throwing them down in the temple, and then leaves to commit suicide. Meanwhile, Jesus impresses Pilate, who is taken aback by Jesus' silent dignity at his questioning. Pilate begins to address the crowd, and knowing (or "shrewdly suspecting") that the chief priests had handed Jesus over because they were jealous of his popularity, asks the crowd to choose between freeing a notorious prisoner known as Barabbas, or Jesus. The crowd, persuaded by the chief priests and elders, respond passionately, repeating "Let Him (Christ) be crucified!" Pilate, bewildered by this, asks the crowd for a reason for their choice. Instead, they continue to call ever more loudly for the crucifixion of Jesus. Pilate comes to see that he cannot reason with the crowd. His wife has had a disturbing dream and asks him to have "nothing to do with that just man". Instead, he tries to absolve himself of his responsibility in the case, washing his hands in a basin and saying to the crowd: "I am innocent of the blood of this just Person. You see to it". Then the Jews present at the trial take responsibility for the shedding of Jesus' blood. Pilate has Barabbas released, lets Jesus be flogged and sends him off to be crucified. Jesus is led away to the Praetorium of the Governor's Residence, where Pilate's guard and the praetorian guard mock him, giving him a scarlet robe in place of his own clothes, a reed to hold as a sign of his "kingship" and a crown made of twisted thorns. The soldiers then replace the robe with Jesus' own clothes and lead him to Golgotha (the "place of a skull"); in Luke's Gospel this journey is recorded with "several particulars of what happened on the way to Golgotha, omitted in the other Gospels: the great company of people and of women who followed Him; the touching address of Jesus to the women; the last warning of the coming sorrows; the leading of two malefactors with Him". A man named Simon, from Cyrene, is compelled to carry Jesus' cross. At Golgotha he is offered wine mingled with gall, but does not drink it. The soldiers cast lots for his garments once he is crucified. Those who passed him deride him, taunting him to come down from the cross, saying "He trusts in God, let God deliver him now". At three o'clock Jesus cries "My God, why have you forsaken me?", and starts to give up on his life. One passer-by offers Jesus some wine to drink but the group tell him "Wait, let us see if Elijah comes to save him". They misunderstand Jesus' pleas, as he is in tremendous physical pain. Jesus cries out once more, but eventually dies. Suddenly, "the crucifixion scene transforms into an explosion of triumph": the veil of the Temple sanctuary is torn in two, rocks start to split, and an earthquake occurs (verse 51), and there follows, after Jesus' resurrection, a resurrection of the dead saints, who enter the holy city. This indicates how the earth has been shaken by the death of the Son of God. Centurions stare on at Jesus in disbelief, as do other bystanders. On the night following Jesus' death, Joseph of Arimathea, a disciple of Jesus, asks for the body of Jesus. Pilate permits this, and Joseph, wrapping the body in a linen cloth, buries the body and rolls a stone against the entrance of the tomb, sealing it from looters and gravediggers. Meanwhile, the priests and pharisees remember Jesus' remark that "After three days I will rise". The chapter concludes with Pilate authorising a detachment of troops to guard the tomb, in case the disciples come to remove the body. Analysis Matthew's crucifixion story has many parallels with Mark's crucifixion story. However, Matthew follows a theme recurring throughout his gospel by providing deeper descriptions than Mark. Matthew's crucifixion scene runs for only sixteen verses from to , the same number of verses as in the Gospel of Mark, but one more than the Gospel of Luke, and three more than the Gospel of John. It is postulated that all writers wished to simply recall the facts surrounding Jesus' death, rather than engage in theological reflection. , , , all share a succinct summary of the crucifixion, in that they all say, "They crucified Him". Mark and John give an account of the time of Jesus' death ("The third hour" in , and the "sixth hour" in ), whereas Luke, and Matthew himself do not. There are differences between the Gospels as to what the last words of Jesus were. Matthew 27:46 and Mark 15:34 declare that Jesus' last words were: "Why have you forsaken me"?, whereas his words in are "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit", and in John 19:30, "It is finished". Further differences can be found in the Gospels as to whether Jesus carried his own cross or not. In the Gospels of Matthew, Luke and Mark, Jesus receives assistance from Simon of Cyrene, whereas in the Gospel of John, Jesus carries the cross by himself. Parallelism Dale Allison notes an obvious formal feature in Matthew 27:3-10, that is, a parallelism underlining the fulfillment between the scriptural quotation (cf. Zechariah 11:13) and the narrative: Other resemblances between and Matthew 28:1-11 are also noted by Allison: See also Blood curse Christ carrying the cross Crown of thorns Crucifixion of Jesus Judas Iscariot Pontius Pilate Pilate's court Stephaton Related Bible parts: Judges 9, Psalm 22, Jeremiah 32, Zechariah 11, Mark 15, Luke 23, John 18, John 19 References Sources Further reading Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew. Contradictions in the Gospel accounts of Jesus' crucifixion . External links King James Bible - Wikisource English Translation with Parallel Latin Vulgate Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English) Multiple bible versions at Bible Gateway (NKJV, NIV, NRSV etc.) Gospel of Matthew chapters Crucifixion of Jesus Pontius Pilate Calvary Barabbas Descent from the Cross Joseph of Arimathea Burial of Jesus Crown of thorns
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew%2027", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Matthew 27 is the 27th chapter in the Gospel of Matthew, part of the New Testament in the Christian Bible. This chapter contains Matthew's record of the day of the trial, crucifixion and burial of Jesus. Scottish theologian William Robertson Nicoll notes that \"the record of this single day is very nearly one-ninth of the whole book\".\n\nText\nThe original text was written in Koine Greek. This chapter is divided into 66 verses.\n\nTextual witnesses\nSome early manuscripts containing the text of this chapter are:\nPapyrus 104 (~AD 250; extant verses 34–37, 43, 45)\nCodex Vaticanus (325-350)\nCodex Sinaiticus (330-360)\nCodex Bezae (c. 400; extant verses 1, 13–66)\nCodex Washingtonianus (c. 400)\nCodex Ephraemi Rescriptus (c. 450; extant verses 1–10, 47–66)\nPapyrus 105 (5th/6th century; extant verses 62–64)\nCodex Purpureus Rossanensis (6th century)\nCodex Petropolitanus Purpureus (6th century; extant verses 27–33)\n\nOld Testament references\n : Psalm : Alexander Kirkpatrick notes that \"allusion seems to be made to this passage ... though it is not actually quoted\".\n : Psalm \n : Psalm \n : Psalm \n : Psalm \n : Psalm\n\nNew Testament parallels\nMatthew 27:1-2, : ; ; \n: ; \n: ; ; \n: ; ; \n: ; ;\n\nStructure\nThe New International Version (NIV) organises the material in this chapter as follows:\nJudas Hangs Himself (verses 1–10)\nJesus Before Pilate (verses 11–26)\nThe Soldiers Mock Jesus (verses 26-31)\nThe Crucifixion of Jesus (verses 32–44)\nThe Death of Jesus (verses 45–56)\nThe Burial of Jesus (verses 57–61)\nThe Guard at the Tomb (verses 62–66).\n\nOverview\nDuring the morning after his arrest, the trial of Jesus before the Sanhedrin is concluded with plans to have Jesus executed (verse 1), and he is taken to Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor (procurator) of Judea. As Jesus was being led away, Judas Iscariot, who had betrayed Jesus, sees that his former teacher has been condemned, and is overcome by remorse: in the words of the King James Version, he \"repented himself\". The word translated as \"repented\" (, metamelētheis) is not the same as the word for repentance which John the Baptist and Jesus himself used in their ministry (, metanoeite); Arthur Carr, in the Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges notes that \"it implies no change of heart or life, but merely remorse or regret\".\n\nJudas brings back the 30 pieces of silver which had been given to him by the priests of Judea as recompense for identifying his master to Caiaphas, throwing them down in the temple, and then leaves to commit suicide. Meanwhile, Jesus impresses Pilate, who is taken aback by Jesus' silent dignity at his questioning. Pilate begins to address the crowd, and knowing (or \"shrewdly suspecting\") that the chief priests had handed Jesus over because they were jealous of his popularity, asks the crowd to choose between freeing a notorious prisoner known as Barabbas, or Jesus. The crowd, persuaded by the chief priests and elders, respond passionately, repeating \"Let Him (Christ) be crucified!\" Pilate, bewildered by this, asks the crowd for a reason for their choice. Instead, they continue to call ever more loudly for the crucifixion of Jesus.\n\nPilate comes to see that he cannot reason with the crowd. His wife has had a disturbing dream and asks him to have \"nothing to do with that just man\". Instead, he tries to absolve himself of his responsibility in the case, washing his hands in a basin and saying to the crowd: \"I am innocent of the blood of this just Person. You see to it\". Then the Jews present at the trial take responsibility for the shedding of Jesus' blood. Pilate has Barabbas released, lets Jesus be flogged and sends him off to be crucified.\n\nJesus is led away to the Praetorium of the Governor's Residence, where Pilate's guard and the praetorian guard mock him, giving him a scarlet robe in place of his own clothes, a reed to hold as a sign of his \"kingship\" and a crown made of twisted thorns. The soldiers then replace the robe with Jesus' own clothes and lead him to Golgotha (the \"place of a skull\"); in Luke's Gospel this journey is recorded with \"several particulars of what happened on the way to Golgotha, omitted in the other Gospels: the great company of people and of women who followed Him; the touching address of Jesus to the women; the last warning of the coming sorrows; the leading of two malefactors with Him\". A man named Simon, from Cyrene, is compelled to carry Jesus' cross. At Golgotha he is offered wine mingled with gall, but does not drink it. The soldiers cast lots for his garments once he is crucified. Those who passed him deride him, taunting him to come down from the cross, saying \"He trusts in God, let God deliver him now\".\n\nAt three o'clock Jesus cries \"My God, why have you forsaken me?\", and starts to give up on his life. One passer-by offers Jesus some wine to drink but the group tell him \"Wait, let us see if Elijah comes to save him\". They misunderstand Jesus' pleas, as he is in tremendous physical pain. Jesus cries out once more, but eventually dies.\n\nSuddenly, \"the crucifixion scene transforms into an explosion of triumph\": the veil of the Temple sanctuary is torn in two, rocks start to split, and an earthquake occurs (verse 51), and there follows, after Jesus' resurrection, a resurrection of the dead saints, who enter the holy city. This indicates how the earth has been shaken by the death of the Son of God. Centurions stare on at Jesus in disbelief, as do other bystanders.\n\nOn the night following Jesus' death, Joseph of Arimathea, a disciple of Jesus, asks for the body of Jesus. Pilate permits this, and Joseph, wrapping the body in a linen cloth, buries the body and rolls a stone against the entrance of the tomb, sealing it from looters and gravediggers.\n\nMeanwhile, the priests and pharisees remember Jesus' remark that \"After three days I will rise\". The chapter concludes with Pilate authorising a detachment of troops to guard the tomb, in case the disciples come to remove the body.\n\nAnalysis\nMatthew's crucifixion story has many parallels with Mark's crucifixion story. However, Matthew follows a theme recurring throughout his gospel by providing deeper descriptions than Mark. Matthew's crucifixion scene runs for only sixteen verses from to , the same number of verses as in the Gospel of Mark, but one more than the Gospel of Luke, and three more than the Gospel of John. It is postulated that all writers wished to simply recall the facts surrounding Jesus' death, rather than engage in theological reflection.\n\n, , , all share a succinct summary of the crucifixion, in that they all say, \"They crucified Him\". Mark and John give an account of the time of Jesus' death (\"The third hour\" in , and the \"sixth hour\" in ), whereas Luke, and Matthew himself do not.\n\nThere are differences between the Gospels as to what the last words of Jesus were. Matthew 27:46 and Mark 15:34 declare that Jesus' last words were: \"Why have you forsaken me\"?, whereas his words in are \"Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit\", and in John 19:30, \"It is finished\".\n\nFurther differences can be found in the Gospels as to whether Jesus carried his own cross or not. In the Gospels of Matthew, Luke and Mark, Jesus receives assistance from Simon of Cyrene, whereas in the Gospel of John, Jesus carries the cross by himself.\n\nParallelism\nDale Allison notes an obvious formal feature in Matthew 27:3-10, that is, a parallelism underlining the fulfillment between the scriptural quotation (cf. Zechariah 11:13) and the narrative:\n\nOther resemblances between and Matthew 28:1-11 are also noted by Allison:\n\nSee also \n Blood curse\n Christ carrying the cross\n Crown of thorns\n Crucifixion of Jesus\n Judas Iscariot\n Pontius Pilate\n Pilate's court\n Stephaton\n Related Bible parts: Judges 9, Psalm 22, Jeremiah 32, Zechariah 11, Mark 15, Luke 23, John 18, John 19\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nFurther reading \n Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew.\n Contradictions in the Gospel accounts of Jesus' crucifixion .\n\nExternal links\n\n King James Bible - Wikisource\nEnglish Translation with Parallel Latin Vulgate \nOnline Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)\nMultiple bible versions at Bible Gateway (NKJV, NIV, NRSV etc.)\n\n \nGospel of Matthew chapters\nCrucifixion of Jesus\nPontius Pilate\nCalvary\nBarabbas\nDescent from the Cross\nJoseph of Arimathea\nBurial of Jesus\nCrown of thorns", "role": "assistant" } ]
Parrondo's paradox
Parrondo's paradox, a paradox in game theory, has been described as: A combination of losing strategies becomes a winning strategy. It is named after its creator, Juan Parrondo, who discovered the paradox in 1996. A more explanatory description is: There exist pairs of games, each with a higher probability of losing than winning, for which it is possible to construct a winning strategy by playing the games alternately. Parrondo devised the paradox in connection with his analysis of the Brownian ratchet, a thought experiment about a machine that can purportedly extract energy from random heat motions popularized by physicist Richard Feynman. However, the paradox disappears when rigorously analyzed. Winning strategies consisting of various combinations of losing strategies were explored in biology before Parrondo's paradox was published. Illustrative examples According to Harmer and Abbott, other than the last two examples (i.e. the saw-tooth example and the coin-tossing example), the other examples do not truly exhibit Parrondo's paradox in its strictest definition. In particular, since Parrondo's paradox was physically motivated from the flashing Brownian ratchet, a skip free process must be used to properly preserve this ratchet action and so only a +1 or -1 unit payoff structure can be used. See the coin-tossing example for an explicit illustration of this. The simple example Consider two games Game A and Game B, with the following rules: In Game A, you lose $1 every time you play. In Game B, you count how much money you have left ⁠ ⁠—  if it is an even number you win $3, otherwise you lose $5. Say you begin with $100 in your pocket. If you start playing Game A exclusively, you will obviously lose all your money in 100 rounds. Similarly, if you decide to play Game B exclusively, you will also lose all your money in 100 rounds. However, consider playing the games alternatively, starting with Game B, followed by A, then by B, and so on (BABABA...). It should be easy to see that you will steadily earn a total of $2 for every two games. Thus, even though each game is a losing proposition if played alone, because the results of Game B are affected by Game A, the sequence in which the games are played can affect how often Game B earns you money, and subsequently the result is different from the case where either game is played by itself. Watering a plant Now consider the case of a potted houseplant. There are two games that can be played with the plant: Game A: pour a continuous stream of water into the pot. Game B: pour no water into the pot. From the point of view of keeping the plant alive, both are losing games; over time, the plant will either take on too much water and rot, or it will dry up. Paradoxically, however, the plant can be kept alive by judiciously switching between the games, alternately watering the plant and turning off the water. Pedestrian example Consider the situation of a pedestrian trying to get to a grocery store. The pedestrian can play two games: Game A: cross every street regardless of traffic. Game B: stand still. If the pedestrian plays only A, then they will eventually be struck by a vehicle. However, if they only play B, then they will never move from their position, failing to get to their destination. Parrondo's paradox suggests a solution: counterintuitively, if the pedestrian waits at every red light for traffic to pass, but crosses the street when the light turns green, then they may safely make their way to the grocery store. Another pedestrian example This time, the pedestrian is trying to get to the office on time. The two games are: Game A: put the left foot on the ground. Game B: put the right foot on the ground. If the pedestrian plays only A or B, they will effectively hop along on one foot. This is a losing strategy, as it is not an efficient way to travel, and they will be late for work. Rigorous analysis shows that there is a solution, namely to alternate between the two games, which permits the pedestrian to walk, run, or even leap all the way to the office. Example of a student writing a test Suppose a student is to write a multiple-choice test; for simplicity, assume the test is a list of statements which are either true or false. To prepare for the test, the student comes up with two games, or strategies: Game A: given a statement, answer "true". Game B: given a statement, answer "false". By sticking to Game A or B, the student will always answer true, or always answer false. If the distribution of the correct responses is close to even, however, then both of the strategies will give a grade of around 50%, which may be unacceptable. A more sophisticated approach would have the student carefully alternate between the two games: for each statement, they might consider whether they believe it to be true or false, and answer accordingly. In other words, paradoxically, if the student knows the subject matter, then they can get a better score this way than by always guessing the same answer regardless of the question. The saw-tooth example Consider an example in which there are two points A and B having the same altitude, as shown in Figure 1. In the first case, we have a flat profile connecting them. Here, if we leave some round marbles in the middle that move back and forth in a random fashion, they will roll around randomly but towards both ends with an equal probability. Now consider the second case where we have a saw-tooth-like profile between the two points. Here also, the marbles will roll towards either end depending on the local slope. Now if we tilt the whole profile towards the right, as shown in Figure 2, it is quite clear that both these cases will become biased towards B. Now consider the game in which we alternate the two profiles while judiciously choosing the time between alternating from one profile to the other. When we leave a few marbles on the first profile at point E, they distribute themselves on the plane showing preferential movements towards point B. However, if we apply the second profile when some of the marbles have crossed the point C, but none have crossed point D, we will end up having most marbles back at point E (where we started from initially) but some also in the valley towards point A given sufficient time for the marbles to roll to the valley. Then we again apply the first profile and repeat the steps (points C, D and E now shifted one step to refer to the final valley closest to A). If no marbles cross point C before the first marble crosses point D, we must apply the second profile shortly before the first marble crosses point D, to start over. It easily follows that eventually we will have marbles at point A, but none at point B. Hence if we define having marbles at point A as a win and having marbles at point B as a loss, we clearly win by alternating (at correctly chosen times) between playing two losing games. The coin-tossing example A third example of Parrondo's paradox is drawn from the field of gambling. Consider playing two games, Game A and Game B with the following rules. For convenience, define to be our capital at time t, immediately before we play a game. Winning a game earns us $1 and losing requires us to surrender $1. It follows that if we win at step t and if we lose at step t. In Game A, we toss a biased coin, Coin 1, with probability of winning , where is some small positive constant. This is clearly a losing game in the long run. In Game B, we first determine if our capital is a multiple of some integer . If it is, we toss a biased coin, Coin 2, with probability of winning . If it is not, we toss another biased coin, Coin 3, with probability of winning . The role of modulo provides the periodicity as in the ratchet teeth. It is clear that by playing Game A, we will almost surely lose in the long run. Harmer and Abbott show via simulation that if and Game B is an almost surely losing game as well. In fact, Game B is a Markov chain, and an analysis of its state transition matrix (again with M=3) shows that the steady state probability of using coin 2 is 0.3836, and that of using coin 3 is 0.6164. As coin 2 is selected nearly 40% of the time, it has a disproportionate influence on the payoff from Game B, and results in it being a losing game. However, when these two losing games are played in some alternating sequence - e.g. two games of A followed by two games of B (AABBAABB...), the combination of the two games is, paradoxically, a winning game. Not all alternating sequences of A and B result in winning games. For example, one game of A followed by one game of B (ABABAB...) is a losing game, while one game of A followed by two games of B (ABBABB...) is a winning game. This coin-tossing example has become the canonical illustration of Parrondo's paradox – two games, both losing when played individually, become a winning game when played in a particular alternating sequence. Resolving the paradox The apparent paradox has been explained using a number of sophisticated approaches, including Markov chains, flashing ratchets, simulated annealing, and information theory. One way to explain the apparent paradox is as follows: While Game B is a losing game under the probability distribution that results for modulo when it is played individually ( modulo is the remainder when is divided by ), it can be a winning game under other distributions, as there is at least one state in which its expectation is positive. As the distribution of outcomes of Game B depend on the player's capital, the two games cannot be independent. If they were, playing them in any sequence would lose as well. The role of now comes into sharp focus. It serves solely to induce a dependence between Games A and B, so that a player is more likely to enter states in which Game B has a positive expectation, allowing it to overcome the losses from Game A. With this understanding, the paradox resolves itself: The individual games are losing only under a distribution that differs from that which is actually encountered when playing the compound game. In summary, Parrondo's paradox is an example of how dependence can wreak havoc with probabilistic computations made under a naive assumption of independence. A more detailed exposition of this point, along with several related examples, can be found in Philips and Feldman. Applications Parrondo's paradox is used extensively in game theory, and its application to engineering, population dynamics, financial risk, etc., are areas of active research. Parrondo's games are of little practical use such as for investing in stock markets as the original games require the payoff from at least one of the interacting games to depend on the player's capital. However, the games need not be restricted to their original form and work continues in generalizing the phenomenon. Similarities to volatility pumping and the two envelopes problem have been pointed out. Simple finance textbook models of security returns have been used to prove that individual investments with negative median long-term returns may be easily combined into diversified portfolios with positive median long-term returns. Similarly, a model that is often used to illustrate optimal betting rules has been used to prove that splitting bets between multiple games can turn a negative median long-term return into a positive one. In evolutionary biology, both bacterial random phase variation and the evolution of less accurate sensors have been modelled and explained in terms of the paradox. In ecology, the periodic alternation of certain organisms between nomadic and colonial behaviors has been suggested as a manifestation of the paradox. There has been an interesting application in modelling multicellular survival as a consequence of the paradox and some interesting discussion on the feasibility of it. Applications of Parrondo's paradox can also be found in reliability theory. Name In the early literature on Parrondo's paradox, it was debated whether the word 'paradox' is an appropriate description given that the Parrondo effect can be understood in mathematical terms. The 'paradoxical' effect can be mathematically explained in terms of a convex linear combination. However, Derek Abbott, a leading researcher on the topic, provides the following answer regarding the use of the word 'paradox' in this context: See also Brazil nut effect Brownian ratchet Game theory List of paradoxes Ratchet effect Statistical mechanics References Further reading John Allen Paulos, A Mathematician Plays the Stock Market, Basic Books, 2004, . Neil F. Johnson, Paul Jefferies, Pak Ming Hui, Financial Market Complexity, Oxford University Press, 2003, . Ning Zhong and Jiming Liu, Intelligent Agent Technology: Research and Development, World Scientific, 2001, . Elka Korutcheva and Rodolfo Cuerno, Advances in Condensed Matter and Statistical Physics, Nova Publishers, 2004, . Maria Carla Galavotti, Roberto Scazzieri, and Patrick Suppes, Reasoning, Rationality, and Probability, Center for the Study of Language and Information, 2008, . Derek Abbott and Laszlo B. Kish, Unsolved Problems of Noise and Fluctuations, American Institute of Physics, 2000, . Visarath In, Patrick Longhini, and Antonio Palacios, Applications of Nonlinear Dynamics: Model and Design of Complex Systems, Springer, 2009, . Marc Moore, Sorana Froda, and Christian Léger, Mathematical Statistics and Applications: Festschrift for Constance van Eeden, IMS, 2003, . Ehrhard Behrends, Fünf Minuten Mathematik: 100 Beiträge der Mathematik-Kolumne der Zeitung Die Welt, Vieweg+Teubner Verlag, 2006, . Lutz Schimansky-Geier, Noise in Complex Systems and Stochastic Dynamics, SPIE, 2003, . Susan Shannon, Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science, Nova Science Publishers, 2005, . Eric W. Weisstein, CRC Concise Encyclopedia of Mathematics, CRC Press, 2003, . David Reguera, José M. G. Vilar, and José-Miguel Rubí, Statistical Mechanics of Biocomplexity, Springer, 1999, . Sergey M. Bezrukov, Unsolved Problems of Noise and Fluctuations, Springer, 2003, . Julian Chela-Flores, Tobias C. Owen, and F. Raulin, First Steps in the Origin of Life in the Universe, Springer, 2001, . Tönu Puu and Iryna Sushko, Business Cycle Dynamics: Models and Tools, Springer, 2006, . Andrzej S. Nowak and Krzysztof Szajowski, Advances in Dynamic Games: Applications to Economics, Finance, Optimization, and Stochastic Control, Birkhäuser, 2005, . Cristel Chandre, Xavier Leoncini, and George M. Zaslavsky, Chaos, Complexity and Transport: Theory and Applications, World Scientific, 2008, . Richard A. Epstein, The Theory of Gambling and Statistical Logic (Second edition), Academic Press, 2009, . Clifford A. Pickover, The Math Book, Sterling, 2009, . External links J. M. R. Parrondo, Parrondo's paradoxical games Nature news article on Parrondo's paradox Parrondo's Paradox - A Simulation Parrondo's Paradox at Futility Closet Parrondo's Paradox at Wolfram Online Parrondo simulator Parrondo's paradox at Maplesoft Optimal adaptive strategies and Parrondo Mathematical paradoxes Game theory Decision-making paradoxes
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Parrondo's paradox", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Parrondo's paradox, a paradox in game theory, has been described as: A combination of losing strategies becomes a winning strategy. It is named after its creator, Juan Parrondo, who discovered the paradox in 1996. A more explanatory description is:\n\nThere exist pairs of games, each with a higher probability of losing than winning, for which it is possible to construct a winning strategy by playing the games alternately.\n\nParrondo devised the paradox in connection with his analysis of the Brownian ratchet, a thought experiment about a machine that can purportedly extract energy from random heat motions popularized by physicist Richard Feynman. However, the paradox disappears when rigorously analyzed. Winning strategies consisting of various combinations of losing strategies were explored in biology before Parrondo's paradox was published.\n\nIllustrative examples\n\nAccording to Harmer and Abbott, other than the last two examples (i.e. the saw-tooth example and the coin-tossing example), the other examples do not truly exhibit Parrondo's paradox in its strictest definition. In particular, since Parrondo's paradox was physically motivated from the flashing Brownian ratchet, a skip free process must be used to properly preserve this ratchet action and so only a +1 or -1 unit payoff structure can be used. See the coin-tossing example for an explicit illustration of this.\n\nThe simple example\nConsider two games Game A and Game B, with the following rules:\n In Game A, you lose $1 every time you play.\n In Game B, you count how much money you have left ⁠ ⁠—  if it is an even number you win $3, otherwise you lose $5.\n\nSay you begin with $100 in your pocket. If you start playing Game A exclusively, you will obviously lose all your money in 100 rounds. Similarly, if you decide to play Game B exclusively, you will also lose all your money in 100 rounds.\n\nHowever, consider playing the games alternatively, starting with Game B, followed by A, then by B, and so on (BABABA...). It should be easy to see that you will steadily earn a total of $2 for every two games.\n\nThus, even though each game is a losing proposition if played alone, because the results of Game B are affected by Game A, the sequence in which the games are played can affect how often Game B earns you money, and subsequently the result is different from the case where either game is played by itself.\n\nWatering a plant\nNow consider the case of a potted houseplant. There are two games that can be played with the plant:\n Game A: pour a continuous stream of water into the pot.\n Game B: pour no water into the pot.\n\nFrom the point of view of keeping the plant alive, both are losing games; over time, the plant will either take on too much water and rot, or it will dry up. Paradoxically, however, the plant can be kept alive by judiciously switching between the games, alternately watering the plant and turning off the water.\n\nPedestrian example\n\nConsider the situation of a pedestrian trying to get to a grocery store. The pedestrian can play two games:\n Game A: cross every street regardless of traffic.\n Game B: stand still.\n\nIf the pedestrian plays only A, then they will eventually be struck by a vehicle. However, if they only play B, then they will never move from their position, failing to get to their destination. Parrondo's paradox suggests a solution: counterintuitively, if the pedestrian waits at every red light for traffic to pass, but crosses the street when the light turns green, then they may safely make their way to the grocery store.\n\nAnother pedestrian example\n\nThis time, the pedestrian is trying to get to the office on time. The two games are:\n Game A: put the left foot on the ground.\n Game B: put the right foot on the ground.\n\nIf the pedestrian plays only A or B, they will effectively hop along on one foot. This is a losing strategy, as it is not an efficient way to travel, and they will be late for work. Rigorous analysis shows that there is a solution, namely to alternate between the two games, which permits the pedestrian to walk, run, or even leap all the way to the office.\n\nExample of a student writing a test\n\nSuppose a student is to write a multiple-choice test; for simplicity, assume the test is a list of statements which are either true or false. To prepare for the test, the student comes up with two games, or strategies:\n Game A: given a statement, answer \"true\".\n Game B: given a statement, answer \"false\".\n\nBy sticking to Game A or B, the student will always answer true, or always answer false. If the distribution of the correct responses is close to even, however, then both of the strategies will give a grade of around 50%, which may be unacceptable. A more sophisticated approach would have the student carefully alternate between the two games: for each statement, they might consider whether they believe it to be true or false, and answer accordingly. In other words, paradoxically, if the student knows the subject matter, then they can get a better score this way than by always guessing the same answer regardless of the question.\n\nThe saw-tooth example\n\nConsider an example in which there are two points A and B having the same altitude, as shown in Figure 1. In the first case, we have a flat profile connecting them. Here, if we leave some round marbles in the middle that move back and forth in a random fashion, they will roll around randomly but towards both ends with an equal probability. Now consider the second case where we have a saw-tooth-like profile between the two points. Here also, the marbles will roll towards either end depending on the local slope. Now if we tilt the whole profile towards the right, as shown in Figure 2, it is quite clear that both these cases will become biased towards B.\n\nNow consider the game in which we alternate the two profiles while judiciously choosing the time between alternating from one profile to the other.\n\nWhen we leave a few marbles on the first profile at point E, they distribute themselves on the plane showing preferential movements towards point B. However, if we apply the second profile when some of the marbles have crossed the point C, but none have crossed point D, we will end up having most marbles back at point E (where we started from initially) but some also in the valley towards point A given sufficient time for the marbles to roll to the valley. Then we again apply the first profile and repeat the steps (points C, D and E now shifted one step to refer to the final valley closest to A). If no marbles cross point C before the first marble crosses point D, we must apply the second profile shortly before the first marble crosses point D, to start over.\n\nIt easily follows that eventually we will have marbles at point A, but none at point B. Hence if we define having marbles at point A as a win and having marbles at point B as a loss, we clearly win by alternating (at correctly chosen times) between playing two losing games.\n\nThe coin-tossing example\nA third example of Parrondo's paradox is drawn from the field of gambling. Consider playing two games, Game A and Game B with the following rules. For convenience, define to be our capital at time t, immediately before we play a game.\n Winning a game earns us $1 and losing requires us to surrender $1. It follows that if we win at step t and if we lose at step t.\n In Game A, we toss a biased coin, Coin 1, with probability of winning , where is some small positive constant. This is clearly a losing game in the long run.\n In Game B, we first determine if our capital is a multiple of some integer . If it is, we toss a biased coin, Coin 2, with probability of winning . If it is not, we toss another biased coin, Coin 3, with probability of winning . The role of modulo provides the periodicity as in the ratchet teeth.\n\nIt is clear that by playing Game A, we will almost surely lose in the long run. Harmer and Abbott show via simulation that if and Game B is an almost surely losing game as well. In fact, Game B is a Markov chain, and an analysis of its state transition matrix (again with M=3) shows that the steady state probability of using coin 2 is 0.3836, and that of using coin 3 is 0.6164. As coin 2 is selected nearly 40% of the time, it has a disproportionate influence on the payoff from Game B, and results in it being a losing game.\n\nHowever, when these two losing games are played in some alternating sequence - e.g. two games of A followed by two games of B (AABBAABB...), the combination of the two games is, paradoxically, a winning game. Not all alternating sequences of A and B result in winning games. For example, one game of A followed by one game of B (ABABAB...) is a losing game, while one game of A followed by two games of B (ABBABB...) is a winning game. This coin-tossing example has become the canonical illustration of Parrondo's paradox – two games, both losing when played individually, become a winning game when played in a particular alternating sequence.\n\nResolving the paradox \nThe apparent paradox has been explained using a number of sophisticated approaches, including Markov chains, flashing ratchets, simulated annealing, and information theory. One way to explain the apparent paradox is as follows:\n\n While Game B is a losing game under the probability distribution that results for modulo when it is played individually ( modulo is the remainder when is divided by ), it can be a winning game under other distributions, as there is at least one state in which its expectation is positive.\n As the distribution of outcomes of Game B depend on the player's capital, the two games cannot be independent. If they were, playing them in any sequence would lose as well.\n\nThe role of now comes into sharp focus. It serves solely to induce a dependence between Games A and B, so that a player is more likely to enter states in which Game B has a positive expectation, allowing it to overcome the losses from Game A. With this understanding, the paradox resolves itself: The individual games are losing only under a distribution that differs from that which is actually encountered when playing the compound game. In summary, Parrondo's paradox is an example of how dependence can wreak havoc with probabilistic computations made under a naive assumption of independence. A more detailed exposition of this point, along with several related examples, can be found in Philips and Feldman.\n\nApplications\nParrondo's paradox is used extensively in game theory, and its application to engineering, population dynamics, financial risk, etc., are areas of active research. Parrondo's games are of little practical use such as for investing in stock markets as the original games require the payoff from at least one of the interacting games to depend on the player's capital. However, the games need not be restricted to their original form and work continues in generalizing the phenomenon. Similarities to volatility pumping and the two envelopes problem have been pointed out. Simple finance textbook models of security returns have been used to prove that individual investments with negative median long-term returns may be easily combined into diversified portfolios with positive median long-term returns. Similarly, a model that is often used to illustrate optimal betting rules has been used to prove that splitting bets between multiple games can turn a negative median long-term return into a positive one. In evolutionary biology, both bacterial random phase variation and the evolution of less accurate sensors have been modelled and explained in terms of the paradox. In ecology, the periodic alternation of certain organisms between nomadic and colonial behaviors has been suggested as a manifestation of the paradox. There has been an interesting application in modelling multicellular survival as a consequence of the paradox and some interesting discussion on the feasibility of it. Applications of Parrondo's paradox can also be found in reliability theory.\n\nName\nIn the early literature on Parrondo's paradox, it was debated whether the word 'paradox' is an appropriate description given that the Parrondo effect can be understood in mathematical terms. The 'paradoxical' effect can be mathematically explained in terms of a convex linear combination.\n\nHowever, Derek Abbott, a leading researcher on the topic, provides the following answer regarding the use of the word 'paradox' in this context:\n\nSee also \nBrazil nut effect\nBrownian ratchet\nGame theory\nList of paradoxes\nRatchet effect\nStatistical mechanics\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n John Allen Paulos, A Mathematician Plays the Stock Market, Basic Books, 2004, .\n Neil F. Johnson, Paul Jefferies, Pak Ming Hui, Financial Market Complexity, Oxford University Press, 2003, .\n Ning Zhong and Jiming Liu, Intelligent Agent Technology: Research and Development, World Scientific, 2001, .\n Elka Korutcheva and Rodolfo Cuerno, Advances in Condensed Matter and Statistical Physics, Nova Publishers, 2004, .\n Maria Carla Galavotti, Roberto Scazzieri, and Patrick Suppes, Reasoning, Rationality, and Probability, Center for the Study of Language and Information, 2008, .\n Derek Abbott and Laszlo B. Kish, Unsolved Problems of Noise and Fluctuations, American Institute of Physics, 2000, .\n Visarath In, Patrick Longhini, and Antonio Palacios, Applications of Nonlinear Dynamics: Model and Design of Complex Systems, Springer, 2009, .\n Marc Moore, Sorana Froda, and Christian Léger, Mathematical Statistics and Applications: Festschrift for Constance van Eeden, IMS, 2003, .\n Ehrhard Behrends, Fünf Minuten Mathematik: 100 Beiträge der Mathematik-Kolumne der Zeitung Die Welt, Vieweg+Teubner Verlag, 2006, .\n Lutz Schimansky-Geier, Noise in Complex Systems and Stochastic Dynamics, SPIE, 2003, .\n Susan Shannon, Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science, Nova Science Publishers, 2005, .\n Eric W. Weisstein, CRC Concise Encyclopedia of Mathematics, CRC Press, 2003, .\n David Reguera, José M. G. Vilar, and José-Miguel Rubí, Statistical Mechanics of Biocomplexity, Springer, 1999, .\n Sergey M. Bezrukov, Unsolved Problems of Noise and Fluctuations, Springer, 2003, .\n Julian Chela-Flores, Tobias C. Owen, and F. Raulin, First Steps in the Origin of Life in the Universe, Springer, 2001, .\n Tönu Puu and Iryna Sushko, Business Cycle Dynamics: Models and Tools, Springer, 2006, .\n Andrzej S. Nowak and Krzysztof Szajowski, Advances in Dynamic Games: Applications to Economics, Finance, Optimization, and Stochastic Control, Birkhäuser, 2005, .\n Cristel Chandre, Xavier Leoncini, and George M. Zaslavsky, Chaos, Complexity and Transport: Theory and Applications, World Scientific, 2008, .\n Richard A. Epstein, The Theory of Gambling and Statistical Logic (Second edition), Academic Press, 2009, .\n Clifford A. Pickover, The Math Book, Sterling, 2009, .\n\nExternal links\n J. M. R. Parrondo, Parrondo's paradoxical games\n Nature news article on Parrondo's paradox\n Parrondo's Paradox - A Simulation\n Parrondo's Paradox at Futility Closet\n Parrondo's Paradox at Wolfram\n Online Parrondo simulator\n Parrondo's paradox at Maplesoft\n Optimal adaptive strategies and Parrondo\n \n\nMathematical paradoxes\nGame theory\nDecision-making paradoxes", "role": "assistant" } ]
Pearl gourami
The pearl gourami (Trichopodus leerii) is a species of gourami native to Southeast Asia. Description It reaches about TL. Its body is a brownish-silver colour, covered in a pearl-like pattern with a distinct black line running from the fish's head, and gradually thinning towards the caudal fin. The pearl gourami's appearance has given rise to other popular names, such as the lace gourami and the mosaic gourami. Its male specimens, typical of many gouramis, are generally larger and more colourful than their female counterparts. They exhibit bright orange colouring around the throat region, which at breeding time becomes much brighter and is used to court the female. Males also exhibit somewhat of an orange tinge in their fins, with the exception of the caudal (tail) fin. The male also has longer fins, with a more pointed dorsal fin and extended anal fin rays. Distribution and habitat The pearl gourami is native to Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia (where it is found on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo). It occurs in lowland swamps with acidic water. Species description and name Trichopodus leerii was originally described as Trichopus leerii by the Dutch medical doctor and ichthyologist Pieter Bleeker in 1852. The type was collected at Palembang in Sumatra, by Lieutenant-Colonel J. M. van Leer, who was a medical colleague of Bleeker's and whom Bleeker honoured in the fish's specific name. References Pearl gourami Fish of Thailand Fish described in 1852 Taxa named by Pieter Bleeker Freshwater fish of Malaysia Freshwater fish of Sumatra Freshwater fish of Borneo
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Pearl gourami", "role": "user" }, { "content": "The pearl gourami (Trichopodus leerii) is a species of gourami native to Southeast Asia.\n\nDescription\nIt reaches about TL. Its body is a brownish-silver colour, covered in a pearl-like pattern with a distinct black line running from the fish's head, and gradually thinning towards the caudal fin. The pearl gourami's appearance has given rise to other popular names, such as the lace gourami and the mosaic gourami.\n\nIts male specimens, typical of many gouramis, are generally larger and more colourful than their female counterparts. They exhibit bright orange colouring around the throat region, which at breeding time becomes much brighter and is used to court the female. Males also exhibit somewhat of an orange tinge in their fins, with the exception of the caudal (tail) fin. The male also has longer fins, with a more pointed dorsal fin and extended anal fin rays.\n\nDistribution and habitat\nThe pearl gourami is native to Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia (where it is found on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo). It occurs in lowland swamps with acidic water.\n\nSpecies description and name\nTrichopodus leerii was originally described as Trichopus leerii by the Dutch medical doctor and ichthyologist Pieter Bleeker in 1852. The type was collected at Palembang in Sumatra, by Lieutenant-Colonel J. M. van Leer, who was a medical colleague of Bleeker's and whom Bleeker honoured in the fish's specific name.\n\nReferences\n\nPearl gourami\nFish of Thailand\nFish described in 1852\nTaxa named by Pieter Bleeker\nFreshwater fish of Malaysia\nFreshwater fish of Sumatra\nFreshwater fish of Borneo", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton%20West%20railway%20station
Hamilton West railway station serves the Hamilton West area of Hamilton, South Lanarkshire, in Scotland, lying on the Argyle Line. It is situated near the headquarters of South Lanarkshire Council; the Hamilton campus of the University of the West of Scotland; Hamilton Sheriff Court; and the Hamilton Racecourse. It is situated next to New Douglas Park, home to Hamilton Academical Football Club. The station is operated by ScotRail Trains who also provide all passenger services. History The station was once part of the Caledonian Railway and later, the London, Midland and Scottish Railway. It was originally opened by the Caledonian in September 1849, as the terminus of their branch line from Newton and was originally known simply as Hamilton. The branch was then extended to and also to Ferniegair (to join existing routes southwards to Strathaven & Coalburn) in December 1876 - a new Hamilton Central station serving the town was opened on this route at the same time, with the former terminus renamed Hamilton West and rebuilt for through traffic. Services south of Haughhead Junction to & Coalburn ended in October 1965 due to the Beeching Axe, but the line as far as was reopened in 2005. The Hamilton Circle line was electrified by British Rail in 1974, as part of the wider scheme to electrify the northern end of the West Coast Main Line. Facilities Both platforms can be accessed via the footbridge at the Clydesdale Street entrance with disabled access available on platform 2 using a ramp which can also be accessed from Clydesdale Street by continuing past the main station entrance and following the footpath on the left, beside the adjacent bus stop. A ticket office is staffed between 06:20 and 20:04 Monday-Saturday alongside a self-service ticket machine within the shelter beside the ticket office on platform 1. There are no ticketing facilities on platform 2 although both platforms have two ScotRail Smartcard validators each. Accessible toilets are available on platform 1, next to the ticket office, and can be unlocked on request by asking staff in the ticket office. Sheltered seating is provided on platform 1 in both the ticket office and the same shelter that houses the self-service ticket machine whilst open-air seating is available on platform 2. The station has a dedicated 191-space car park with 2 disabled parking spaces. The station also has 16 bicycle storage locations in the form of lockers and stands. Services Off-peak Monday to Saturday: 2tph to via Glasgow Central Low Level. 2tph to via . 2tph to . 1tph to . 1tph to . On Sundays the service pattern is: 2tph to via Glasgow Central Low Level. 1tph to via . 2tph to . 1tph to . Trains travelling westbound to , and depart from platform 1, whilst trains travelling eastbound to , , and depart from platform 2. References External links RAILSCOT - Hamilton Branch Railway stations in South Lanarkshire Former Caledonian Railway stations Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1849 SPT railway stations Railway stations served by ScotRail Buildings and structures in Hamilton, South Lanarkshire 1849 establishments in Scotland
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton%20West%20railway%20station", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Hamilton West railway station serves the Hamilton West area of Hamilton, South Lanarkshire, in Scotland, lying on the Argyle Line.\n\nIt is situated near the headquarters of South Lanarkshire Council; the Hamilton campus of the University of the West of Scotland; Hamilton Sheriff Court; and the Hamilton Racecourse. It is situated next to New Douglas Park, home to Hamilton Academical Football Club.\n\nThe station is operated by ScotRail Trains who also provide all passenger services.\n\nHistory\nThe station was once part of the Caledonian Railway and later, the London, Midland and Scottish Railway. It was originally opened by the Caledonian in September 1849, as the terminus of their branch line from Newton and was originally known simply as Hamilton. The branch was then extended to and also to Ferniegair (to join existing routes southwards to Strathaven & Coalburn) in December 1876 - a new Hamilton Central station serving the town was opened on this route at the same time, with the former terminus renamed Hamilton West and rebuilt for through traffic.\n\nServices south of Haughhead Junction to & Coalburn ended in October 1965 due to the Beeching Axe, but the line as far as was reopened in 2005. The Hamilton Circle line was electrified by British Rail in 1974, as part of the wider scheme to electrify the northern end of the West Coast Main Line.\n\nFacilities\n\nBoth platforms can be accessed via the footbridge at the Clydesdale Street entrance with disabled access available on platform 2 using a ramp which can also be accessed from Clydesdale Street by continuing past the main station entrance and following the footpath on the left, beside the adjacent bus stop.\n\nA ticket office is staffed between 06:20 and 20:04 Monday-Saturday alongside a self-service ticket machine within the shelter beside the ticket office on platform 1. There are no ticketing facilities on platform 2 although both platforms have two ScotRail Smartcard validators each.\n\nAccessible toilets are available on platform 1, next to the ticket office, and can be unlocked on request by asking staff in the ticket office. Sheltered seating is provided on platform 1 in both the ticket office and the same shelter that houses the self-service ticket machine whilst open-air seating is available on platform 2.\n\nThe station has a dedicated 191-space car park with 2 disabled parking spaces. The station also has 16 bicycle storage locations in the form of lockers and stands.\n\nServices\n\nOff-peak Monday to Saturday:\n\n2tph to via Glasgow Central Low Level.\n2tph to via .\n2tph to .\n1tph to .\n1tph to .\n\nOn Sundays the service pattern is:\n\n2tph to via Glasgow Central Low Level.\n1tph to via .\n2tph to .\n1tph to .\n\nTrains travelling westbound to , and depart from platform 1, whilst trains travelling eastbound to , , and depart from platform 2.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\nRAILSCOT - Hamilton Branch\n\nRailway stations in South Lanarkshire\nFormer Caledonian Railway stations\nRailway stations in Great Britain opened in 1849\nSPT railway stations\nRailway stations served by ScotRail\nBuildings and structures in Hamilton, South Lanarkshire\n1849 establishments in Scotland", "role": "assistant" } ]
John, Margrave of Brandenburg
John, Margrave of Brandenburg may refer to: John II, Elector of Brandenburg (1455–1499), Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg John, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (1406–1464), Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, nicknamed 'The Alchemist'
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "John, Margrave of Brandenburg", "role": "user" }, { "content": "John, Margrave of Brandenburg may refer to:\nJohn II, Elector of Brandenburg (1455–1499), Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg \nJohn, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (1406–1464), Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, nicknamed 'The Alchemist'", "role": "assistant" } ]
Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp
Adolf of Denmark or Adolf of Holstein-Gottorp (25 January 1526 –1 October 1586) was the first Duke of Holstein-Gottorp from the line of Holstein-Gottorp of the House of Oldenburg. He was the third son of King Frederick I of Denmark and his second wife, Sophie of Pomerania. King Frederick I had his son educated by Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse. He spent four years at the Landgrave's castle in Kassel. In 1544, Adolf, his brother Johann, and their half-brother King Christian III of Denmark, divided the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The areas were divided according to approximately equal tax proceeds. Adolf, as the youngest, was entitled to the first choice. Since he selected the part with the castle Gottorp, the line of the house Oldenburg created by him was called Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp. Partition of Holstein and Schleswig Until the Treaty of Speyer, concluded on 23 May 1544, Adolf's half-brother Christian III of Denmark ruled the entire Duchies of Holstein and Schleswig in the name of the then still minor Adolf and his brother John the Elder (Hans den Ældre). They determined their youngest brother Frederick was to have a career as Lutheran administrator. In 1551 Frederick became administrator of the Prince-Bishopric of Hildesheim. In 1544, following negotiations between the elder three brothers and the nobility of the duchies, the brothers decided to partition the duchies of Holstein and Schleswig between themselves. The revenues of the duchies were divided into three equal shares by assigning the revenues of particular areas and landed estates to each of the elder brothers. Other general revenues, such as taxes from towns and customs duties, were levied together and then shared among the brothers. The secular rule in the fiscally divided duchies was shared between the brothers. As dukes of Holstein and Schleswig the three brothers bore the formal title of "Duke of Schleswig, Holstein, Ditmarsh and Stormarn". Adolf founded a cadet branch of the royal Danish House of Oldenburg called the House of Holstein-Gottorp. John the Elder, the Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Haderslev, produced no issue, so no branch emerged from his side. After his death in 1580, Adolf and his nephew Frederick II of Denmark halved John's share among themselves. Adolf travelled, entrusting Johan Rantzau to manage his country. Adolf participated in the Diet of Augsburg where he witnessed Emperor Charles V at the high point of his power. In 1553 Adolf returned to his homeland. In 1556 Adolf succeeded his younger brother Frederick as Bishop of Schleswig. Family and children On 17 December 1564 he married Christine, daughter of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, and had the following children: Frederick II (21 April 1568 – 15 June 1587). Sophia (1 June 1569 – 14 November 1634), married on 17 February 1588 to John VII of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Philip (10 August 1570 – 18 October 1590). Christina (13 April 1573 – 8 December 1625), married on 27 August 1592 to King Charles IX of Sweden. Elisabeth (11 March 1574 – 13 January 1587) John Adolph (27 February 1575 – 31 March 1616), prince-bishop of Bremen, Lübeck, later duke of Holstein and duke of Schleswig. Anna (27 February 1575 – 24 April 1625), married 28 January 1598 to Count Enno III of Ostfriesland. Christian (29 May 1576 – 22 April 1577) Agnes (20 December 1578 – 19 August 1627). John Frederick (1 September 1579 – 3 September 1634), prince-bishop of Bremen, Lübeck and Verden. In fiction Duke Adolf is a character in Stefan Heym's 1981 book Ahasver (published in English as The Wandering Jew). Heym's depiction of the Duke is highly satyrical and unflattering. The Duke is shown in the midst of a night of lechery and drunkenness, charging Paul von Eitzen, Superintendent of the Lutheran church of the Gottorp share of Holstein and Schleswig, with creating "The Kingdom of God" in his duchy — i.e., imposing the newly minted Lutheran orthodoxy and persecuting "heretics" such as the Mennonites. At the same time the Duke, out of political expediency, also sends troops to help the efforts of the zealously Catholic Philip II of Spain to stamp out the Dutch Revolt conducted by the Duke's fellow Protestants. Ancestry Notes References Rolf Kuschert: Die frühe Neuzeit, in: Nordfriisk Instituut (Hrsg.) Geschichte Nordfrieslands, Heide Boyens & Co 1995. External links Bishops of Schleswig Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp Danish princes Norwegian princes Knights of the Garter Holstein-Gottorp, Adolf of Holstein-Gottorp, Adolf of Danish Lutheran bishops Sons of kings 16th-century Danish Lutheran clergy 16th-century Lutheran bishops
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Adolf of Denmark or Adolf of Holstein-Gottorp (25 January 1526 –1 October 1586) was the first Duke of Holstein-Gottorp from the line of Holstein-Gottorp of the House of Oldenburg.\n\nHe was the third son of King Frederick I of Denmark and his second wife, Sophie of Pomerania. King Frederick I had his son educated by Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse. He spent four years at the Landgrave's castle in Kassel.\n\nIn 1544, Adolf, his brother Johann, and their half-brother King Christian III of Denmark, divided the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The areas were divided according to approximately equal tax proceeds. Adolf, as the youngest, was entitled to the first choice. Since he selected the part with the castle Gottorp, the line of the house Oldenburg created by him was called Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp.\n\nPartition of Holstein and Schleswig\nUntil the Treaty of Speyer, concluded on 23 May 1544, Adolf's half-brother Christian III of Denmark ruled the entire Duchies of Holstein and Schleswig in the name of the then still minor Adolf and his brother John the Elder (Hans den Ældre). They determined their youngest brother Frederick was to have a career as Lutheran administrator. In 1551 Frederick became administrator of the Prince-Bishopric of Hildesheim.\n\nIn 1544, following negotiations between the elder three brothers and the nobility of the duchies, the brothers decided to partition the duchies of Holstein and Schleswig between themselves. The revenues of the duchies were divided into three equal shares by assigning the revenues of particular areas and landed estates to each of the elder brothers. Other general revenues, such as taxes from towns and customs duties, were levied together and then shared among the brothers.\n\nThe secular rule in the fiscally divided duchies was shared between the brothers. As dukes of Holstein and Schleswig the three brothers bore the formal title of \"Duke of Schleswig, Holstein, Ditmarsh and Stormarn\". Adolf founded a cadet branch of the royal Danish House of Oldenburg called the House of Holstein-Gottorp.\n\nJohn the Elder, the Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Haderslev, produced no issue, so no branch emerged from his side. After his death in 1580, Adolf and his nephew Frederick II of Denmark halved John's share among themselves.\n\nAdolf travelled, entrusting Johan Rantzau to manage his country. Adolf participated in the Diet of Augsburg where he witnessed Emperor Charles V at the high point of his power. In 1553 Adolf returned to his homeland. In 1556 Adolf succeeded his younger brother Frederick as Bishop of Schleswig.\n\nFamily and children\nOn 17 December 1564 he married Christine, daughter of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, and had the following children:\n Frederick II (21 April 1568 – 15 June 1587).\n Sophia (1 June 1569 – 14 November 1634), married on 17 February 1588 to John VII of Mecklenburg-Schwerin.\n Philip (10 August 1570 – 18 October 1590).\n Christina (13 April 1573 – 8 December 1625), married on 27 August 1592 to King Charles IX of Sweden.\n Elisabeth (11 March 1574 – 13 January 1587)\n John Adolph (27 February 1575 – 31 March 1616), prince-bishop of Bremen, Lübeck, later duke of Holstein and duke of Schleswig.\n Anna (27 February 1575 – 24 April 1625), married 28 January 1598 to Count Enno III of Ostfriesland.\n Christian (29 May 1576 – 22 April 1577)\n Agnes (20 December 1578 – 19 August 1627).\n John Frederick (1 September 1579 – 3 September 1634), prince-bishop of Bremen, Lübeck and Verden.\n\nIn fiction\n\nDuke Adolf is a character in Stefan Heym's 1981 book Ahasver (published in English as The Wandering Jew). Heym's depiction of the Duke is highly satyrical and unflattering. The Duke is shown in the midst of a night of lechery and drunkenness, charging Paul von Eitzen, Superintendent of the Lutheran church of the Gottorp share of Holstein and Schleswig, with creating \"The Kingdom of God\" in his duchy — i.e., imposing the newly minted Lutheran orthodoxy and persecuting \"heretics\" such as the Mennonites. At the same time the Duke, out of political expediency, also sends troops to help the efforts of the zealously Catholic Philip II of Spain to stamp out the Dutch Revolt conducted by the Duke's fellow Protestants.\n\nAncestry\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n Rolf Kuschert: Die frühe Neuzeit, in: Nordfriisk Instituut (Hrsg.) Geschichte Nordfrieslands, Heide Boyens & Co 1995.\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n\nBishops of Schleswig\nDukes of Holstein-Gottorp\nDanish princes\nNorwegian princes\nKnights of the Garter\nHolstein-Gottorp, Adolf of\nHolstein-Gottorp, Adolf of\nDanish Lutheran bishops\nSons of kings \n16th-century Danish Lutheran clergy\n16th-century Lutheran bishops", "role": "assistant" } ]
Break key
The Break key (or the symbol ⎉) of a computer keyboard refers to breaking a telegraph circuit and originated with 19th century practice. In modern usage, the key has no well-defined purpose, but while this is the case, it can be used by software for miscellaneous tasks, such as to switch between multiple login sessions, to terminate a program, or to interrupt a modem connection. Because the break function is usually combined with the pause function on one key since the introduction of the IBM Model M 101-key keyboard in 1985, the Break key is also called the Pause key. It can be used to pause some computer games. History A standard telegraph circuit connects all the keys, sounders and batteries in a single series loop. Thus the sounders actuate only when both keys are down (closed, also known as "marking" — after the ink marks made on paper tape by early printing telegraphs). So the receiving operator has to hold their key down or close a built-in shorting switch in order to let the other operator send. As a consequence, the receiving operator could interrupt the sending operator by opening their key, breaking the circuit and forcing it into a "spacing" condition. Both sounders stop responding to the sender's keying, alerting the sender. (A physical break in the telegraph line would have the same effect.) The teleprinter operated in a very similar fashion except that the sending station kept the loop closed (logic 1, or "marking") even during short pauses between characters. Holding down a special "break" key opened the loop, forcing it into a continuous logic 0, or "spacing", condition. When this occurred, the teleprinter mechanisms continually actuated without printing anything, as the all-0s character is the non-printing NUL in both Baudot and ASCII. The resulting noise got the sending operator's attention. This practice carried over to teleprinter use on time-sharing computers. A continuous spacing (logical 0) condition violates the rule that every valid character has to end with one or more logic 1 (marking) "stop" bits. The computer (specifically the UART) recognized this as a special "break" condition and generated an interrupt that typically stopped a running program or forced the operating system to prompt for a login. Although asynchronous serial telegraphy is now rare, the key once used with terminal emulators can still be used by software for similar purposes. Sinclair On the ZX80 and ZX81 computers, the Break is accessed by pressing . On the ZX Spectrum it is accessed by . The Spectrum+ and later computers have a dedicated key. It does not trigger an interrupt but will halt any running BASIC program, or terminate the loading or saving of data to cassette tape. An interrupted BASIC program can usually be resumed with the CONTINUE command. The Sinclair QL computer, without a key, maps the function to . BBC Micro On a BBC Micro computer, the key generates a hardware reset which would normally cause a warm restart of the computer. A cold restart is triggered by pressing . If a filing system is installed, will cause the computer to search for and load or run a file called !Boot on the filing system's default device (e.g. floppy disk 0, network user BOOT). The latter two behaviours were inherited by the successor to Acorn MOS, RISC OS. These behaviours could be changed or exchanged in software, and were often used in rudimentary anti-piracy techniques. Because of the BBC Micro's near universal usage in British schools, later versions of the machine incorporated a physical lock on the Break key to stop children from intentionally resetting the computer. Modern keyboards On many modern PCs, interrupts screen output by BIOS until another key is pressed. This is effective during boot in text mode and in a DOS box in Windows safe mode with 50 lines. On early keyboards without a key (before the introduction of 101/102-key keyboards) the Pause function was assigned to , and the Break function to ; these key-combinations still work with most programs, even on modern PCs with modern keyboards. Pressing the dedicated key on 101/102-key keyboards sends the same scancodes as pressing , then , then releasing them in the reverse order would do; additionally, an E1hex prefix is sent, which enables 101/102-key-aware software to discern the two situations, while older software usually just ignores the prefix. The key is different from all other keys in that it sends no scancodes at all on release in PS/2 modes 1 or 2, so it is impossible to determine whether this key is being held down with older devices. In PS/2 mode 3 or USB HID mode, there is a release scancode, so it is possible to determine whether this key is being held down on modern computers. On modern keyboards, the key is usually labeled Pause with Break below, sometimes separated by a line: , or Pause on the top of the keycap and Break on the front, or only Pause without Break at all. In most Windows environments, the key combination brings up the system properties. Keyboards without Break key Compact and notebook keyboards often do not have a dedicated key. Substitutes for : or or on certain Lenovo laptops. or on certain Dell laptops. on some other Dell laptops. on Samsung. on certain HP laptops. on certain HP laptops. on certain Logitech (LOGI) keyboards. Substitutes for : or or on certain Lenovo laptops. on certain Dell laptops. on certain HP laptops. on certain HP laptops. For some Dell laptops, without a key, press the and select "Interrupt". Usage for breaking the program's execution While both and combination are commonly implemented as a way of breaking the execution of a console application, they are also used for similar effect in integrated development environments. Although these two are often considered interchangeable, compilers and execution environments usually assign different signals to these. Additionally, in some kernels (e.g. miscellaneous DOS variants) is detected only at the time OS tries reading from a keyboard buffer and only if it's the only key sequence in the buffer, while is often translated instantly (e.g. by INT 1Bh under DOS). Because of this, is usually a more effective choice under these operating systems; sensitivity for these two combinations can be enhanced by the BREAK=ON CONFIG.SYS statement. See also System request Scroll lock Num lock References External links Computer keys Out-of-band management
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Break key", "role": "user" }, { "content": "The Break key (or the symbol ⎉) of a computer keyboard refers to breaking a telegraph circuit and originated with 19th century practice. In modern usage, the key has no well-defined purpose, but while this is the case, it can be used by software for miscellaneous tasks, such as to switch between multiple login sessions, to terminate a program, or to interrupt a modem connection.\n\nBecause the break function is usually combined with the pause function on one key since the introduction of the IBM Model M 101-key keyboard in 1985, the Break key is also called the Pause key. It can be used to pause some computer games.\n\nHistory\nA standard telegraph circuit connects all the keys, sounders and batteries in a single series loop. Thus the sounders actuate only when both keys are down (closed, also known as \"marking\" — after the ink marks made on paper tape by early printing telegraphs). So the receiving operator has to hold their key down or close a built-in shorting switch in order to let the other operator send. As a consequence, the receiving operator could interrupt the sending operator by opening their key, breaking the circuit and forcing it into a \"spacing\" condition. Both sounders stop responding to the sender's keying, alerting the sender. (A physical break in the telegraph line would have the same effect.)\n\nThe teleprinter operated in a very similar fashion except that the sending station kept the loop closed (logic 1, or \"marking\") even during short pauses between characters. Holding down a special \"break\" key opened the loop, forcing it into a continuous logic 0, or \"spacing\", condition. When this occurred, the teleprinter mechanisms continually actuated without printing anything, as the all-0s character is the non-printing NUL in both Baudot and ASCII. The resulting noise got the sending operator's attention.\n\nThis practice carried over to teleprinter use on time-sharing computers. A continuous spacing (logical 0) condition violates the rule that every valid character has to end with one or more logic 1 (marking) \"stop\" bits. The computer (specifically the UART) recognized this as a special \"break\" condition and generated an interrupt that typically stopped a running program or forced the operating system to prompt for a login. Although asynchronous serial telegraphy is now rare, the key once used with terminal emulators can still be used by software for similar purposes.\n\nSinclair\nOn the ZX80 and ZX81 computers, the Break is accessed by pressing . On the ZX Spectrum it is accessed by . The Spectrum+ and later computers have a dedicated key. It does not trigger an interrupt but will halt any running BASIC program, or terminate the loading or saving of data to cassette tape. An interrupted BASIC program can usually be resumed with the CONTINUE command. The Sinclair QL computer, without a key, maps the function to .\n\nBBC Micro\nOn a BBC Micro computer, the key generates a hardware reset which would normally cause a warm restart of the computer. A cold restart is triggered by pressing . If a filing system is installed, will cause the computer to search for and load or run a file called !Boot on the filing system's default device (e.g. floppy disk 0, network user BOOT). The latter two behaviours were inherited by the successor to Acorn MOS, RISC OS. These behaviours could be changed or exchanged in software, and were often used in rudimentary anti-piracy techniques.\n\nBecause of the BBC Micro's near universal usage in British schools, later versions of the machine incorporated a physical lock on the Break key to stop children from intentionally resetting the computer.\n\nModern keyboards\nOn many modern PCs, interrupts screen output by BIOS until another key is pressed. This is effective during boot in text mode and in a DOS box in Windows safe mode with 50 lines. On early keyboards without a key (before the introduction of 101/102-key keyboards) the Pause function was assigned to , and the Break function to ; these key-combinations still work with most programs, even on modern PCs with modern keyboards. Pressing the dedicated key on 101/102-key keyboards sends the same scancodes as pressing , then , then releasing them in the reverse order would do; additionally, an E1hex prefix is sent, which enables 101/102-key-aware software to discern the two situations, while older software usually just ignores the prefix. The key is different from all other keys in that it sends no scancodes at all on release in PS/2 modes 1 or 2, so it is impossible to determine whether this key is being held down with older devices. In PS/2 mode 3 or USB HID mode, there is a release scancode, so it is possible to determine whether this key is being held down on modern computers.\n\nOn modern keyboards, the key is usually labeled Pause with Break below, sometimes separated by a line: , or Pause on the top of the keycap and Break on the front, or only Pause without Break at all. In most Windows environments, the key combination brings up the system properties.\n\nKeyboards without Break key\nCompact and notebook keyboards often do not have a dedicated key.\n\nSubstitutes for :\n or or on certain Lenovo laptops.\n or on certain Dell laptops.\n on some other Dell laptops.\n on Samsung.\n on certain HP laptops.\n on certain HP laptops.\n on certain Logitech (LOGI) keyboards.\n\nSubstitutes for :\n or or on certain Lenovo laptops.\n on certain Dell laptops.\n on certain HP laptops.\n on certain HP laptops.\n\nFor some Dell laptops, without a key, press the and select \"Interrupt\".\n\nUsage for breaking the program's execution\nWhile both and combination are commonly implemented as a way of breaking the execution of a console application, they are also used for similar effect in integrated development environments. Although these two are often considered interchangeable, compilers and execution environments usually assign different signals to these. Additionally, in some kernels (e.g. miscellaneous DOS variants) is detected only at the time OS tries reading from a keyboard buffer and only if it's the only key sequence in the buffer, while is often translated instantly (e.g. by INT 1Bh under DOS). Because of this, is usually a more effective choice under these operating systems; sensitivity for these two combinations can be enhanced by the BREAK=ON CONFIG.SYS statement.\n\nSee also\nSystem request\nScroll lock\nNum lock\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nComputer keys\nOut-of-band management", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20Door
White Door may refer to The White Door, a videogame White Door (band), 1980s band Clay Records discography "White Door", song (performed by A. Pugacheva) composed by Yury Chernavsky
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20Door", "role": "user" }, { "content": "White Door may refer to\n The White Door, a videogame\n White Door (band), 1980s band Clay Records discography\n \"White Door\", song (performed by A. Pugacheva) composed by Yury Chernavsky", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avenanthramide
Avenanthramides (anthranilic acid amides, formerly called "avenalumins") are a group of phenolic alkaloids found mainly in oats (Avena sativa), but also present in white cabbage butterfly eggs (Pieris brassicae and P. rapae), and in fungus-infected carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus). A number of studies demonstrate that these natural products have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-itch, anti-irritant, and antiatherogenic activities. Oat kernel extracts with standardized levels of avenanthramides are used for skin, hair, baby, and sun care products. The name avenanthramides was coined by Collins when he reported the presence of these compounds in oat kernels. It was later found that three avenanthramides were the open-ring amides of avenalumins I, II, and III, which were previously reported as oat phytoalexins by Mayama and co-workers. History Oat has been used for personal care purposes since antiquity. Indeed, wild oats (Avena sativa) was used in skin care in Egypt and the Arabian peninsula 2000 BC. Oat baths were a common treatment of insomnia, anxiety, and skin diseases such as eczema and burns. In Roman times, its use as a medication for dermatological issues was reported by Pliny, Columella, and Theophrastus. In the 19th century, oatmeal baths were often used to treat many cutaneous conditions, especially pruritic inflammatory eruptions. In the 1930s, the literature provided further evidence about the cleansing action of oat along with its ability to relieve itching and protect skin. Colloidal oatmeal In 2003, colloidal oatmeal was officially approved as a skin protectant by the FDA. However, little thought had been given to the active ingredient in oats responsible for the anti-inflammatory effect until more attention was paid to avenanthramides, which were first isolated and characterized in the 1980s by Collins. Since then, many congeners have been characterized and purified, and it is known that avenanthramides have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-atherosclerotic properties, and may be used as a treatment for people with inflammatory, allergy, or cardiovascular diseases. In 1999 studies made by Tufts University showed that avenanthramides are bioavailable and remain bioactive in humans after consumption. More recent studies made by the University of Minnesota showed that the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities can be increased through the consumption of 0.4 to 9.2 mg/day of avenanthramides over eight weeks. The International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients (INCI) originally referred to an oat extract with a standardized level of avenanthramides as "Avena sativa kernel extract," but recently they have also accepted the INCI name "avenanthramides" to describe an extract containing 80% of these oat phenolic alkaloids. Function in Avena sativa A. sativa produces avenanthramides as defensive phytoalexins against infiltration by fungal plant pathogens. They were discovered as defensive chemicals especially concentrated in lesions of Puccinia coronata var. avenae f. sp. avenae (and at that time named "avenalumins"). Medical and personal care uses Anti-inflammatory and anti-itch activity Studies made by Sur (2008) provide evidence that avenanthramides significantly reduce the inflammatory response. Inflammation is a complex and self-protection reaction that occurs in the body against foreign substance, cell damage, infections, and pathogens. The inflammatory responses are controlled through a group called cytokines that is produced by the inflammatory cells. Furthermore, the expression of cytokines are regulated through inhibition of nuclear transcription factor kappa B (NF-κB). Many studies have demonstrated that avenanthramides can reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IL-8, and MCP-1 by inhibiting NF-κB activation that is responsible for activating the genes of inflammatory response. Thus, these oat polyphenols mediate the decrease of inflammation by inhibiting the cytokine release. In addition, it was found that avenanthramides inhibit neurogenic inflammation, which is defined as an inflammation triggered by the nervous system that causes vasodilation, edema, warmth, and hypersensitivity. Also, avenanthramides significantly reduce the itching response, and its efficiency is comparable to the anti-itch effect produced by hydrocortisone. Redness reduction Avenanthramides have effective antihistaminic activity; they significantly reduce itch and redness compared with untreated areas. Suggested mechanism of action According to Sur (2008), the anti-inflammatory effect of the avenanthramides is due to the inhibition of the NF-κB activation in NF-κB dependent cytokine. Nuclear factor-kappa β (NF-κB) is responsible for regulating the transcription of DNA and participates in the activation of genes related to inflammatory and immune responses. Consequently, suppressing the NF-κB limits the proliferation of cancer cells and reduces the level of inflammation. Avenanthramides are able to inhibit the release of inflammatory cytokines that are present in pruritic skin diseases that cause itchiness. In addition, its anti-inflammatory activity may prevent the vicious itch-scratch cycle and reduce the scratching-induced secondary inflammation that often occur in atopic dermatitis and eczema, preventing the skin from disrupting its barrier. Avenanthramides also have a chemical structure similar to the drug tranilast, which has anti-histaminic action. The anti-itch activity of avenanthramides may be associated with the inhibition of histamine response. Taken together, these results show the effect of avenanthramides as powerful anti-inflammatory agents and their importance in dermatologic applications. Antioxidant activity Avenanthramides are known to have potent antioxidant activity, acting primarily by donating a hydrogen atom to a radical. An antioxidant is “any substance that, when present at low concentrations compared to those of an oxidisable substrate, significantly delays or prevents oxidation of that substrate” ( Halliwell, 1990). These phytochemicals are able to combat the oxidative stress present in the body that is responsible for causing cancer and cardiovascular disease. Among the avenanthramides, there are different antioxidant capacities, where C has the highest capacity, followed by B and A. Dietary supplement Avenanthramides extracted from oats show potent antioxidant properties in vitro and in vivo, and according to studies made by Dimberg (1992), its antioxidant activity is many times greater than other antioxidants such as caffeic acid and vanillin. Aven-C is one of the most significant avenanthramides present in the oats, and it is responsible for oats' antioxidant activity. The effects of the avenanthramide-enriched extract of oats has been investigated in animals, and a diet of 20 mg avenanthramide per kilogram body weight in rats has been shown to increase the superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in skeletal muscle, liver, and kidneys. Also, a diet based on avenanthramides enhances glutathione peroxidase activity in heart and skeletal muscles, protecting the organism from oxidative damages. Nomenclature Avenanthramides consist of conjugates of one of three phenylpropanoids (p-coumaric, ferulic, or caffeic acid) and anthranilic acid (or a hydroxylated and/or methoxylated derivative of anthranilic acid) Collins and Dimberg have used different systems of nomenclature to describe the Avenanthramides in their publications. Collins assigned a system that classifies avenanthramides using alphabetic descriptors, while Dimberg assigned upper case letters to the anthranilate derivate and lower case to the accompanying phenylpropanoid, such as “c” for caffeic acid, “f” for ferulic acid, or “p” for anthranilic acid p-coumaric acid. Later, Dimberg's system was modified to use a numeric descriptor for the anthranilic acid. The following avenanthramides are most abundant in oats: avenanthramide A (also called 2p, AF-1 or Bp), avenanthramide B (also called 2f, AF-2 or Bf), avenanthramide C (also called 2c, AF-6 or Bc), avenanthramide O (also called 2pd), avenanthramide P (also called 2fd), and avenanthramide Q (also called 2 cd). Biosynthesis There is evidence that the amount of avenanthramides found in the grains is related to genotype, environment, crop year and location, and tissue (Matsukawa et al., 2000). The environmental factors are not clearly known, but it is believed that lower levels of avenanthramides are produced in oats when they are grown in a dry environment, which disfavors crown rust, a kind of fungus that has been shown to stimulate avenanthramides production in oats grains. Chemical stability pH Avenanthramides are not all sensitive to pH and temperature. This was well illustrated in a study conducted on avenanthramides A, B and C. In this study it was found that avenanthramide A (2p) concentration was essentially unchanged in sodium phosphate buffer after three hours at either room temperature or at 95 °C. Avenanthramides B (2f) appeared to be more sensitive to the higher temperature at pH 7 and 12. Avenanthramides C (2c) underwent chemical reorganization at pH 12 at both temperatures and diminished by more than 85% at 95 °C, even at pH 7 (Dimberg et al., 2001). UV Avenanthramides are also affected by ultra-violet (UV) light. Dimberg found that the three avenanthramides tested (A, B, and C) remained in the trans conformation after 18 hours of exposure to UV light at 254 nm. On the other hand, Collins reported that the avenanthramides isomerize upon exposure to daylight or UV light. Synthetic avenanthramides Avenanthramides can be artificially synthesized. Avenanthramides A, B, D, and E were synthesized by Collins (1989), using chromatography methods, and adapting Bain and Smalley's procedure (1968). All four synthetic substances were identical to the ones extracted from oats. References Antibiotics Antipruritics Phytoalexins Oats
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avenanthramide", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Avenanthramides (anthranilic acid amides, formerly called \"avenalumins\") are a group of phenolic alkaloids found mainly in oats (Avena sativa), but also present in white cabbage butterfly eggs (Pieris brassicae and P. rapae), and in fungus-infected carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus). A number of studies demonstrate that these natural products have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-itch, anti-irritant, and antiatherogenic activities. Oat kernel extracts with standardized levels of avenanthramides are used for skin, hair, baby, and sun care products. The name avenanthramides was coined by Collins when he reported the presence of these compounds in oat kernels. It was later found that three avenanthramides were the open-ring amides of avenalumins I, II, and III, which were previously reported as oat phytoalexins by Mayama and co-workers.\n\nHistory \nOat has been used for personal care purposes since antiquity. Indeed, wild oats (Avena sativa) was used in skin care in Egypt and the Arabian peninsula 2000 BC. Oat baths were a common treatment of insomnia, anxiety, and skin diseases such as eczema and burns. In Roman times, its use as a medication for dermatological issues was reported by Pliny, Columella, and Theophrastus. In the 19th century, oatmeal baths were often used to treat many cutaneous conditions, especially pruritic inflammatory eruptions. In the 1930s, the literature provided further evidence about the cleansing action of oat along with its ability to relieve itching and protect skin.\n\nColloidal oatmeal\nIn 2003, colloidal oatmeal was officially approved as a skin protectant by the FDA. However, little thought had been given to the active ingredient in oats responsible for the anti-inflammatory effect until more attention was paid to avenanthramides, which were first isolated and characterized in the 1980s by Collins.\n\nSince then, many congeners have been characterized and purified, and it is known that avenanthramides have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-atherosclerotic properties, and may be used as a treatment for people with inflammatory, allergy, or cardiovascular diseases. In 1999 studies made by Tufts University showed that avenanthramides are bioavailable and remain bioactive in humans after consumption. More recent studies made by the University of Minnesota showed that the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities can be increased through the consumption of 0.4 to 9.2 mg/day of avenanthramides over eight weeks.\nThe International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients (INCI) originally referred to an oat extract with a standardized level of avenanthramides as \"Avena sativa kernel extract,\" but recently they have also accepted the INCI name \"avenanthramides\" to describe an extract containing 80% of these oat phenolic alkaloids.\n\nFunction in Avena sativa \nA. sativa produces avenanthramides as defensive phytoalexins against infiltration by fungal plant pathogens. They were discovered as defensive chemicals especially concentrated in lesions of Puccinia coronata var. avenae f. sp. avenae (and at that time named \"avenalumins\").\n\nMedical and personal care uses\n\nAnti-inflammatory and anti-itch activity \nStudies made by Sur (2008) provide evidence that avenanthramides significantly reduce the inflammatory response. Inflammation is a complex and self-protection reaction that occurs in the body against foreign substance, cell damage, infections, and pathogens. The inflammatory responses are controlled through a group called cytokines that is produced by the inflammatory cells. Furthermore, the expression of cytokines are regulated through inhibition of nuclear transcription factor kappa B (NF-κB). Many studies have demonstrated that avenanthramides can reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IL-8, and MCP-1 by inhibiting NF-κB activation that is responsible for activating the genes of inflammatory response. Thus, these oat polyphenols mediate the decrease of inflammation by inhibiting the cytokine release. In addition, it was found that avenanthramides inhibit neurogenic inflammation, which is defined as an inflammation triggered by the nervous system that causes vasodilation, edema, warmth, and hypersensitivity. Also, avenanthramides significantly reduce the itching response, and its efficiency is comparable to the anti-itch effect produced by hydrocortisone.\n\nRedness reduction \nAvenanthramides have effective antihistaminic activity; they significantly reduce itch and redness compared with untreated areas.\n\nSuggested mechanism of action \nAccording to Sur (2008), the anti-inflammatory effect of the avenanthramides is due to the inhibition of the NF-κB activation in NF-κB dependent cytokine. Nuclear factor-kappa β (NF-κB) is responsible for regulating the transcription of DNA and participates in the activation of genes related to inflammatory and immune responses. Consequently, suppressing the NF-κB limits the proliferation of cancer cells and reduces the level of inflammation. Avenanthramides are able to inhibit the release of inflammatory cytokines that are present in pruritic skin diseases that cause itchiness. In addition, its anti-inflammatory activity may prevent the vicious itch-scratch cycle and reduce the scratching-induced secondary inflammation that often occur in atopic dermatitis and eczema, preventing the skin from disrupting its barrier. Avenanthramides also have a chemical structure similar to the drug tranilast, which has anti-histaminic action. The anti-itch activity of avenanthramides may be associated with the inhibition of histamine response. Taken together, these results show the effect of avenanthramides as powerful anti-inflammatory agents and their importance in dermatologic applications.\n\nAntioxidant activity \nAvenanthramides are known to have potent antioxidant activity, acting primarily by donating a hydrogen atom to a radical. An antioxidant is “any substance that, when present at low concentrations compared to those of an oxidisable substrate, significantly delays or prevents oxidation of that substrate” ( Halliwell, 1990). These phytochemicals are able to combat the oxidative stress present in the body that is responsible for causing cancer and cardiovascular disease. Among the avenanthramides, there are different antioxidant capacities, where C has the highest capacity, followed by B and A.\n\nDietary supplement \nAvenanthramides extracted from oats show potent antioxidant properties in vitro and in vivo, and according to studies made by Dimberg (1992), its antioxidant activity is many times greater than other antioxidants such as caffeic acid and vanillin. Aven-C is one of the most significant avenanthramides present in the oats, and it is responsible for oats' antioxidant activity. The effects of the avenanthramide-enriched extract of oats has been investigated in animals, and a diet of 20 mg avenanthramide per kilogram body weight in rats has been shown to increase the superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in skeletal muscle, liver, and kidneys. Also, a diet based on avenanthramides enhances glutathione peroxidase activity in heart and skeletal muscles, protecting the organism from oxidative damages.\n\nNomenclature \nAvenanthramides consist of conjugates of one of three phenylpropanoids (p-coumaric, ferulic, or caffeic acid) and anthranilic acid (or a hydroxylated and/or methoxylated derivative of anthranilic acid) Collins and Dimberg have used different systems of nomenclature to describe the Avenanthramides in their publications. Collins assigned a system that classifies avenanthramides using alphabetic descriptors, while Dimberg assigned upper case letters to the anthranilate derivate and lower case to the accompanying phenylpropanoid, such as “c” for caffeic acid, “f” for ferulic acid, or “p” for anthranilic acid p-coumaric acid. Later, Dimberg's system was modified to use a numeric descriptor for the anthranilic acid. The following avenanthramides are most abundant in oats: avenanthramide A (also called 2p, AF-1 or Bp), avenanthramide B (also called 2f, AF-2 or Bf), avenanthramide C (also called 2c, AF-6 or Bc), avenanthramide O (also called 2pd), avenanthramide P (also called 2fd), and avenanthramide Q (also called 2 cd).\n\nBiosynthesis \nThere is evidence that the amount of avenanthramides found in the grains is related to genotype, environment, crop year and location, and tissue (Matsukawa et al., 2000). The environmental factors are not clearly known, but it is believed that lower levels of avenanthramides are produced in oats when they are grown in a dry environment, which disfavors crown rust, a kind of fungus that has been shown to stimulate avenanthramides production in oats grains.\n\nChemical stability\n\npH \nAvenanthramides are not all sensitive to pH and temperature. This was well illustrated in a study conducted on avenanthramides A, B and C. In this study it was found that avenanthramide A (2p) concentration was essentially unchanged in sodium phosphate buffer after three hours at either room temperature or at 95 °C. Avenanthramides B (2f) appeared to be more sensitive to the higher temperature at pH 7 and 12. Avenanthramides C (2c) underwent chemical reorganization at pH 12 at both temperatures and diminished by more than 85% at 95 °C, even at pH 7 (Dimberg et al., 2001).\n\nUV \nAvenanthramides are also affected by ultra-violet (UV) light. Dimberg found that the three avenanthramides tested (A, B, and C) remained in the trans conformation after 18 hours of exposure to UV light at 254 nm. On the other hand, Collins reported that the avenanthramides isomerize upon exposure to daylight or UV light.\n\nSynthetic avenanthramides \nAvenanthramides can be artificially synthesized. Avenanthramides A, B, D, and E were synthesized by Collins (1989), using chromatography methods, and adapting Bain and Smalley's procedure (1968). All four synthetic substances were identical to the ones extracted from oats.\n\nReferences \n\nAntibiotics\nAntipruritics\nPhytoalexins\nOats", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England%20at%20the%202006%20Commonwealth%20Games
England at the 2006 Commonwealth Games were represented by the Commonwealth Games Council for England (CGCE). The country went by the abbreviation ENG and used the St George's Cross as flag and Land of Hope and Glory as the national anthem. Diver Tony Ally bore England's flag at the opening ceremony whilst shooter Mick Gault bore the flag during the closing ceremony, both chosen by a vote of England team managers from a list of nominations. Expectations England entered these Games, held in Melbourne; Australia, after playing hosts to the previous Games in Manchester in Manchester 2002. The medal tally was not expected to be a large as at the 2002 Games, where England had a home advantage and achieved a total of 166 medals including 54 Gold, 51 Silver and 60 Bronze to finish in second place behind Australia. A strong second place in the medal tally was, however, still expected. The country sent a large team, with competitors taking part in every sport in the schedule. The largest teams were sent in athletics and swimming and it was in these sports, along with cycling and shooting that the team hoped to win most medals. Though there were medal hopes across most sports. Medals Medallists Silver Athletics: Martyn Bernard, Men's High Jump Natasha Danvers, Women's 400 m Hurdles Joanne Pavey, Women's 5000 m Emma Ania, Anyika Onuora, Laura Turner & Kim Wall, Women's 4 × 100 m Relay Badminton: Mixed Team Boxing: Darran Langley, Light Flyweight 48 kg Cycling: Rob Hayles, Men's 4000 m Individual Pursuit Victoria Pendleton, Women's 500 m Time Trial Jason Queally, Men's 1 km Time Trial Oli Beckinsale, Men's Mountain Bike Men's Team Sprint Diving: Peter Waterfield, Men's 10 Platform Men's Synchronised 3 m Springboard Gymnastics: Shavahn Church, Women's Uneven Bars Women's Artistic Team Lawn Bowls: Men's Pairs Rugby Sevens: Men's Shooting: Mike Babb, Men's 50 m Rifle Prone Mick Gault, Men's 50 m Pistol Rachel Parish, Women's Double Trap Patel Parag, Open Full Bore Men's 10 m Air Pistol Pairs Men's 25 m Centre Fire Pistol Pairs Men's Skeet Pairs Women's 50 m Rifle Prone Pairs Squash: Vicky Botwright & James Willstrop, Mixed Doubles Swimming: Simon Burnett, Men's 200 m Freestyle Rebecca Cooke, Women's 400 m Individual Medley James Gibson, Men' 100 m Breaststroke Joanne Jackson, Women's 400 m Freestyle Melanie Marshall, Women's 200 m Backstroke Darren Mew, Men's 50 m Breaststroke Liam Tancock, Men's 50 m Backcrawl Men's 4 × 100 m Medley Relay Women's 4 × 100 m Freestyle Relay Women's 4 × 100 m Medley Relay Women's 4 × 200 m Freestyle Relay Synchronised Swimming: Jenna Randall, Synchronised Swimming Solo Table Tennis: Andrew Baggaley & Andrew Rushton, Men's Doubles Weightlifting: Jason Irving, Open EAD Powerlifting Bronze Athletics: Jessica Ennis, Women's Heptathlon Stephen Lewis, Men's Pole Vault Dan Robinson, Men's Marathon Lorraine Shaw, Women's Hammer Andrew Turner, Men's 110 m Hurdles Nadia Williams, Women's Triple Jump Mara Yamauchi, Women's 10000 m Elizabeth Yelling, Women's Marathon Badminton: Robert Blair & Anthony Clark, Men's Doubles Gail Emms & Donna Kellogg, Women's Doubles Basketball: Men's basketball Women's basketball Boxing: Neil Perkins, Welterweight 69 kg James Degale, Middleweight 75 kg Cycling: Stephen Cummings, Men's Individual Pursuit Emma Jones, Women's Individual Pursuit Diving: Women's Synchronised 3 m Springboard Gymnastics: Becky Downie, Women's Beam Men's Artistic Team Hockey: Women's Hockey Lawn Bowls: Women's Triples Netball: Women's Netball Shooting: Pinky Le Grelle, Women's Skeet Men's 50 m Pistol Pairs Men's 50 m Rifle 3 Positions Pairs Men's Double Trap Pairs Women's 10 m Air Pistol Pairs Squash: Lee Beachill, Men's Singles Tania Bailey & Vicky Botwright, Women's Doubles Swimming: Terri Dunning, Women's 200 m Butterfly Melanie Marshall, Women's 200 m Freestyle Melanie Marshall, Women's 100 m Backstroke Matthew Benedict Walker, Men's 50 m EAD Freestyle Table Tennis: Catherine Mitton, Women's Singles EAD Athletics Team England sent a team of 89 athletes to compete in the Commonwealth Games Athletics meet. The team won 18 medals at the 2006 Commonwealth Games Athletics Meet ; six gold, four silver and eight bronze. Men Track Q : Qualified for next round DNS : Did not start race DNF : Did not finish race DSQ : Disqualified EAD (T12) : event for athlete with a disability (sight impaired category) Field Q : Qualified for final Combined events Women Track {|class=wikitable style="font-size:90%" |- !rowspan="2"|Athlete !rowspan="2"|Events !colspan="2"|Heat !colspan="2"|Semifinal !colspan="2"|Final |- !Result !Rank !Result !Rank !Result !Rank |- |Emma Ania |100m |align="center"|11.44 |align="center"|6 Q |align="center"|11.45 |align="center"|8 Q |align="center"|11.51 |align="center"|8 |- |Joanna Ankier |3000m steeplechase |align="center" colspan="4" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"|9:53.12 |align="center"|7 |- |Tina Brown |3000m steeplechase |align="center" colspan="4" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"|10:09.14 |align="center"|8 |- |Helen Clitheroe |1500m |align="center"|1:11.05 |align="center"|7 Q |align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"|4:06.81 |align="center"|4 |- |Natasha Danvers-Smith |400m hurdles |align="center"|55.47 |align="center"|2 Q |align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"|55.17 |align="center"| |- |Lisa Dobriskey |1500m |align="center"|4:10.02 |align="center"|3 Q |align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"|4:06.21 |align="center"| |- |Donna Fraser |400m |align="center"| DNS |align="center"| – |align="center" colspan="4"|did not advance |- |Natalie Harvey |5000m |align="center" colspan="4" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"|15:51.94 |align="center"|9 |- |Johanna Jackson |20km walk |align="center" colspan="4" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"|1:42:04 |align="center"|7 |- |Debra Mason |Marathon |align="center" colspan="4" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"|DNF |align="center"| – |- |Niobe Menendez |20km walk |align="center" colspan="4" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"|1:47:35 |align="center"|8 |- |Christine Ohuruogu |400m |align="center"|51.97 |align="center"|3 Q |align="center"|50.87 |align="center"|1 Q |align="center"|50.28 |align="center"| |- |Marilyn Okoru |800m |align="center"|2:05:01 |align="center"|15 'Q|align="center"|2:00:84 |align="center"|4 Q|align="center"|2:01.65 |align="center"|7 |- |Anyika Onuora |100m |align="center"|11.59 |align="center"|15 Q|align="center"|11.46 |align="center"|9 |align="center" colspan="2"|did not advance |- |Jo Pavey |5000m |align="center" colspan="4" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"|14:59.08 |align="center"| |- |Julie Pratt |100m hurdles |align="center"|13.49 |align="center"|8 Q|align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"|13.48 |align="center"|6 |- |Nicola Sanders |400m hurdles |align="center"|55.76 |align="center"|4 Q|align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"|55.32 |align="center"|4 |- |Jemma Simpson |800m |align="center"|2:03.49 |align="center"|5 Q|align="center"|2:01.78 |align="center"|8 Q|align="center"|2:01.11 |align="center"|6 |- |Laura Turner |100m |align="center"|11.43 |align="center"|4 Q|align="center"|11.38 |align="center"|4 Q|align="center"|11.46 |align="center"|4 |- |Kimberly Wall |400m |align="center"|53.05 |align="center"|13 Q|align="center"|53.75 |align="center"|19 |align="center" colspan="2"|did not advance |- |Shelley Woods |800m EAD (T54) |align="center" colspan="4" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"|1:58.92 |align="center"|7 |- |Mara Yamauchi |10000m |align="center" colspan="4" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"|31:49.40 |align="center"| |- |Hayley Yelling |10000m |align="center" colspan="4" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"| 32:32.38 |align="center"|6 |- |Liz Yelling |Marathon |align="center" colspan="4" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"|2:32:19 |align="center"| |- |Nwnyika OnouraKimberly WallLaura TurnerEmma Ania |4 × 100 m relay |align="center" colspan="4" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"| 43.43 |align="center"| |- |Christine OhuruoguNicola SandersNatasha Danvers-SmithKimberly Wall |4 × 400 m relay |align="center" colspan="4" bgcolor="honeydew"| |align="center"|DSQ |align="center"| – |} Q : Qualified for next round DNF : Did not finish DNS : Did not start DSQ : Disqualified EAD (T54) : Events for athletes with a disability (wheelchair racing category) Field Combined events Badminton Singles and Doubles events Mixed Team Event Basketball Men's tournament Pool Classification Pool Matches Pool B Knockout MatchesSemifinalBronze Medal MatchWomen's tournament Pool Classification Pool Matches Pool B Knockout MatchesSemifinalBronze Medal MatchBoxing RSC : referee stopped contest RET : retired (hurt) WO : walkover Cycling Road DNF : did not finish Track QG – qualified for Gold Final QB – qualified for Bronze Final Mountain bike Diving Men 1 m: Ben Swain, Peter Waterfield 3 m: Ben Swain, Tony Ally 10 m: Peter Waterfield, Gareth Jones, Leon Taylor 3 m synchro: Tony Ally/Mark Shipman 10 m synchro: Callum Johnstone/Gary Hunt, Peter Waterfield/Leon Taylor Women 1 m: Tandi Indergaard 3 m: Rebecca Gallentree, Hayley Sage, Tandi Indergaard 10 m: Sarah Barrow, Stacie Powell, Tonia Couch 3 m Synchro: Tandi Indergaard/Hayley Sage 10 m Synchro: Stacie Powell/Tonia Couch, Brooke Graddon/Sarah Barrow Field hockey Men's tournament Richard Alexander Jon Bleby Jonty Clarke Scott Cordon Matt Daly Jon Ebsworth James Fair Brett Garrard Adam Rebbeck Ben Hawes Martin Jones Glenn Kirkham Simon Mantell Ben Marsden Barry Middleton Rob Moore James TindallHead coach: Jason Lee Women's tournament Jennie Bimson Melanie Clewlow Crista Cullen Alex Danson Becky Duggan Joanne Ellis Cathy Gilliat-Smith Helen Grant Charlotte Hartley Beckie Herbert Carolyn Reid Helen Richardson Chloe Rogers Beth Storry Kate Walsh Rachel Walsh Lisa Wooding Lucilla WrightHead coach: Danny Kerry Gymnastics Artistic Men Ryan Bradley Ross Brewer Luke Folwell Louis Smith Kristian Thomas Women Beth Tweddle (Team captain, withdrew due to injury) Imogen Cairns Shavahn Church Hannah Clowes Becky Downie Rhythmic Hannah Chappell Rachel Ennis Heather Mann Lawn bowls Men Mark Bantock Ian Bond Stephen Farish Mervyn King Robert Newman Andy Thomson Women Jean Baker Ellen Falkner Susan Harriott Katherine Hawes Amy Monkhouse Catherine Popple Netball England's netball team qualified for the event by being in the top six of the IFNA world rankings. Women only team event – 1 team of 12 players Roster Ama Agbeze, Karen Atkinson, Louisa Brownfield, Jade Clarke, Pamela Cookey, Rachel Dunn, Chioma Ezeogu, Geva Mentor, Sonia Mkoloma, Olivia Murphy (captain), Naomi Stenhouse, Abby Teare, Margaret Caldow (head coach) Group play Semi-final Bronze medal match Rugby sevens Simon Amor (Captain) Danny Care Ben Gollings Richard Haughton Magnus Lund Nils Mordt Henry Paul Ben Russell David Seymour Mathew Tait Tom Varndell Andy Vilk Shooting Men Clay target: Skeet: Richard Brickell, Clive Bramley Trap: Christopher Dean, Edward Ling Double trap: Richard Faulds, Steve Walton Pistol: 10 m air pistol: Mick Gault, Nick Baxter 25 m centre fire: Peter Flippant, Simon Lucas 25 m standard pistol: Mick Gault, Simon Lucas 50 m pistol: Mick Gault, Nick Baxter Small bore rifle: 10 m: air rifle: Chris Hector, Chris Lacey 50 m rifle 3 positions: Chris Hector, Jason Burrage 50 m: rifle prone: Mike Babb, Chris Hector Women Clay Target: Skeet: Elena Little, Pinky Le Grelle Trap: Lesley Goddard Double trap: Charlotte Kerwood, Rachel Parish Pistol: 10 m air pistol: Georgina Geikie, Julia Lydall 25 m sports pistol: Georgina Geikie, Julia Lydall Small bore rifle: 10 m air rifle: Louise Minett, Becky Spicer 50 m rifle 3 positions: Louise Minett, Becky Spicer 50 m rifle prone: Sharon Lee, Helen Spittles Open Full Bore: Queens Prize: Glyn Barnett, Parag Patel Squash Men Lee Beachill Adrian Grant Nick Matthew Peter Nicol James Willstrop Women Tania Bailey Vicky Botwright Jenny Duncalf Linda Elriani Alison Waters Swimming Men Matthew Bowe Simon Burnett Matthew Clay Chris Cook Chris Cozens Ross Davenport Mark Foster James Gibson Anthony Howard Darren Mew Dean Milwain Alex Scotcher Liam Tancock Matt Walker EAD Women Julia Beckett Rosalind Brett Rebecca Cooke Terri Dunning Francesca Halsall Kate Haywood Joanne Jackson Melanie Marshall Keri-anne Payne Kate Richardson Katy Sexton Amy Smith Synchronised swimming Olivia Allison Jenna Randall Lauren Smith Table tennis Men Andrew Baggaley Alan Cooke Paul Drinkhall Andrew Rushton Sean Sweeting Jack Donohoe Women Helen Lower Joanna Parker Kelly Sibley Georgina Walker Sue Gilroy EAD Cathy Mitton EAD Jane Campbell EAD Catherine Perry Michael Barrett Men's Team EventPool CWomen's Team EventPool B''' England are eliminated at the pool stage. Triathlon Men Women Weightlifting Men Men – EAD (Powerlifting) Women See also Commonwealth Games Council for England England at the 2002 Commonwealth Games References External links 2006 Commonwealth Games Council for England website BBC Sports – a full list of England's competitors at the 2006 Games in Melbourne Nations at the 2006 Commonwealth Games 2006 2006 in English sport
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England%20at%20the%202006%20Commonwealth%20Games", "role": "user" }, { "content": "England at the 2006 Commonwealth Games were represented by the Commonwealth Games Council for England (CGCE). The country went by the abbreviation ENG and used the St George's Cross as flag and Land of Hope and Glory as the national anthem.\n\nDiver Tony Ally bore England's flag at the opening ceremony whilst shooter Mick Gault bore the flag during the closing ceremony, both chosen by a vote of England team managers from a list of nominations.\n\nExpectations\nEngland entered these Games, held in Melbourne; Australia, after playing hosts to the previous Games in Manchester in Manchester 2002. The medal tally was not expected to be a large as at the 2002 Games, where England had a home advantage and achieved a total of 166 medals including 54 Gold, 51 Silver and 60 Bronze to finish in second place behind Australia. A strong second place in the medal tally was, however, still expected.\n\nThe country sent a large team, with competitors taking part in every sport in the schedule. The largest teams were sent in athletics and swimming and it was in these sports, along with cycling and shooting that the team hoped to win most medals. Though there were medal hopes across most sports.\n\nMedals\n\nMedallists\n\nSilver\nAthletics:\nMartyn Bernard, Men's High Jump\nNatasha Danvers, Women's 400 m Hurdles\nJoanne Pavey, Women's 5000 m\nEmma Ania, Anyika Onuora, Laura Turner & Kim Wall, Women's 4 × 100 m Relay\n\nBadminton:\nMixed Team\n\nBoxing:\nDarran Langley, Light Flyweight 48 kg\n\nCycling:\nRob Hayles, Men's 4000 m Individual Pursuit\nVictoria Pendleton, Women's 500 m Time Trial\nJason Queally, Men's 1 km Time Trial\nOli Beckinsale, Men's Mountain Bike\nMen's Team Sprint\n\nDiving:\nPeter Waterfield, Men's 10 Platform\nMen's Synchronised 3 m Springboard\n\nGymnastics:\nShavahn Church, Women's Uneven Bars\nWomen's Artistic Team\n\nLawn Bowls:\nMen's Pairs\n\nRugby Sevens:\nMen's\n\nShooting:\nMike Babb, Men's 50 m Rifle Prone\nMick Gault, Men's 50 m Pistol\nRachel Parish, Women's Double Trap\nPatel Parag, Open Full Bore\nMen's 10 m Air Pistol Pairs\nMen's 25 m Centre Fire Pistol Pairs\nMen's Skeet Pairs\nWomen's 50 m Rifle Prone Pairs\n\nSquash:\nVicky Botwright & James Willstrop, Mixed Doubles\n\nSwimming:\nSimon Burnett, Men's 200 m Freestyle\nRebecca Cooke, Women's 400 m Individual Medley\nJames Gibson, Men' 100 m Breaststroke\nJoanne Jackson, Women's 400 m Freestyle\nMelanie Marshall, Women's 200 m Backstroke\nDarren Mew, Men's 50 m Breaststroke\nLiam Tancock, Men's 50 m Backcrawl\nMen's 4 × 100 m Medley Relay\nWomen's 4 × 100 m Freestyle Relay\nWomen's 4 × 100 m Medley Relay\nWomen's 4 × 200 m Freestyle Relay\n\nSynchronised Swimming:\nJenna Randall, Synchronised Swimming Solo\n\nTable Tennis:\nAndrew Baggaley & Andrew Rushton, Men's Doubles\n\nWeightlifting:\nJason Irving, Open EAD Powerlifting\n\nBronze\nAthletics: \nJessica Ennis, Women's Heptathlon\nStephen Lewis, Men's Pole Vault\nDan Robinson, Men's Marathon\nLorraine Shaw, Women's Hammer\nAndrew Turner, Men's 110 m Hurdles\nNadia Williams, Women's Triple Jump\nMara Yamauchi, Women's 10000 m\nElizabeth Yelling, Women's Marathon\n\nBadminton:\nRobert Blair & Anthony Clark, Men's Doubles\nGail Emms & Donna Kellogg, Women's Doubles\n\nBasketball:\nMen's basketball\nWomen's basketball\n\nBoxing:\nNeil Perkins, Welterweight 69 kg\nJames Degale, Middleweight 75 kg\n\nCycling: \nStephen Cummings, Men's Individual Pursuit\nEmma Jones, Women's Individual Pursuit\n\nDiving:\nWomen's Synchronised 3 m Springboard\n\nGymnastics:\nBecky Downie, Women's Beam\nMen's Artistic Team\n\nHockey:\nWomen's Hockey\n\nLawn Bowls:\nWomen's Triples\n\nNetball:\nWomen's Netball\n\nShooting:\nPinky Le Grelle, Women's Skeet\nMen's 50 m Pistol Pairs\nMen's 50 m Rifle 3 Positions Pairs\nMen's Double Trap Pairs\nWomen's 10 m Air Pistol Pairs\n\nSquash:\nLee Beachill, Men's Singles\nTania Bailey & Vicky Botwright, Women's Doubles\n\nSwimming:\nTerri Dunning, Women's 200 m Butterfly\nMelanie Marshall, Women's 200 m Freestyle\nMelanie Marshall, Women's 100 m Backstroke\nMatthew Benedict Walker, Men's 50 m EAD Freestyle\n\nTable Tennis:\nCatherine Mitton, Women's Singles EAD\n\nAthletics\n\nTeam England sent a team of 89 athletes to compete in the Commonwealth Games Athletics meet. The team won 18 medals at the 2006 Commonwealth Games Athletics Meet ; six gold, four silver and eight bronze.\n\nMen\nTrack\n\nQ : Qualified for next round\nDNS : Did not start race\nDNF : Did not finish race\nDSQ : Disqualified\nEAD (T12) : event for athlete with a disability (sight impaired category)\n\nField\n\nQ : Qualified for final\n\nCombined events\n\nWomen\nTrack\n\n{|class=wikitable style=\"font-size:90%\"\n|-\n!rowspan=\"2\"|Athlete\n!rowspan=\"2\"|Events\n!colspan=\"2\"|Heat\n!colspan=\"2\"|Semifinal\n!colspan=\"2\"|Final\n|-\n!Result\n!Rank\n!Result\n!Rank\n!Result\n!Rank\n|-\n|Emma Ania\n|100m\n|align=\"center\"|11.44\n|align=\"center\"|6 Q\n|align=\"center\"|11.45\n|align=\"center\"|8 Q\n|align=\"center\"|11.51\n|align=\"center\"|8\n|-\n|Joanna Ankier\n|3000m steeplechase\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"4\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"|9:53.12\n|align=\"center\"|7\n|-\n|Tina Brown\n|3000m steeplechase\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"4\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"|10:09.14\n|align=\"center\"|8\n|-\n|Helen Clitheroe\n|1500m\n|align=\"center\"|1:11.05\n|align=\"center\"|7 Q\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"2\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"|4:06.81\n|align=\"center\"|4\n|-\n|Natasha Danvers-Smith\n|400m hurdles\n|align=\"center\"|55.47\n|align=\"center\"|2 Q\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"2\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"|55.17\n|align=\"center\"|\n|-\n|Lisa Dobriskey\n|1500m\n|align=\"center\"|4:10.02\n|align=\"center\"|3 Q\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"2\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"|4:06.21\n|align=\"center\"|\n|-\n|Donna Fraser\n|400m\n|align=\"center\"| DNS\n|align=\"center\"| –\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"4\"|did not advance\n|-\n|Natalie Harvey\n|5000m\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"4\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"|15:51.94\n|align=\"center\"|9\n|-\n|Johanna Jackson\n|20km walk\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"4\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"|1:42:04\n|align=\"center\"|7\n|-\n|Debra Mason\n|Marathon\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"4\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"|DNF\n|align=\"center\"| –\n|-\n|Niobe Menendez\n|20km walk\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"4\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"|1:47:35\n|align=\"center\"|8\n|-\n|Christine Ohuruogu\n|400m\n|align=\"center\"|51.97\n|align=\"center\"|3 Q\n|align=\"center\"|50.87\n|align=\"center\"|1 Q\n|align=\"center\"|50.28\n|align=\"center\"|\n|-\n|Marilyn Okoru\n|800m\n|align=\"center\"|2:05:01\n|align=\"center\"|15 'Q|align=\"center\"|2:00:84\n|align=\"center\"|4 Q|align=\"center\"|2:01.65\n|align=\"center\"|7\n|-\n|Anyika Onuora\n|100m\n|align=\"center\"|11.59\n|align=\"center\"|15 Q|align=\"center\"|11.46\n|align=\"center\"|9\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"2\"|did not advance\n|-\n|Jo Pavey\n|5000m\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"4\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"|14:59.08\n|align=\"center\"|\n|-\n|Julie Pratt\n|100m hurdles\n|align=\"center\"|13.49\n|align=\"center\"|8 Q|align=\"center\" colspan=\"2\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"|13.48\n|align=\"center\"|6\n|-\n|Nicola Sanders\n|400m hurdles\n|align=\"center\"|55.76\n|align=\"center\"|4 Q|align=\"center\" colspan=\"2\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"|55.32\n|align=\"center\"|4\n|-\n|Jemma Simpson\n|800m\n|align=\"center\"|2:03.49\n|align=\"center\"|5 Q|align=\"center\"|2:01.78\n|align=\"center\"|8 Q|align=\"center\"|2:01.11\n|align=\"center\"|6\n|-\n|Laura Turner\n|100m\n|align=\"center\"|11.43\n|align=\"center\"|4 Q|align=\"center\"|11.38\n|align=\"center\"|4 Q|align=\"center\"|11.46\n|align=\"center\"|4\n|-\n|Kimberly Wall\n|400m\n|align=\"center\"|53.05\n|align=\"center\"|13 Q|align=\"center\"|53.75\n|align=\"center\"|19\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"2\"|did not advance\n|-\n|Shelley Woods\n|800m EAD (T54)\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"4\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"|1:58.92\n|align=\"center\"|7\n|-\n|Mara Yamauchi\n|10000m\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"4\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"|31:49.40\n|align=\"center\"|\n|-\n|Hayley Yelling\n|10000m\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"4\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"| 32:32.38\n|align=\"center\"|6\n|-\n|Liz Yelling\n|Marathon\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"4\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"|2:32:19\n|align=\"center\"|\n|-\n|Nwnyika OnouraKimberly WallLaura TurnerEmma Ania\n|4 × 100 m relay\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"4\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"| 43.43\n|align=\"center\"|\n|-\n|Christine OhuruoguNicola SandersNatasha Danvers-SmithKimberly Wall\n|4 × 400 m relay\n|align=\"center\" colspan=\"4\" bgcolor=\"honeydew\"|\n|align=\"center\"|DSQ\n|align=\"center\"| –\n|}\n\n Q : Qualified for next round\n DNF : Did not finish\n DNS : Did not start\n DSQ : Disqualified\n EAD (T54) : Events for athletes with a disability (wheelchair racing category)\n\nField\n\nCombined events\n\n Badminton\n\nSingles and Doubles events\n\nMixed Team Event\n\nBasketball\n\nMen's tournament\nPool Classification\n\nPool Matches Pool B Knockout MatchesSemifinalBronze Medal MatchWomen's tournament\nPool Classification\n\nPool Matches Pool B Knockout MatchesSemifinalBronze Medal MatchBoxing\n\n RSC : referee stopped contest\n RET : retired (hurt)\n WO : walkover\n\nCycling\n\n Road\n\n DNF : did not finish\n\n Track\n\n QG – qualified for Gold Final\n QB – qualified for Bronze Final\n\nMountain bike\n\nDiving\n\nMen\n\n \t \t\n\n 1 m: Ben Swain, Peter Waterfield\n 3 m: Ben Swain, Tony Ally\n 10 m: Peter Waterfield, Gareth Jones, Leon Taylor\n 3 m synchro: Tony Ally/Mark Shipman\n 10 m synchro: Callum Johnstone/Gary Hunt, Peter Waterfield/Leon Taylor\n\nWomen\n 1 m: Tandi Indergaard\n 3 m: Rebecca Gallentree, Hayley Sage, Tandi Indergaard\n 10 m: Sarah Barrow, Stacie Powell, Tonia Couch\n 3 m Synchro: Tandi Indergaard/Hayley Sage\n 10 m Synchro: Stacie Powell/Tonia Couch, Brooke Graddon/Sarah Barrow\n\nField hockey\n\nMen's tournament\n\n Richard Alexander\n Jon Bleby\n Jonty Clarke\n Scott Cordon\n Matt Daly\n Jon Ebsworth\n James Fair\n Brett Garrard\n Adam Rebbeck\n Ben Hawes\n Martin Jones\n Glenn Kirkham\n Simon Mantell\n Ben Marsden\n Barry Middleton\n Rob Moore\n James TindallHead coach: Jason Lee\n\nWomen's tournament\n\n Jennie Bimson\n Melanie Clewlow\n Crista Cullen\n Alex Danson\n Becky Duggan\n Joanne Ellis\n Cathy Gilliat-Smith\n Helen Grant\n Charlotte Hartley\n Beckie Herbert\n Carolyn Reid\n Helen Richardson\n Chloe Rogers\n Beth Storry\n Kate Walsh\n Rachel Walsh\n Lisa Wooding\n Lucilla WrightHead coach: Danny Kerry\n\nGymnastics\n\n Artistic\nMen\n Ryan Bradley\n Ross Brewer\n Luke Folwell\n Louis Smith\n Kristian Thomas\n\nWomen\n Beth Tweddle (Team captain, withdrew due to injury)\n Imogen Cairns\n Shavahn Church\n Hannah Clowes\n Becky Downie\n\nRhythmic\n Hannah Chappell\n Rachel Ennis\n Heather Mann\n\nLawn bowls\n\nMen\n Mark Bantock\n Ian Bond\n Stephen Farish\n Mervyn King\n Robert Newman\n Andy Thomson\n\nWomen\n Jean Baker\n Ellen Falkner\n Susan Harriott\n Katherine Hawes\n Amy Monkhouse\n Catherine Popple\n\nNetball\n\nEngland's netball team qualified for the event by being in the top six of the IFNA world rankings.\n Women only team event – 1 team of 12 players\n\nRoster\nAma Agbeze, Karen Atkinson, Louisa Brownfield, Jade Clarke, Pamela Cookey, Rachel Dunn, Chioma Ezeogu, Geva Mentor, Sonia Mkoloma, Olivia Murphy (captain), Naomi Stenhouse, Abby Teare, Margaret Caldow (head coach)\n\nGroup play\n\nSemi-final\n\nBronze medal match\n\nRugby sevens\n\n Simon Amor (Captain)\n Danny Care\n Ben Gollings\n Richard Haughton\n Magnus Lund\n Nils Mordt\n Henry Paul\n Ben Russell\n David Seymour\n Mathew Tait\n Tom Varndell\n Andy Vilk\n\nShooting\n\nMen\n Clay target:\n Skeet: Richard Brickell, Clive Bramley\n Trap: Christopher Dean, Edward Ling\n Double trap: Richard Faulds, Steve Walton\n Pistol:\n 10 m air pistol: Mick Gault, Nick Baxter\n 25 m centre fire: Peter Flippant, Simon Lucas\n 25 m standard pistol: Mick Gault, Simon Lucas\n 50 m pistol: Mick Gault, Nick Baxter\n Small bore rifle:\n 10 m: air rifle: Chris Hector, Chris Lacey\n 50 m rifle 3 positions: Chris Hector, Jason Burrage\n 50 m: rifle prone: Mike Babb, Chris Hector\n\nWomen\n Clay Target:\n Skeet: Elena Little, Pinky Le Grelle\n Trap: Lesley Goddard\n Double trap: Charlotte Kerwood, Rachel Parish\n Pistol:\n 10 m air pistol: Georgina Geikie, Julia Lydall\n 25 m sports pistol: Georgina Geikie, Julia Lydall\n Small bore rifle:\n 10 m air rifle: Louise Minett, Becky Spicer\n 50 m rifle 3 positions: Louise Minett, Becky Spicer\n 50 m rifle prone: Sharon Lee, Helen Spittles\n\nOpen\n Full Bore: Queens Prize: Glyn Barnett, Parag Patel\n\nSquash\n\nMen\n Lee Beachill\n Adrian Grant\n Nick Matthew\n Peter Nicol\n James Willstrop\n\nWomen\n Tania Bailey\n Vicky Botwright\n Jenny Duncalf\n Linda Elriani\n Alison Waters\n\nSwimming\n\nMen\n Matthew Bowe\n Simon Burnett\n Matthew Clay\n Chris Cook\n Chris Cozens\n Ross Davenport\n Mark Foster\n James Gibson\n Anthony Howard\n Darren Mew\n Dean Milwain\n Alex Scotcher\n Liam Tancock\n Matt Walker EAD\n\nWomen\n Julia Beckett\n Rosalind Brett\n Rebecca Cooke\n Terri Dunning\n Francesca Halsall\n Kate Haywood\n Joanne Jackson\n Melanie Marshall\n Keri-anne Payne\n Kate Richardson\n Katy Sexton\n Amy Smith\n\nSynchronised swimming\n\n Olivia Allison\n Jenna Randall\n Lauren Smith\n\nTable tennis\n\nMen\n Andrew Baggaley\n Alan Cooke\n Paul Drinkhall\n Andrew Rushton\n Sean Sweeting\n Jack Donohoe\n\nWomen\n Helen Lower\n Joanna Parker\n Kelly Sibley\n Georgina Walker\n Sue Gilroy EAD\n Cathy Mitton EAD\n Jane Campbell EAD\n Catherine Perry\n Michael Barrett\n\nMen's Team EventPool CWomen's Team EventPool B'''\n\n England are eliminated at the pool stage.\n\nTriathlon\n\nMen\n\nWomen\n\nWeightlifting\n\nMen\n\nMen – EAD (Powerlifting)\n\nWomen\n\nSee also\n Commonwealth Games Council for England\n England at the 2002 Commonwealth Games\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n 2006 Commonwealth Games Council for England website\n BBC Sports – a full list of England's competitors at the 2006 Games in Melbourne\n\nNations at the 2006 Commonwealth Games\n2006\n2006 in English sport", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral%20district%20of%20Menai
Menai was an electoral district of the Legislative Assembly in the Australian state of New South Wales from 1999 to 2015. It was most recently represented by Melanie Gibbons of the Liberal Party. Currently, it is the only state seat in the state of New South Wales to have always been represented by a woman. This district was abolished in the 2013 redistribution, largely replaced by Holsworthy. Members for Menai Election results References External links Former electoral districts of New South Wales 1999 establishments in Australia Constituencies established in 1999 2015 disestablishments in Australia Constituencies disestablished in 2015
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral%20district%20of%20Menai", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Menai was an electoral district of the Legislative Assembly in the Australian state of New South Wales from 1999 to 2015. It was most recently represented by Melanie Gibbons of the Liberal Party. Currently, it is the only state seat in the state of New South Wales to have always been represented by a woman. This district was abolished in the 2013 redistribution, largely replaced by Holsworthy.\n\nMembers for Menai\n\nElection results\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nFormer electoral districts of New South Wales\n1999 establishments in Australia\nConstituencies established in 1999\n2015 disestablishments in Australia\nConstituencies disestablished in 2015", "role": "assistant" } ]
August 9
Events Pre-1600 48 BC – Caesar's Civil War: Battle of Pharsalus: Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus and Pompey flees to Egypt. 378 – Gothic War: Battle of Adrianople: A large Roman army led by Emperor Valens is defeated by the Visigoths. Valens is killed along with over half of his army. 1173 – Construction of the campanile of the Cathedral of Pisa (now known as the Leaning Tower of Pisa) begins; it will take two centuries to complete. 1329 – Quilon, the first Indian Christian Diocese, is erected by Pope John XXII; the French-born Jordanus is appointed the first Bishop. 1428 – Sources cite biggest caravan trade between Podvisoki and Republic of Ragusa. Vlachs committed to Ragusan lord Tomo Bunić, that they will with 600 horses deliver 1,500 modius of salt. Delivery was meant for Dobrašin Veseoković, and Vlachs price was half of delivered salt. 1500 – Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503): The Ottomans capture Methoni, Messenia. 1601–1900 1610 – The First Anglo-Powhatan War begins in colonial Virginia. 1810 – Napoleon annexes Westphalia as part of the First French Empire. 1814 – American Indian Wars: The Creek sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson, giving up huge parts of Alabama and Georgia. 1830 – Louis Philippe becomes the king of the French following abdication of Charles X. 1842 – The Webster–Ashburton Treaty is signed, establishing the United States–Canada border east of the Rocky Mountains. 1854 – American Transcendentalist philosopher Henry David Thoreau publishes his memoir Walden. 1855 – Åland War: The Battle of Suomenlinna begins. 1862 – American Civil War: Battle of Cedar Mountain: At Cedar Mountain, Virginia, Confederate General Stonewall Jackson narrowly defeats Union forces under General John Pope. 1877 – American Indian Wars: Battle of the Big Hole: A small band of Nez Percé Indians clash with the United States Army. 1892 – Thomas Edison receives a patent for a two-way telegraph. 1897 – The first International Congress of Mathematicians is held in Zürich, Switzerland. 1901–present 1902 – Edward VII and Alexandra of Denmark are crowned King and Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 1907 – The first Boy Scout encampment concludes at Brownsea Island in southern England. 1925 – A train robbery takes place in Kakori, near Lucknow, India, by the Indian independence revolutionaries, against British government. 1936 – Summer Olympics: Jesse Owens wins his fourth gold medal at the games. 1942 – World War II: Battle of Savo Island: Allied naval forces protecting their amphibious forces during the initial stages of the Battle of Guadalcanal are surprised and defeated by an Imperial Japanese Navy cruiser force. 1942 – Dmitri Shostakovich's 7th symphony is premiered in a besieged Leningrad. 1944 – The United States Forest Service and the Wartime Advertising Council release posters featuring Smokey Bear for the first time. 1944 – World War II: Continuation War: The Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive, the largest offensive launched by Soviet Union against Finland during the Second World War, ends to a strategic stalemate. Both Finnish and Soviet troops at the Finnish front dug to defensive positions, and the front remains stable until the end of the war. 1945 – World War II: Nagasaki is devastated when an atomic bomb, Fat Man, is dropped by the United States B-29 Bockscar. Thirty-five thousand people are killed outright, including 23,200–28,200 Japanese war workers, 2,000 Korean forced workers, and 150 Japanese soldiers. 1945 – The Red Army invades Japanese-occupied Manchuria. 1960 – South Kasai secedes from the Congo. 1965 – Singapore is expelled from Malaysia and becomes the only country to date to gain independence unwillingly. 1969 – Tate–LaBianca murders: Followers of Charles Manson murder pregnant actress Sharon Tate (wife of Roman Polanski), coffee heiress Abigail Folger, Polish actor Wojciech Frykowski, men's hairstylist Jay Sebring and recent high-school graduate Steven Parent. 1970 – LANSA Flight 502 crashes after takeoff from Alejandro Velasco Astete International Airport in Cusco, Peru, killing 99 of the 100 people on board, as well as two people on the ground. 1971 – The Troubles: In Northern Ireland, the British authorities launch Operation Demetrius. The operation involves the mass arrest and internment without trial of individuals suspected of being affiliated with the Irish Republican Army (PIRA). Mass riots follow, and thousands of people flee or are forced out of their homes. 1973 – Mars 7 is launched from the USSR. 1974 – As a direct result of the Watergate scandal, Richard Nixon becomes the first President of the United States to resign from office. Vice President Gerald Ford becomes president. 1991 – The Italian prosecuting magistrate Antonino Scopelliti is murdered by the 'Ndrangheta on behalf of the Sicilian Mafia while preparing the government's case in the final appeal of the Maxi Trial. 1993 – The Liberal Democratic Party of Japan loses a 38-year hold on national leadership. 1995 – Aviateca Flight 901 crashes into the San Vicente volcano in El Salvador, killing all 65 people on board. 1999 – Russian President Boris Yeltsin fires his Prime Minister, Sergei Stepashin, and for the fourth time fires his entire cabinet. 2006 – At least 21 suspected terrorists are arrested in the 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot that happened in the United Kingdom. The arrests are made in London, Birmingham, and High Wycombe in an overnight operation. 2007 – Air Moorea Flight 1121 crashes after takeoff from Moorea Airport in French Polynesia, killing all 20 people on board. 2012 – Shannon Eastin becomes the first woman to officiate an NFL game. 2013 – Gunmen open fire at a Sunni mosque in the city of Quetta killing at least ten people and injuring 30. 2014 – Michael Brown, an 18-year-old African American male in Ferguson, Missouri, is shot and killed by a Ferguson police officer after reportedly assaulting the officer and attempting to steal his weapon, sparking protests and unrest in the city. 2021 – The Tampere light rail officially starts operating. Births Pre-1600 1201 – Arnold Fitz Thedmar, English historian and merchant (d. 1274) 1537 – Francesco Barozzi, Italian mathematician and astronomer (d. 1604) 1544 – Bogislaw XIII, Duke of Pomerania (d. 1606) 1590 – John Webster, colonial settler and governor of Connecticut (d. 1661) 1601–1900 1603 – Johannes Cocceius, German-Dutch theologian and academic (d. 1669) 1611 – Henry of Nassau-Siegen, German count, officer in the Dutch Army, diplomat for the Dutch Republic (b. 1611) 1648 – Johann Michael Bach, German composer (d. 1694) 1653 – John Oldham, English poet and translator (d. 1683) 1674 – František Maxmilián Kaňka, Czech architect, designed the Veltrusy Mansion (d. 1766) 1696 – Joseph Wenzel I, Prince of Liechtenstein (d. 1772) 1722 – Prince Augustus William of Prussia (d. 1758) 1726 – Francesco Cetti, Italian priest, zoologist, and mathematician (d. 1778) 1748 – Bernhard Schott, German music publisher (d. 1809) 1757 – Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton, American humanitarian; wife of Alexander Hamilton (d. 1854) 1757 – Thomas Telford, Scottish architect and engineer, designed the Menai Suspension Bridge (d. 1834) 1776 – Amedeo Avogadro, Italian physicist and chemist (d. 1856) 1783 – Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna of Russia (d. 1801) 1788 – Adoniram Judson, American missionary and lexicographer (d. 1850) 1797 – Charles Robert Malden, English lieutenant and surveyor (d. 1855) 1805 – Joseph Locke, English engineer and politician (d. 1860) 1845 – André Bessette, Canadian saint (d. 1937) 1847 – Maria Vittoria dal Pozzo, French-Italian wife of Amadeo I of Spain (d. 1876) 1848 – Alfred David Benjamin, Australian-born businessman and philanthropist. (d. 1900) 1861 – Dorothea Klumpke, American astronomer and academic (d. 1942) 1867 – Evelina Haverfield, Scottish nurse and activist (d. 1920) 1872 – Archduke Joseph August of Austria (d. 1962) 1874 – Reynaldo Hahn, Venezuelan composer and conductor (d. 1947) 1875 – Albert Ketèlbey, English pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1959) 1878 – Eileen Gray, Irish architect and furniture designer (d. 1976) 1879 – John Willcock, Australian politician, 15th Premier of Western Australia, (d. 1956) 1881 – Prince Antônio Gastão of Orléans-Braganza, Brazilian prince (d. 1918) 1890 – Eino Kaila, Finnish philosopher and psychologist, attendant of the Vienna circle (d. 1958) 1896 – Erich Hückel, German physicist and chemist (d. 1980) 1896 – Jean Piaget, Swiss psychologist and philosopher (d. 1980) 1899 – P. L. Travers, Australian-English author and actress (d. 1996) 1900 – Charles Farrell, American actor and singer (d. 1990) 1901–present 1902 – Zino Francescatti, French violinist (d. 1991) 1902 – Panteleimon Ponomarenko, Russian general and politician (d. 1984) 1905 – Leo Genn, British actor and barrister (d. 1978) 1909 – Vinayaka Krishna Gokak, Indian scholar, author, and academic (d. 1992) 1909 – Willa Beatrice Player, American educator, first Black woman college president (d. 2003) 1909 – Adam von Trott zu Solz, German lawyer and diplomat (d. 1944) 1911 – William Alfred Fowler, American astronomer and astrophysicist, Nobel Laureate (d. 1996) 1911 – Eddie Futch, American boxer and trainer (d. 2001) 1911 – John McQuade, Northern Irish soldier, boxer, and politician (d. 1984) 1913 – Wilbur Norman Christiansen, Australian astronomer and engineer (d. 2007) 1914 – Ferenc Fricsay, Hungarian-Austrian conductor and director (d. 1963) 1914 – Tove Jansson, Finnish author and illustrator (d. 2001) 1914 – Joe Mercer, English footballer and manager (d. 1990) 1915 – Mareta West, American astronomer and geologist (d. 1998) 1918 – Kermit Beahan, American colonel (d. 1989) 1918 – Giles Cooper, Irish soldier and playwright (d. 1966) 1918 – Albert Seedman, American police officer (d. 2013) 1919 – Joop den Uyl, Dutch journalist, economist, and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1987) 1919 – Ralph Houk, American baseball player and manager (d. 2010) 1920 – Enzo Biagi, Italian journalist and author (d. 2007) 1921 – Ernest Angley, American evangelist and author (d. 2021) 1921 – J. James Exon, American soldier and politician, 33rd Governor of Nebraska (d. 2005) 1922 – Philip Larkin, English poet and novelist (d. 1985) 1924 – Mathews Mar Barnabas, Indian metropolitan (d. 2012) 1924 – Frank Martínez, American soldier and painter (d. 2013) 1925 – David A. Huffman, American computer scientist, developed Huffman coding (d. 1999) 1926 – Denis Atkinson, Barbadian cricketer (d. 2001) 1927 – Daniel Keyes, American short story writer and novelist (d. 2014) 1927 – Robert Shaw, English actor and screenwriter (d. 1978) 1928 – Bob Cousy, American basketball player and coach 1928 – Camilla Wicks, American violinist and educator (d. 2020) 1928 – Dolores Wilson, American soprano and actress (d. 2010) 1929 – Abdi İpekçi, Turkish journalist and activist (d. 1979) 1930 – Milt Bolling, American baseball player and scout (d. 2013) 1930 – Jacques Parizeau, Canadian economist and politician, 26th Premier of Quebec (d. 2015) 1931 – Chuck Essegian, American baseball player and lawyer 1931 – James Freeman Gilbert, American geophysicist and academic (d. 2014) 1931 – Paula Kent Meehan, American businesswoman, co-founded Redken (d. 2014) 1931 – Mário Zagallo, Brazilian footballer and coach 1932 – Tam Dalyell, Scottish academic and politician (d. 2017) 1932 – John Gomery, Canadian lawyer and jurist (d. 2021) 1933 – Tetsuko Kuroyanagi, Japanese actress, talk show host, and author 1935 – Beverlee McKinsey, American actress (d. 2008) 1936 – Julián Javier, Dominican-American baseball player 1936 – Patrick Tse, Chinese-Hong Kong actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1938 – Leonid Kuchma, Ukrainian engineer and politician, 2nd President of Ukraine 1938 – Rod Laver, Australian tennis player and coach 1938 – Otto Rehhagel, German footballer, coach, and manager 1939 – Hércules Brito Ruas, Brazilian footballer 1939 – Vincent Hanna, Northern Irish journalist (d. 1997) 1939 – The Mighty Hannibal, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2014) 1939 – Billy Henderson, American singer (d. 2007) 1939 – Bulle Ogier, French actress and screenwriter 1939 – Romano Prodi, Italian academic and politician, 52nd Prime Minister of Italy 1939 – Butch Warren, American bassist (d. 2013) 1940 – Linda Keen, American mathematician and academic 1942 – David Steinberg, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1943 – Ken Norton, American boxer and actor (d. 2013) 1944 – George Armstrong, English footballer (d. 2000) 1944 – Patrick Depailler, French racing driver (d. 1980) 1944 – Sam Elliott, American actor and producer 1944 – Patricia McKissack, American soldier, engineer, and author (d. 2017) 1945 – Barbara Delinsky, American author 1945 – Aleksandr Gorelik, Russian figure skater and sportscaster (d. 2012) 1945 – Posy Simmonds, English author and illustrator 1946 – Rinus Gerritsen, Dutch rock bass player 1947 – Roy Hodgson, English footballer and manager 1947 – Barbara Mason, American R&B/soul singer-songwriter 1947 – John Varley, American author 1948 – Bill Campbell, American baseball player and coach (d. 2023) 1949 – Jonathan Kellerman, American psychologist and author 1949 – Ted Simmons, American baseball player and coach 1951 – James Naughtie, Scottish journalist and radio host 1951 – Steve Swisher, American baseball player and manager 1952 – Prateep Ungsongtham Hata, Thai activist and politician 1953 – Kay Stenshjemmet, Norwegian speed skater 1953 – Jean Tirole, French economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1954 – Ray Jennings, South African cricketer and coach 1954 – Pete Thomas, English drummer 1955 – John E. Sweeney, American lawyer and politician 1956 – Gordon Singleton, Canadian Olympic cyclist 1957 – Melanie Griffith, American actress and producer 1958 – Amanda Bearse, American actress, comedian and director 1958 – Calie Pistorius, South African engineer and academic 1959 – Kurtis Blow, American rapper, producer, and actor 1959 – Michael Kors, American fashion designer 1961 – Brad Gilbert, American tennis player and sportscaster 1961 – John Key, New Zealand businessman and politician, 38th Prime Minister of New Zealand 1962 – Louis Lipps, American football player and radio host 1962 – Kevin Mack, American football player 1962 – John "Hot Rod" Williams, American basketball player (d. 2015) 1963 – Whitney Houston, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress (d. 2012) 1963 – Jay Leggett, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013) 1963 – Barton Lynch, Australian surfer 1964 – Brett Hull, Canadian-American ice hockey player and manager 1964 – Hoda Kotb, American journalist and television personality 1965 – Nitin Chandrakant Desai, Indian art director, production designer, and film and television producer (d. 2023) 1966 – Vinny Del Negro, American basketball player and coach 1966 – Linn Ullmann, Norwegian journalist and author 1967 – Deion Sanders, American football and baseball player 1968 – Gillian Anderson, American-British actress, activist and writer 1968 – Eric Bana, Australian actor, comedian, producer, and screenwriter 1968 – Sam Fogarino, American drummer 1968 – McG, American director and producer 1969 – Troy Percival, American baseball player and coach 1970 – Rod Brind'Amour, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1970 – Chris Cuomo, American lawyer and journalist 1970 – Thomas Lennon, American actor and comedian 1972 – Juanes, Colombian singer and songwriter 1973 – Filippo Inzaghi, Italian footballer and manager 1973 – Kevin McKidd, Scottish actor and director 1973 – Gene Luen Yang, American author and illustrator 1974 – Derek Fisher, American basketball player and coach 1974 – Stephen Fung, Hong Kong actor, singer, director, and screenwriter 1974 – Lesley McKenna, Scottish snowboarder 1974 – Matt Morris, American baseball player 1974 – Kirill Reznik, American lawyer and politician 1974 – Raphaël Poirée, French biathlete 1975 – Mahesh Babu, Indian actor and producer 1975 – Valentin Kovalenko, Uzbek football referee 1975 – Mike Lamb, American baseball player 1975 – Robbie Middleby, Australian soccer player 1976 – Rhona Mitra, English actress and singer 1976 – Audrey Tautou, French model and actress 1976 – Jessica Capshaw, American actress 1977 – Jason Frasor, American baseball player 1977 – Chamique Holdsclaw, American basketball player 1977 – Ravshan Irmatov, Uzbek football referee 1977 – Adewale Ogunleye, American football player 1977 – Ime Udoka, American basketball player and coach 1977 – Mikaël Silvestre, French footballer 1978 – Dorin Chirtoacă, Moldavian lawyer and politician, Mayor of Chișinău 1978 – Ana Serradilla, Mexican actress and producer 1978 – Wesley Sonck, Belgian footballer 1979 – Michael Kingma, Australian basketball player 1979 – Lisa Nandy, British politician 1979 – Tony Stewart, American football player 1981 – Jarvis Hayes, American basketball player 1981 – Li Jiawei, Singaporean table tennis player 1982 – Joel Anthony, American basketball player 1982 – Tyson Gay, American sprinter 1982 – Yekaterina Samutsevich, Russian singer and activist 1982 – Kanstantsin Sivtsov, Belarusian cyclist 1983 – Dan Levy, Canadian actor and comedian 1983 – Hamilton Masakadza, Zimbabwean cricketer 1983 – Shane O'Brien, Canadian ice hockey player 1983 – Alicja Smietana, Polish-English violinist 1984 – Paul Gallagher, Scottish footballer 1985 – Luca Filippi, Italian racing driver 1985 – Filipe Luís, Brazilian footballer 1985 – Anna Kendrick, American actress and singer 1985 – Hayley Peirsol, American swimmer 1985 – JaMarcus Russell, American football player 1985 – Chandler Williams, American football player (d. 2013) 1986 – Michael Lerchl, German footballer 1986 – Daniel Preussner, German rugby player 1986 – Tyler Smith, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1987 – Marek Niit, Estonian sprinter 1988 – Anthony Castonzo, American football player 1988 – Willian, Brazilian footballer 1988 – Vasilios Koutsianikoulis, Greek footballer 1989 – Jason Heyward, American baseball player 1989 – Stefano Okaka, Italian footballer 1989 – Kento Ono, Japanese actor and model 1990 – İshak Doğan, Turkish footballer 1990 – Sarah McBride, American LGBT activist 1990 – Stuart McInally, Scottish rugby player 1990 – Brice Roger, French skier 1990 – D'Arcy Short, Australian cricketer 1990 – Bill Skarsgård, Swedish actor 1991 – Alice Barlow, English actress 1991 – Alexa Bliss, American bodybuilder and wrestler 1991 – Hansika Motwani, Indian actress 1992 – Farahnaz Forotan, Afghan journalist 1993 – Jun.Q, South Korean singer and actor 1993 – Dipa Karmakar, Indian gymnast 1994 – Kelli Hubly, American soccer player 1994 – King Von, American rapper (d. 2020) 1995 – Eli Apple, American football player 1995 – Justice Smith, American actor 1996 – Sanya Lopez, Filipino actress and model 1999 – Deniss Vasiļjevs, Latvian figure skater 2000 – Arlo Parks, British singer-songwriter 2005 – Victoria Jiménez Kasintseva, Andorran tennis player Deaths Pre-1600 378 – Traianus, Roman general 378 – Valens, Roman emperor (b. 328) 803 – Irene of Athens, Byzantine ruler (b. 752) 833 – Al-Ma'mun, Iraqi caliph (b. 786) 1048 – Pope Damasus II 1107 – Emperor Horikawa of Japan (b. 1079) 1173 – Najm ad-Din Ayyub, Kurdish soldier and politician 1211 – William de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber, exiled Anglo-Norman baron (b. 1144/53) 1260 – Walter of Kirkham, Bishop of Durham 1296 – Hugh, Count of Brienne, French crusader 1341 – Eleanor of Anjou, queen consort of Sicily (b. 1289) 1354 – Stephen, Duke of Slavonia, Hungarian prince (b. 1332) 1420 – Pierre d'Ailly, French theologian and cardinal (b. 1351) 1516 – Hieronymus Bosch, Early Netherlandish painter (b. circa 1450) 1534 – Thomas Cajetan, Italian cardinal and philosopher (b. 1470) 1580 – Metrophanes III of Constantinople (b. 1520) 1601–1900 1601 – Michael the Brave, Romanian prince (b. 1558) 1634 – William Noy, English lawyer and judge (b. 1577) 1720 – Simon Ockley, English orientalist and academic (b. 1678) 1744 – James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos, English academic and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Radnorshire (b. 1673) 1816 – Johann August Apel, German jurist and author (b. 1771) 1861 – Vincent Novello, English composer and publisher (b. 1781) 1886 – Samuel Ferguson, Irish lawyer and poet (b. 1810) 1901–present 1910 – Huo Yuanjia, Chinese martial artist, co-founded the Chin Woo Athletic Association (b. 1868) 1919 – Ruggero Leoncavallo, Italian composer and educator (b. 1857) 1920 – Samuel Griffith, Welsh-Australian politician, 9th Premier of Queensland (b. 1845) 1932 – John Charles Fields, Canadian mathematician, founder of the Fields Medal (b. 1863) 1941 – Richard Goss, Executed Irish Republican (b. 1915) 1942 – Edith Stein, German nun and saint (b. 1891) 1943 – Chaïm Soutine, Belarusian-French painter and educator (b. 1893) 1945 – Robert Hampton Gray, Canadian lieutenant and pilot, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1917) 1945 – Harry Hillman, American runner and coach (b. 1881) 1946 – Bert Vogler, South African cricketer (b. 1876) 1948 – Hugo Boss, German fashion designer, founded Hugo Boss (b. 1885) 1949 – Edward Thorndike, American psychologist and academic (b. 1874) 1957 – Carl Clauberg, German Nazi physician (b. 1898) 1962 – Hermann Hesse, German-born Swiss poet, novelist, and painter, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877) 1963 – Patrick Bouvier Kennedy, American son of John F. Kennedy (b. 1963) 1967 – Joe Orton, English author and playwright (b. 1933) 1969 – Wojciech Frykowski, Polish-American actor and author (b. 1936) 1969 – Sharon Tate, American model and actress (b. 1943) 1969 – C. F. Powell, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1903) 1972 – Sıddık Sami Onar, Turkish lawyer and academic (b. 1897) 1974 – Bill Chase, American trumpet player and bandleader (b. 1934) 1975 – Dmitri Shostakovich, Russian pianist and composer (b. 1906) 1978 – James Gould Cozzens, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1903) 1979 – Walter O'Malley, American businessman (b. 1903) 1979 – Raymond Washington, American gang leader, founded the Crips (b. 1953) 1980 – Jacqueline Cochran, American pilot (b. 1906) 1980 – Ruby Hurley, American civil rights activist (b. 1909) 1981 – Max Hoffman, Austrian-born car importer and businessman (b. 1904) 1985 – Clive Churchill, Australian rugby league player and coach (b. 1927) 1988 – M. Carl Holman, American author, educator, poet, and playwright (b. 1919) 1988 – Giacinto Scelsi, Italian composer (b. 1905) 1990 – Joe Mercer, English footballer and manager (b. 1914) 1992 – Fereydoun Farrokhzad, Iranian singer and actor (b. 1938) 1995 – Jerry Garcia, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1942) 1996 – Frank Whittle, English soldier and engineer, invented the jet engine (b. 1907) 1999 – Helen Rollason, English sports journalist and sportscaster (b. 1956) 1999 – Fouad Serageddin, Egyptian journalist and politician (b. 1910) 2000 – John Harsanyi, Hungarian-American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1920) 2000 – Nicholas Markowitz, American murder victim (b. 1984) 2002 – Paul Samson, English guitarist (b. 1953) 2003 – Jacques Deray, French director and screenwriter (b. 1929) 2003 – Ray Harford, English footballer and manager (b. 1945) 2003 – Gregory Hines, American actor, dancer, and choreographer (b. 1946) 2003 – R. Sivagurunathan, Sri Lankan lawyer, journalist, and academic (b. 1931) 2004 – Robert Lecourt, French lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of France (b. 1908) 2004 – Tony Mottola, American guitarist and composer (b. 1918) 2004 – David Raksin, American composer and educator (b. 1912) 2005 – Judith Rossner, American author (b. 1935) 2006 – Philip E. High, English author (b. 1914) 2006 – James Van Allen, American physicist and academic (b. 1914) 2007 – Joe O'Donnell, American photographer and journalist (b. 1922) 2008 – Bernie Mac, American comedian, actor, screenwriter, and producer (b. 1957) 2008 – Mahmoud Darwish, Palestinian author and poet (b. 1941) 2010 – Calvin "Fuzz" Jones, American singer and bass player (b. 1926) 2010 – Ted Stevens, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1923) 2012 – Carl Davis, American record producer (b. 1934) 2012 – Gene F. Franklin, American engineer, theorist, and academic (b. 1927) 2012 – Al Freeman, Jr., American actor, director, and educator (b. 1934) 2012 – David Rakoff, Canadian-American actor and journalist (b. 1964) 2012 – Carmen Belen Richardson, Puerto Rican-American actress (b. 1930) 2012 – Mel Stuart, American director and producer (b. 1928) 2013 – Harry Elliott, American baseball player and coach (b. 1923) 2013 – Eduardo Falú, Argentinian guitarist and composer (b. 1923) 2013 – William Lynch, Jr., American lawyer and politician (b. 1947) 2014 – J. F. Ade Ajayi, Nigerian historian and academic (b. 1929) 2014 – Andriy Bal, Ukrainian footballer and coach (b. 1958) 2014 – Arthur G. Cohen, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Arlen Realty and Development Corporation (b. 1930) 2014 – Ed Nelson, American actor (b. 1928) 2015 – Frank Gifford, American football player, sportscaster, and actor (b. 1930) 2015 – John Henry Holland, American computer scientist and academic (b. 1929) 2015 – Walter Nahún López, Honduran footballer (b. 1977) 2015 – David Nobbs, English author and screenwriter (b. 1935) 2015 – Kayyar Kinhanna Rai, Indian journalist, author, and poet (b. 1915) 2015 – Fikret Otyam, Turkish painter and journalist (b. 1926) 2016 – Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster, third-richest British citizen (b. 1951) 2021 – Pat Hitchcock, English actress and producer (b. 1928) 2021 – Killer Kau, South African rapper, dancer and record producer (b. 1998) 2021 – Zairaini Sarbini, Malaysian voice actress (b. 1972) 2023 – Robbie Robertson, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor (b. 1943) Holidays and observances Battle of Gangut Day (Russia) Christian feast day: Candida Maria of Jesus Edith Stein (St Teresa Benedicta of the Cross) Firmus and Rusticus Herman of Alaska (Russian Orthodox Church and related congregations; Episcopal Church (USA)) John Vianney (1950s – currently August 4) Mary Sumner (Church of England) Nath Í of Achonry Romanus Ostiarius Secundian, Marcellian and Verian August 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples (United Nations) Meyboom (Brussels and Leuven, Belgium) National Day, celebrates the independence of Singapore from Malaysia in 1965. National Peacekeepers' Day, celebrated on Sunday closest to the day (Canada) National Women's Day (South Africa) References External links Days of the year August
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "August 9", "role": "user" }, { "content": "\n\nEvents\n\nPre-1600\n48 BC – Caesar's Civil War: Battle of Pharsalus: Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus and Pompey flees to Egypt.\n 378 – Gothic War: Battle of Adrianople: A large Roman army led by Emperor Valens is defeated by the Visigoths. Valens is killed along with over half of his army.\n1173 – Construction of the campanile of the Cathedral of Pisa (now known as the Leaning Tower of Pisa) begins; it will take two centuries to complete.\n1329 – Quilon, the first Indian Christian Diocese, is erected by Pope John XXII; the French-born Jordanus is appointed the first Bishop.\n1428 – Sources cite biggest caravan trade between Podvisoki and Republic of Ragusa. Vlachs committed to Ragusan lord Tomo Bunić, that they will with 600 horses deliver 1,500 modius of salt. Delivery was meant for Dobrašin Veseoković, and Vlachs price was half of delivered salt.\n1500 – Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503): The Ottomans capture Methoni, Messenia.\n\n1601–1900\n1610 – The First Anglo-Powhatan War begins in colonial Virginia.\n1810 – Napoleon annexes Westphalia as part of the First French Empire.\n1814 – American Indian Wars: The Creek sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson, giving up huge parts of Alabama and Georgia.\n1830 – Louis Philippe becomes the king of the French following abdication of Charles X.\n1842 – The Webster–Ashburton Treaty is signed, establishing the United States–Canada border east of the Rocky Mountains.\n1854 – American Transcendentalist philosopher Henry David Thoreau publishes his memoir Walden.\n1855 – Åland War: The Battle of Suomenlinna begins.\n1862 – American Civil War: Battle of Cedar Mountain: At Cedar Mountain, Virginia, Confederate General Stonewall Jackson narrowly defeats Union forces under General John Pope.\n1877 – American Indian Wars: Battle of the Big Hole: A small band of Nez Percé Indians clash with the United States Army.\n1892 – Thomas Edison receives a patent for a two-way telegraph.\n1897 – The first International Congress of Mathematicians is held in Zürich, Switzerland.\n\n1901–present\n1902 – Edward VII and Alexandra of Denmark are crowned King and Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.\n1907 – The first Boy Scout encampment concludes at Brownsea Island in southern England.\n1925 – A train robbery takes place in Kakori, near Lucknow, India, by the Indian independence revolutionaries, against British government.\n1936 – Summer Olympics: Jesse Owens wins his fourth gold medal at the games.\n1942 – World War II: Battle of Savo Island: Allied naval forces protecting their amphibious forces during the initial stages of the Battle of Guadalcanal are surprised and defeated by an Imperial Japanese Navy cruiser force.\n 1942 – Dmitri Shostakovich's 7th symphony is premiered in a besieged Leningrad.\n1944 – The United States Forest Service and the Wartime Advertising Council release posters featuring Smokey Bear for the first time.\n 1944 – World War II: Continuation War: The Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive, the largest offensive launched by Soviet Union against Finland during the Second World War, ends to a strategic stalemate. Both Finnish and Soviet troops at the Finnish front dug to defensive positions, and the front remains stable until the end of the war.\n1945 – World War II: Nagasaki is devastated when an atomic bomb, Fat Man, is dropped by the United States B-29 Bockscar. Thirty-five thousand people are killed outright, including 23,200–28,200 Japanese war workers, 2,000 Korean forced workers, and 150 Japanese soldiers.\n 1945 – The Red Army invades Japanese-occupied Manchuria.\n1960 – South Kasai secedes from the Congo.\n1965 – Singapore is expelled from Malaysia and becomes the only country to date to gain independence unwillingly.\n1969 – Tate–LaBianca murders: Followers of Charles Manson murder pregnant actress Sharon Tate (wife of Roman Polanski), coffee heiress Abigail Folger, Polish actor Wojciech Frykowski, men's hairstylist Jay Sebring and recent high-school graduate Steven Parent.\n1970 – LANSA Flight 502 crashes after takeoff from Alejandro Velasco Astete International Airport in Cusco, Peru, killing 99 of the 100 people on board, as well as two people on the ground.\n1971 – The Troubles: In Northern Ireland, the British authorities launch Operation Demetrius. The operation involves the mass arrest and internment without trial of individuals suspected of being affiliated with the Irish Republican Army (PIRA). Mass riots follow, and thousands of people flee or are forced out of their homes.\n1973 – Mars 7 is launched from the USSR.\n1974 – As a direct result of the Watergate scandal, Richard Nixon becomes the first President of the United States to resign from office. Vice President Gerald Ford becomes president.\n1991 – The Italian prosecuting magistrate Antonino Scopelliti is murdered by the 'Ndrangheta on behalf of the Sicilian Mafia while preparing the government's case in the final appeal of the Maxi Trial.\n1993 – The Liberal Democratic Party of Japan loses a 38-year hold on national leadership.\n1995 – Aviateca Flight 901 crashes into the San Vicente volcano in El Salvador, killing all 65 people on board.\n1999 – Russian President Boris Yeltsin fires his Prime Minister, Sergei Stepashin, and for the fourth time fires his entire cabinet.\n2006 – At least 21 suspected terrorists are arrested in the 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot that happened in the United Kingdom. The arrests are made in London, Birmingham, and High Wycombe in an overnight operation.\n2007 – Air Moorea Flight 1121 crashes after takeoff from Moorea Airport in French Polynesia, killing all 20 people on board.\n2012 – Shannon Eastin becomes the first woman to officiate an NFL game.\n2013 – Gunmen open fire at a Sunni mosque in the city of Quetta killing at least ten people and injuring 30.\n2014 – Michael Brown, an 18-year-old African American male in Ferguson, Missouri, is shot and killed by a Ferguson police officer after reportedly assaulting the officer and attempting to steal his weapon, sparking protests and unrest in the city.\n2021 – The Tampere light rail officially starts operating.\n\nBirths\n\nPre-1600\n1201 – Arnold Fitz Thedmar, English historian and merchant (d. 1274)\n1537 – Francesco Barozzi, Italian mathematician and astronomer (d. 1604)\n1544 – Bogislaw XIII, Duke of Pomerania (d. 1606)\n1590 – John Webster, colonial settler and governor of Connecticut (d. 1661)\n\n1601–1900\n1603 – Johannes Cocceius, German-Dutch theologian and academic (d. 1669)\n1611 – Henry of Nassau-Siegen, German count, officer in the Dutch Army, diplomat for the Dutch Republic (b. 1611)\n1648 – Johann Michael Bach, German composer (d. 1694)\n1653 – John Oldham, English poet and translator (d. 1683)\n1674 – František Maxmilián Kaňka, Czech architect, designed the Veltrusy Mansion (d. 1766)\n1696 – Joseph Wenzel I, Prince of Liechtenstein (d. 1772)\n1722 – Prince Augustus William of Prussia (d. 1758)\n1726 – Francesco Cetti, Italian priest, zoologist, and mathematician (d. 1778)\n1748 – Bernhard Schott, German music publisher (d. 1809)\n1757 – Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton, American humanitarian; wife of Alexander Hamilton (d. 1854)\n 1757 – Thomas Telford, Scottish architect and engineer, designed the Menai Suspension Bridge (d. 1834)\n1776 – Amedeo Avogadro, Italian physicist and chemist (d. 1856)\n1783 – Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna of Russia (d. 1801)\n1788 – Adoniram Judson, American missionary and lexicographer (d. 1850)\n1797 – Charles Robert Malden, English lieutenant and surveyor (d. 1855)\n1805 – Joseph Locke, English engineer and politician (d. 1860)\n1845 – André Bessette, Canadian saint (d. 1937)\n1847 – Maria Vittoria dal Pozzo, French-Italian wife of Amadeo I of Spain (d. 1876)\n1848 – Alfred David Benjamin, Australian-born businessman and philanthropist. (d. 1900)\n1861 – Dorothea Klumpke, American astronomer and academic (d. 1942)\n1867 – Evelina Haverfield, Scottish nurse and activist (d. 1920)\n1872 – Archduke Joseph August of Austria (d. 1962)\n1874 – Reynaldo Hahn, Venezuelan composer and conductor (d. 1947)\n1875 – Albert Ketèlbey, English pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1959)\n1878 – Eileen Gray, Irish architect and furniture designer (d. 1976)\n1879 – John Willcock, Australian politician, 15th Premier of Western Australia, (d. 1956)\n1881 – Prince Antônio Gastão of Orléans-Braganza, Brazilian prince (d. 1918)\n1890 – Eino Kaila, Finnish philosopher and psychologist, attendant of the Vienna circle (d. 1958)\n1896 – Erich Hückel, German physicist and chemist (d. 1980)\n 1896 – Jean Piaget, Swiss psychologist and philosopher (d. 1980)\n1899 – P. L. Travers, Australian-English author and actress (d. 1996)\n1900 – Charles Farrell, American actor and singer (d. 1990)\n\n1901–present\n1902 – Zino Francescatti, French violinist (d. 1991)\n 1902 – Panteleimon Ponomarenko, Russian general and politician (d. 1984)\n1905 – Leo Genn, British actor and barrister (d. 1978)\n1909 – Vinayaka Krishna Gokak, Indian scholar, author, and academic (d. 1992)\n 1909 – Willa Beatrice Player, American educator, first Black woman college president (d. 2003)\n 1909 – Adam von Trott zu Solz, German lawyer and diplomat (d. 1944)\n1911 – William Alfred Fowler, American astronomer and astrophysicist, Nobel Laureate (d. 1996)\n 1911 – Eddie Futch, American boxer and trainer (d. 2001)\n 1911 – John McQuade, Northern Irish soldier, boxer, and politician (d. 1984)\n1913 – Wilbur Norman Christiansen, Australian astronomer and engineer (d. 2007)\n1914 – Ferenc Fricsay, Hungarian-Austrian conductor and director (d. 1963)\n 1914 – Tove Jansson, Finnish author and illustrator (d. 2001)\n 1914 – Joe Mercer, English footballer and manager (d. 1990)\n1915 – Mareta West, American astronomer and geologist (d. 1998)\n1918 – Kermit Beahan, American colonel (d. 1989)\n 1918 – Giles Cooper, Irish soldier and playwright (d. 1966)\n 1918 – Albert Seedman, American police officer (d. 2013)\n1919 – Joop den Uyl, Dutch journalist, economist, and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1987)\n 1919 – Ralph Houk, American baseball player and manager (d. 2010)\n1920 – Enzo Biagi, Italian journalist and author (d. 2007)\n1921 – Ernest Angley, American evangelist and author (d. 2021)\n 1921 – J. James Exon, American soldier and politician, 33rd Governor of Nebraska (d. 2005)\n1922 – Philip Larkin, English poet and novelist (d. 1985)\n1924 – Mathews Mar Barnabas, Indian metropolitan (d. 2012)\n 1924 – Frank Martínez, American soldier and painter (d. 2013)\n1925 – David A. Huffman, American computer scientist, developed Huffman coding (d. 1999)\n1926 – Denis Atkinson, Barbadian cricketer (d. 2001)\n1927 – Daniel Keyes, American short story writer and novelist (d. 2014)\n 1927 – Robert Shaw, English actor and screenwriter (d. 1978)\n1928 – Bob Cousy, American basketball player and coach\n 1928 – Camilla Wicks, American violinist and educator (d. 2020)\n 1928 – Dolores Wilson, American soprano and actress (d. 2010)\n1929 – Abdi İpekçi, Turkish journalist and activist (d. 1979)\n1930 – Milt Bolling, American baseball player and scout (d. 2013)\n 1930 – Jacques Parizeau, Canadian economist and politician, 26th Premier of Quebec (d. 2015)\n1931 – Chuck Essegian, American baseball player and lawyer\n 1931 – James Freeman Gilbert, American geophysicist and academic (d. 2014)\n 1931 – Paula Kent Meehan, American businesswoman, co-founded Redken (d. 2014)\n 1931 – Mário Zagallo, Brazilian footballer and coach\n1932 – Tam Dalyell, Scottish academic and politician (d. 2017)\n 1932 – John Gomery, Canadian lawyer and jurist (d. 2021)\n1933 – Tetsuko Kuroyanagi, Japanese actress, talk show host, and author\n1935 – Beverlee McKinsey, American actress (d. 2008)\n1936 – Julián Javier, Dominican-American baseball player\n 1936 – Patrick Tse, Chinese-Hong Kong actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1938 – Leonid Kuchma, Ukrainian engineer and politician, 2nd President of Ukraine\n 1938 – Rod Laver, Australian tennis player and coach\n 1938 – Otto Rehhagel, German footballer, coach, and manager\n1939 – Hércules Brito Ruas, Brazilian footballer\n 1939 – Vincent Hanna, Northern Irish journalist (d. 1997)\n 1939 – The Mighty Hannibal, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2014)\n 1939 – Billy Henderson, American singer (d. 2007)\n 1939 – Bulle Ogier, French actress and screenwriter\n 1939 – Romano Prodi, Italian academic and politician, 52nd Prime Minister of Italy\n 1939 – Butch Warren, American bassist (d. 2013)\n1940 – Linda Keen, American mathematician and academic\n1942 – David Steinberg, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1943 – Ken Norton, American boxer and actor (d. 2013)\n1944 – George Armstrong, English footballer (d. 2000)\n 1944 – Patrick Depailler, French racing driver (d. 1980)\n 1944 – Sam Elliott, American actor and producer\n 1944 – Patricia McKissack, American soldier, engineer, and author (d. 2017)\n1945 – Barbara Delinsky, American author\n 1945 – Aleksandr Gorelik, Russian figure skater and sportscaster (d. 2012)\n 1945 – Posy Simmonds, English author and illustrator\n1946 – Rinus Gerritsen, Dutch rock bass player\n1947 – Roy Hodgson, English footballer and manager\n 1947 – Barbara Mason, American R&B/soul singer-songwriter\n 1947 – John Varley, American author\n1948 – Bill Campbell, American baseball player and coach (d. 2023)\n1949 – Jonathan Kellerman, American psychologist and author\n 1949 – Ted Simmons, American baseball player and coach\n1951 – James Naughtie, Scottish journalist and radio host\n 1951 – Steve Swisher, American baseball player and manager\n1952 – Prateep Ungsongtham Hata, Thai activist and politician\n1953 – Kay Stenshjemmet, Norwegian speed skater\n 1953 – Jean Tirole, French economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate\n1954 – Ray Jennings, South African cricketer and coach\n 1954 – Pete Thomas, English drummer\n1955 – John E. Sweeney, American lawyer and politician\n1956 – Gordon Singleton, Canadian Olympic cyclist\n1957 – Melanie Griffith, American actress and producer\n1958 – Amanda Bearse, American actress, comedian and director\n 1958 – Calie Pistorius, South African engineer and academic\n1959 – Kurtis Blow, American rapper, producer, and actor\n 1959 – Michael Kors, American fashion designer\n1961 – Brad Gilbert, American tennis player and sportscaster\n 1961 – John Key, New Zealand businessman and politician, 38th Prime Minister of New Zealand\n1962 – Louis Lipps, American football player and radio host\n 1962 – Kevin Mack, American football player\n 1962 – John \"Hot Rod\" Williams, American basketball player (d. 2015)\n1963 – Whitney Houston, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress (d. 2012)\n 1963 – Jay Leggett, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013)\n 1963 – Barton Lynch, Australian surfer\n1964 – Brett Hull, Canadian-American ice hockey player and manager\n 1964 – Hoda Kotb, American journalist and television personality\n1965 – Nitin Chandrakant Desai, Indian art director, production designer, and film and television producer (d. 2023)\n1966 – Vinny Del Negro, American basketball player and coach\n 1966 – Linn Ullmann, Norwegian journalist and author\n1967 – Deion Sanders, American football and baseball player\n1968 – Gillian Anderson, American-British actress, activist and writer\n 1968 – Eric Bana, Australian actor, comedian, producer, and screenwriter\n 1968 – Sam Fogarino, American drummer\n 1968 – McG, American director and producer\n1969 – Troy Percival, American baseball player and coach\n1970 – Rod Brind'Amour, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n 1970 – Chris Cuomo, American lawyer and journalist\n 1970 – Thomas Lennon, American actor and comedian\n1972 – Juanes, Colombian singer and songwriter\n1973 – Filippo Inzaghi, Italian footballer and manager\n 1973 – Kevin McKidd, Scottish actor and director\n 1973 – Gene Luen Yang, American author and illustrator\n1974 – Derek Fisher, American basketball player and coach\n 1974 – Stephen Fung, Hong Kong actor, singer, director, and screenwriter\n 1974 – Lesley McKenna, Scottish snowboarder\n 1974 – Matt Morris, American baseball player\n 1974 – Kirill Reznik, American lawyer and politician\n 1974 – Raphaël Poirée, French biathlete\n1975 – Mahesh Babu, Indian actor and producer\n 1975 – Valentin Kovalenko, Uzbek football referee\n 1975 – Mike Lamb, American baseball player\n 1975 – Robbie Middleby, Australian soccer player\n1976 – Rhona Mitra, English actress and singer\n 1976 – Audrey Tautou, French model and actress\n 1976 – Jessica Capshaw, American actress\n1977 – Jason Frasor, American baseball player\n 1977 – Chamique Holdsclaw, American basketball player\n 1977 – Ravshan Irmatov, Uzbek football referee\n 1977 – Adewale Ogunleye, American football player\n 1977 – Ime Udoka, American basketball player and coach\n 1977 – Mikaël Silvestre, French footballer\n1978 – Dorin Chirtoacă, Moldavian lawyer and politician, Mayor of Chișinău\n 1978 – Ana Serradilla, Mexican actress and producer\n 1978 – Wesley Sonck, Belgian footballer\n1979 – Michael Kingma, Australian basketball player\n 1979 – Lisa Nandy, British politician\n 1979 – Tony Stewart, American football player\n1981 – Jarvis Hayes, American basketball player\n 1981 – Li Jiawei, Singaporean table tennis player\n1982 – Joel Anthony, American basketball player\n 1982 – Tyson Gay, American sprinter\n 1982 – Yekaterina Samutsevich, Russian singer and activist\n 1982 – Kanstantsin Sivtsov, Belarusian cyclist\n1983 – Dan Levy, Canadian actor and comedian\n 1983 – Hamilton Masakadza, Zimbabwean cricketer\n 1983 – Shane O'Brien, Canadian ice hockey player\n 1983 – Alicja Smietana, Polish-English violinist\n1984 – Paul Gallagher, Scottish footballer\n1985 – Luca Filippi, Italian racing driver\n 1985 – Filipe Luís, Brazilian footballer\n 1985 – Anna Kendrick, American actress and singer\n 1985 – Hayley Peirsol, American swimmer\n 1985 – JaMarcus Russell, American football player\n 1985 – Chandler Williams, American football player (d. 2013)\n1986 – Michael Lerchl, German footballer\n 1986 – Daniel Preussner, German rugby player\n 1986 – Tyler Smith, American singer-songwriter and bass player\n1987 – Marek Niit, Estonian sprinter\n1988 – Anthony Castonzo, American football player\n 1988 – Willian, Brazilian footballer\n 1988 – Vasilios Koutsianikoulis, Greek footballer\n1989 – Jason Heyward, American baseball player\n 1989 – Stefano Okaka, Italian footballer\n 1989 – Kento Ono, Japanese actor and model\n1990 – İshak Doğan, Turkish footballer\n 1990 – Sarah McBride, American LGBT activist\n 1990 – Stuart McInally, Scottish rugby player\n 1990 – Brice Roger, French skier\n 1990 – D'Arcy Short, Australian cricketer \n 1990 – Bill Skarsgård, Swedish actor\n1991 – Alice Barlow, English actress\n 1991 – Alexa Bliss, American bodybuilder and wrestler\n 1991 – Hansika Motwani, Indian actress \n1992 – Farahnaz Forotan, Afghan journalist\n1993 – Jun.Q, South Korean singer and actor\n 1993 – Dipa Karmakar, Indian gymnast\n1994 – Kelli Hubly, American soccer player\n 1994 – King Von, American rapper (d. 2020)\n1995 – Eli Apple, American football player\n 1995 – Justice Smith, American actor\n1996 – Sanya Lopez, Filipino actress and model\n1999 – Deniss Vasiļjevs, Latvian figure skater\n2000 – Arlo Parks, British singer-songwriter\n2005 – Victoria Jiménez Kasintseva, Andorran tennis player\n\nDeaths\n\nPre-1600\n 378 – Traianus, Roman general\n 378 – Valens, Roman emperor (b. 328)\n 803 – Irene of Athens, Byzantine ruler (b. 752)\n 833 – Al-Ma'mun, Iraqi caliph (b. 786)\n1048 – Pope Damasus II\n1107 – Emperor Horikawa of Japan (b. 1079)\n1173 – Najm ad-Din Ayyub, Kurdish soldier and politician\n1211 – William de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber, exiled Anglo-Norman baron (b. 1144/53)\n1260 – Walter of Kirkham, Bishop of Durham\n1296 – Hugh, Count of Brienne, French crusader\n1341 – Eleanor of Anjou, queen consort of Sicily (b. 1289)\n1354 – Stephen, Duke of Slavonia, Hungarian prince (b. 1332)\n1420 – Pierre d'Ailly, French theologian and cardinal (b. 1351)\n1516 – Hieronymus Bosch, Early Netherlandish painter (b. circa 1450)\n1534 – Thomas Cajetan, Italian cardinal and philosopher (b. 1470)\n1580 – Metrophanes III of Constantinople (b. 1520)\n\n1601–1900\n1601 – Michael the Brave, Romanian prince (b. 1558)\n1634 – William Noy, English lawyer and judge (b. 1577)\n1720 – Simon Ockley, English orientalist and academic (b. 1678)\n1744 – James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos, English academic and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Radnorshire (b. 1673)\n1816 – Johann August Apel, German jurist and author (b. 1771)\n1861 – Vincent Novello, English composer and publisher (b. 1781)\n1886 – Samuel Ferguson, Irish lawyer and poet (b. 1810)\n\n1901–present\n1910 – Huo Yuanjia, Chinese martial artist, co-founded the Chin Woo Athletic Association (b. 1868)\n1919 – Ruggero Leoncavallo, Italian composer and educator (b. 1857)\n1920 – Samuel Griffith, Welsh-Australian politician, 9th Premier of Queensland (b. 1845)\n1932 – John Charles Fields, Canadian mathematician, founder of the Fields Medal (b. 1863)\n1941 – Richard Goss, Executed Irish Republican (b. 1915)\n1942 – Edith Stein, German nun and saint (b. 1891)\n1943 – Chaïm Soutine, Belarusian-French painter and educator (b. 1893)\n1945 – Robert Hampton Gray, Canadian lieutenant and pilot, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1917)\n 1945 – Harry Hillman, American runner and coach (b. 1881)\n1946 – Bert Vogler, South African cricketer (b. 1876)\n1948 – Hugo Boss, German fashion designer, founded Hugo Boss (b. 1885)\n1949 – Edward Thorndike, American psychologist and academic (b. 1874)\n1957 – Carl Clauberg, German Nazi physician (b. 1898)\n1962 – Hermann Hesse, German-born Swiss poet, novelist, and painter, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877)\n1963 – Patrick Bouvier Kennedy, American son of John F. Kennedy (b. 1963)\n1967 – Joe Orton, English author and playwright (b. 1933)\n1969 – Wojciech Frykowski, Polish-American actor and author (b. 1936)\n 1969 – Sharon Tate, American model and actress (b. 1943)\n 1969 – C. F. Powell, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1903)\n1972 – Sıddık Sami Onar, Turkish lawyer and academic (b. 1897)\n1974 – Bill Chase, American trumpet player and bandleader (b. 1934)\n1975 – Dmitri Shostakovich, Russian pianist and composer (b. 1906)\n1978 – James Gould Cozzens, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1903)\n1979 – Walter O'Malley, American businessman (b. 1903)\n 1979 – Raymond Washington, American gang leader, founded the Crips (b. 1953)\n1980 – Jacqueline Cochran, American pilot (b. 1906)\n 1980 – Ruby Hurley, American civil rights activist (b. 1909)\n1981 – Max Hoffman, Austrian-born car importer and businessman (b. 1904)\n1985 – Clive Churchill, Australian rugby league player and coach (b. 1927)\n1988 – M. Carl Holman, American author, educator, poet, and playwright (b. 1919)\n1988 – Giacinto Scelsi, Italian composer (b. 1905)\n1990 – Joe Mercer, English footballer and manager (b. 1914)\n1992 – Fereydoun Farrokhzad, Iranian singer and actor (b. 1938)\n1995 – Jerry Garcia, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1942)\n1996 – Frank Whittle, English soldier and engineer, invented the jet engine (b. 1907)\n1999 – Helen Rollason, English sports journalist and sportscaster (b. 1956)\n 1999 – Fouad Serageddin, Egyptian journalist and politician (b. 1910)\n2000 – John Harsanyi, Hungarian-American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1920)\n 2000 – Nicholas Markowitz, American murder victim (b. 1984)\n2002 – Paul Samson, English guitarist (b. 1953)\n2003 – Jacques Deray, French director and screenwriter (b. 1929)\n 2003 – Ray Harford, English footballer and manager (b. 1945)\n 2003 – Gregory Hines, American actor, dancer, and choreographer (b. 1946)\n 2003 – R. Sivagurunathan, Sri Lankan lawyer, journalist, and academic (b. 1931)\n2004 – Robert Lecourt, French lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of France (b. 1908)\n 2004 – Tony Mottola, American guitarist and composer (b. 1918)\n 2004 – David Raksin, American composer and educator (b. 1912)\n2005 – Judith Rossner, American author (b. 1935)\n2006 – Philip E. High, English author (b. 1914)\n 2006 – James Van Allen, American physicist and academic (b. 1914)\n2007 – Joe O'Donnell, American photographer and journalist (b. 1922)\n2008 – Bernie Mac, American comedian, actor, screenwriter, and producer (b. 1957)\n 2008 – Mahmoud Darwish, Palestinian author and poet (b. 1941)\n2010 – Calvin \"Fuzz\" Jones, American singer and bass player (b. 1926)\n 2010 – Ted Stevens, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1923)\n2012 – Carl Davis, American record producer (b. 1934)\n 2012 – Gene F. Franklin, American engineer, theorist, and academic (b. 1927)\n 2012 – Al Freeman, Jr., American actor, director, and educator (b. 1934)\n 2012 – David Rakoff, Canadian-American actor and journalist (b. 1964)\n 2012 – Carmen Belen Richardson, Puerto Rican-American actress (b. 1930)\n 2012 – Mel Stuart, American director and producer (b. 1928)\n2013 – Harry Elliott, American baseball player and coach (b. 1923)\n 2013 – Eduardo Falú, Argentinian guitarist and composer (b. 1923)\n 2013 – William Lynch, Jr., American lawyer and politician (b. 1947)\n2014 – J. F. Ade Ajayi, Nigerian historian and academic (b. 1929)\n 2014 – Andriy Bal, Ukrainian footballer and coach (b. 1958)\n 2014 – Arthur G. Cohen, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Arlen Realty and Development Corporation (b. 1930)\n 2014 – Ed Nelson, American actor (b. 1928)\n2015 – Frank Gifford, American football player, sportscaster, and actor (b. 1930)\n 2015 – John Henry Holland, American computer scientist and academic (b. 1929)\n 2015 – Walter Nahún López, Honduran footballer (b. 1977)\n 2015 – David Nobbs, English author and screenwriter (b. 1935)\n 2015 – Kayyar Kinhanna Rai, Indian journalist, author, and poet (b. 1915)\n 2015 – Fikret Otyam, Turkish painter and journalist (b. 1926)\n2016 – Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster, third-richest British citizen (b. 1951)\n2021 – Pat Hitchcock, English actress and producer (b. 1928)\n 2021 – Killer Kau, South African rapper, dancer and record producer (b. 1998)\n 2021 – Zairaini Sarbini, Malaysian voice actress (b. 1972)\n2023 – Robbie Robertson, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor (b. 1943)\n\nHolidays and observances\nBattle of Gangut Day (Russia)\nChristian feast day:\nCandida Maria of Jesus\nEdith Stein (St Teresa Benedicta of the Cross)\nFirmus and Rusticus\nHerman of Alaska (Russian Orthodox Church and related congregations; Episcopal Church (USA))\nJohn Vianney (1950s – currently August 4)\nMary Sumner (Church of England)\nNath Í of Achonry\nRomanus Ostiarius\nSecundian, Marcellian and Verian\nAugust 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nInternational Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples (United Nations)\nMeyboom (Brussels and Leuven, Belgium)\nNational Day, celebrates the independence of Singapore from Malaysia in 1965.\nNational Peacekeepers' Day, celebrated on Sunday closest to the day (Canada)\nNational Women's Day (South Africa)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n \n\nDays of the year\nAugust", "role": "assistant" } ]
Andrew S. Tanenbaum
Andrew Stuart Tanenbaum (born March 16, 1944), sometimes referred to by the handle ast, is an American-Dutch computer scientist and professor emeritus of computer science at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam in the Netherlands. He is the author of MINIX, a free Unix-like operating system for teaching purposes, and has written multiple computer science textbooks regarded as standard texts in the field. He regards his teaching job as his most important work. Since 2004 he has operated Electoral-vote.com, a website dedicated to analysis of polling data in federal elections in the United States. Biography Tanenbaum was born in New York City and grew up in suburban White Plains, New York, where he attended the White Plains High School. He is Jewish. His paternal grandfather was born in Khorostkiv in the Austro-Hungarian empire. He received his Bachelor of Science degree in physics from MIT in 1965 and his PhD degree in astrophysics from the University of California, Berkeley in 1971. Tanenbaum also served as a lobbyist for the Sierra Club. He moved to the Netherlands to live with his wife, who is Dutch, but he retains his United States citizenship. He taught courses on Computer Organization and Operating Systems and supervised the work of PhD candidates at the VU University Amsterdam. On July 9, 2014, he announced his retirement. Teaching Books Tanenbaum's textbooks on computer science include: Structured Computer Organization (1976) Computer Networks, co-authored with David J. Wetherall and Nickolas Feamster (1981) Operating Systems: Design and Implementation, co-authored with Albert Woodhull (1987) Modern Operating Systems (1992) Distributed Operating Systems (1994) Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, co-authored with Maarten van Steen (2001) His book, Operating Systems: Design and Implementation and MINIX were Linus Torvalds' inspiration for the Linux kernel. In his autobiography Just for Fun, Torvalds describes it as "the book that launched me to new heights". His books have been translated into many languages including Arabic, Basque, Bulgarian, Chinese, Dutch, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Macedonian, Mexican Spanish, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, and Spanish. They have appeared in over 175 editions and are used at universities around the world. Doctoral students Tanenbaum has had a number of PhD students who themselves have gone on to become widely known computer science researchers. These include: Henri Bal, professor at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam Frans Kaashoek, professor at MIT Werner Vogels, Chief Technology Officer at Amazon.com Dean of the Advanced School for Computing and Imaging In the early 1990s, the Dutch government began setting up a number of thematically oriented research schools that spanned multiple universities. These schools were intended to bring professors and PhD students from different Dutch (and later, foreign) universities together to help them cooperate and enhance their research. Tanenbaum was one of the cofounders and first Dean of the Advanced School for Computing and Imaging (ASCI). This school initially consisted of nearly 200 faculty members and PhD students from the Vrije Universiteit, University of Amsterdam, Delft University of Technology, and Leiden University. They were especially working on problems in advanced computer systems such as parallel computing and image analysis and processing. Tanenbaum remained dean for 12 years, until 2005, when he was awarded an Academy Professorship by the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, at which time he became a full-time research professor. ASCI has since grown to include researchers from nearly a dozen universities in The Netherlands, Belgium, and France. ASCI offers PhD level courses, has an annual conference, and runs various workshops every year. Projects Amsterdam Compiler Kit The Amsterdam Compiler Kit is a toolkit for producing portable compilers. It was started sometime before 1981 and Andrew Tanenbaum was the architect from the start until version 5.5. MINIX In 1987, Tanenbaum wrote a clone of UNIX, called MINIX (MINi-unIX), for the IBM PC. It was targeted at students and others who wanted to learn how an operating system worked. Consequently, he wrote a book that listed the source code in an appendix and described it in detail in the text. The source code itself was available on a set of floppy disks. Within three months, a Usenet newsgroup, comp.os.minix, had sprung up with over 40,000 subscribers discussing and improving the system. One of these subscribers was a Finnish student named Linus Torvalds, who began adding new features to MINIX and tailoring it to his own needs. On October 5, 1991, Torvalds announced his own (POSIX-like) kernel, called Linux, which originally used the MINIX file system but is not based on MINIX code. Although MINIX and Linux have diverged, MINIX continues to be developed, now as a production system as well as an educational one. The focus is on building a highly modular, reliable, and secure operating system. The system is based on a microkernel, with only 5000 lines of code running in kernel mode. The rest of the operating system runs as a number of independent processes in user mode, including processes for the file system, process manager, and each device driver. The system continuously monitors each of these processes, and when a failure is detected is often capable of automatically replacing the failed process without a reboot, without disturbing running programs, and without the user even noticing. MINIX 3, as the current version is called, is available under the BSD license for free. In 2017, Google discovered that the Intel Management Engine runs MINIX in ring -3. After Tanenbaum read about this, he published an open letter to Intel, detailing conversations with Intel software engineers that occurred several years ago, where they wanted his assistance in modifying MINIX to work on "some secret project". He believes that Intel chose MINIX for this purpose because it is licensed under the BSD-3-Clause license, which allowed Intel to modify the MINIX source code without freely distributing their modified version. In his letter, Tanenbaum claims that MINIX is the most widespread operating system, and this is interpreted by the community as Tanenbaum believing that he has won the Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate. It is hard to know if MINIX or Linux is more popular, as Intel does not publish chipset sales figures, and there is no direct way to find the number of systems running Linux or MINIX. However, Linux has seen much more widespread use in the server space, is widely used in embedded systems, and also runs on all Android phones, which account for at least 3 billion active devices, meaning that it is likely that Linux is the most widespread operating system, although there is no concrete data to back up this claim. Research projects Tanenbaum has also been involved in numerous other research projects in the areas of operating systems, distributed systems, and ubiquitous computing, often as supervisor of PhD students or a postdoctoral researcher. These projects include: Amoeba Globe Mansion Orca Paramecium RFID Guardian Turtle F2F Electoral-vote.com In 2004, Tanenbaum created Electoral-vote.com, a web site analyzing opinion polls for the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election, using them to project the outcome in the Electoral College. He stated that he created the site as an American who "knows first hand what the world thinks of America and it is not a pretty picture at the moment. I want people to think of America as the land of freedom and democracy, not the land of arrogance and blind revenge. I want to be proud of America again." The site provided a color-coded map, updated each day with projections for each state's electoral votes. Through most of the campaign period Tanenbaum kept his identity secret, referring to himself as "the Votemaster" and acknowledging only that he personally preferred John Kerry. Mentioning that he supported the Democrats, he revealed his identity on November 1, 2004, the day before the election, and also stating his reasons and qualifications for running the website. Through the site he also covered the 2006 midterm elections, correctly predicting the winner of all 33 Senate races that year. For the 2008 elections, he got every state right except for Indiana, which he said McCain would win by 2% (Obama won by 1%) and Missouri, which he said was too close to call (McCain won by 0.1%). He correctly predicted all the winners in the Senate except for Minnesota, where he predicted a 1% win by Norm Coleman over Al Franken. After 7 months of legal battling and recounts, Franken won by 312 votes (0.01%). In 2010, he correctly projected 35 out of 37 Senate races in the Midterm elections on the website. The exceptions were Colorado and Nevada. Electoral-vote.com incorrectly predicted Hillary Clinton would win the 2016 United States presidential election. The website incorrectly predicted Clinton would win Wisconsin, Michigan, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and Florida. Electoral-vote.com did not predict a winner for Nevada, which Clinton would win. The website predicted the winners of the remaining 44 states and the District of Columbia correctly. Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate The Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate was a famous debate between Tanenbaum and Linus Torvalds regarding kernel design on Usenet in 1992. Awards Fellow of the ACM Fellow of the IEEE for outstanding contributions to research and education in computer networks and operating systems. Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences IEEE Computer Society Tech. Committee on Distributed Processing Outstanding Technical Achievement Award, 2022 Eurosys Lifetime Achievement Award, 2015 Honorary doctorate from Petru Maior University, Targu Mures, Romania, 2011 Winner of the TAA McGuffey award for classic textbooks for Modern Operating Systems, 2010 Coauthor of the Best Paper Award at the LADC Conference, 2009 Winner of a 2.5 million euro European Research Council Advanced Grant, 2008 USENIX Flame Award 2008 for his many contributions to systems design and to openness both in discussion and in source Honorary doctorate from Polytechnic University of Bucharest, Romania Coauthor of the Best Paper Award at the Real-Time and Network Systems Conf., 2008 Winner of the 2007 IEEE James H. Mulligan, Jr. Education Medal Coauthor of the Best Paper Award at the USENIX LISA Conf., 2006 Coauthor of the Best Paper for High Impact at the IEEE Percom Conf., 2006 Academy Professor, 2004 Winner of the 2005 PPAP Award for best education on computer science software Winner of the 2003 TAA McGuffey award for classic textbooks for Computer Networks Winner of the 2002 TAA Texty Award for new textbooks Winner of the 1997 ACM SIGCSE for contributions to computer science education Winner of the 1994 ACM Karl V. Karlstrom Outstanding Educator Award Coauthor of the 1984 ACM SOSP Distinguished Paper Award Honorary doctorates On May 12, 2008, Tanenbaum received an honorary doctorate from Universitatea Politehnica din București. The award was given in the academic senate chamber, after which Tanenbaum gave a lecture on his vision of the future of the computer field. The degree was given in recognition of Tanenbaum's career work, which includes about 150 published papers, 18 books (which have been translated into over 20 languages), and the creation of a large body of open-source software, including the Amsterdam Compiler Kit, Amoeba, Globe, and MINIX. On October 7, 2011, Universitatea Petru Maior din Târgu Mureș (Petru Maior University of Târgu Mureș) granted Tanenbaum the Doctor Honoris Causa (honorary doctorate) title for his remarkable work in the field of computer science and achievements in education. The academic community is hereby honoring his devotion to teaching and research with this award. At the ceremony, the Chancellor, the Rector, the Dean of the Faculty of Sciences and Letters, and others all spoke about Tanenbaum and his work. The pro-rector then read the 'laudatio,' summarizing Tanenbaum's achievements. These include his work developing MINIX (the predecessor to Linux), the RFID Guardian, his work on Globe, Amoeba, and other systems, and his many books on computer science, which have been translated in many languages, including Romanian, and which are used at Petru Maior University. Keynote talks Tanenbaum has been keynote speaker at numerous conferences, most recently ICDCS 2022 Bologna, Italy, July 12, 2022 Qualcomm Security Summit San Diego, May 18, 2022 RIOT Summit 2020 Online Event, September 14, 2020 FrOSCon 2015 Sankt Augustin, Germany, August 22, 2015 BSDCan 2015 Ottawa, Canada, June 12, 2015 HAXPO 2015 Amsterdam May 28, 2015 Codemotion 2015 Rome Italy, March 28, 2015 SIREN 2010 Veldhoven, The Netherlands, November 2, 2010 FOSDEM Brussels, Belgium, February 7, 2010 NSCNE '09 Changsha, China, November 5, 2009 E-Democracy 2009 Conference Athens, Greece, September 25, 2009 Free and Open Source Conference Sankt Augustin, Germany, August 23, 2008 XV Semana Informática of the Instituto Superior Técnico, Lisbon, Portugal, March 13, 2008 NLUUG 25 year anniversary conference, Amsterdam, November 7, 2007 linux.conf.au in Sydney, Australia, January 17, 2007 Academic IT Festival in Cracow, Poland, February 23, 2006 (2nd edition) ACM Symposium on Operating System Principles, Brighton, England, October 24, 2005 References External links Minix Article in Free Software Magazine contains an interview with Andrew Tanenbaum 1944 births American political writers American male non-fiction writers American technology writers Computer systems researchers American computer scientists Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery Fellow Members of the IEEE Free software programmers Kernel programmers Living people Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Science alumni Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences MINIX Scientists from New York City University of California, Berkeley alumni Academic staff of Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Information technology in the Netherlands Computer science educators Jewish American writers European Research Council grantees 21st-century American Jews American emigrants to the Netherlands
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Andrew S. Tanenbaum", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Andrew Stuart Tanenbaum (born March 16, 1944), sometimes referred to by the handle ast, is an American-Dutch computer scientist and professor emeritus of computer science at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam in the Netherlands.\n\nHe is the author of MINIX, a free Unix-like operating system for teaching purposes, and has written multiple computer science textbooks regarded as standard texts in the field. He regards his teaching job as his most important work. Since 2004 he has operated Electoral-vote.com, a website dedicated to analysis of polling data in federal elections in the United States.\n\nBiography\nTanenbaum was born in New York City and grew up in suburban White Plains, New York, where he attended the White Plains High School. He is Jewish. His paternal grandfather was born in Khorostkiv in the Austro-Hungarian empire.\n\nHe received his Bachelor of Science degree in physics from MIT in 1965 and his PhD degree in astrophysics from the University of California, Berkeley in 1971. Tanenbaum also served as a lobbyist for the Sierra Club.\n\nHe moved to the Netherlands to live with his wife, who is Dutch, but he retains his United States citizenship. He taught courses on Computer Organization and Operating Systems and supervised the work of PhD candidates at the VU University Amsterdam. On July 9, 2014, he announced his retirement.\n\nTeaching\n\nBooks\nTanenbaum's textbooks on computer science include:\n Structured Computer Organization (1976)\n Computer Networks, co-authored with David J. Wetherall and Nickolas Feamster (1981)\n Operating Systems: Design and Implementation, co-authored with Albert Woodhull (1987)\n Modern Operating Systems (1992)\n Distributed Operating Systems (1994)\n Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, co-authored with Maarten van Steen (2001)\n\nHis book, Operating Systems: Design and Implementation and MINIX were Linus Torvalds' inspiration for the Linux kernel. In his autobiography Just for Fun, Torvalds describes it as \"the book that launched me to new heights\".\n\nHis books have been translated into many languages including Arabic, Basque, Bulgarian, Chinese, Dutch, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Macedonian, Mexican Spanish, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, and Spanish. They have appeared in over 175 editions and are used at universities around the world.\n\nDoctoral students\nTanenbaum has had a number of PhD students who themselves have gone on to become widely known computer science researchers.\nThese include:\n Henri Bal, professor at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam\n Frans Kaashoek, professor at MIT\n Werner Vogels, Chief Technology Officer at Amazon.com\n\nDean of the Advanced School for Computing and Imaging\nIn the early 1990s, the Dutch government began setting up a number of thematically oriented research schools that spanned multiple universities. These schools were intended to bring professors and PhD students from different Dutch (and later, foreign) universities together to help them cooperate and enhance their research.\n\nTanenbaum was one of the cofounders and first Dean of the Advanced School for Computing and Imaging (ASCI). This school initially consisted of nearly 200 faculty members and PhD students from the Vrije Universiteit, University of Amsterdam, Delft University of Technology, and Leiden University. They were especially working on problems in advanced computer systems such as parallel computing and image analysis and processing.\n\nTanenbaum remained dean for 12 years, until 2005, when he was awarded an Academy Professorship by the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, at which time he became a full-time research professor. ASCI has since grown to include researchers from nearly a dozen universities in The Netherlands, Belgium, and France. ASCI offers PhD level courses, has an annual conference, and runs various workshops every year.\n\nProjects\n\nAmsterdam Compiler Kit\nThe Amsterdam Compiler Kit is a toolkit for producing portable compilers. It was started sometime before 1981 and Andrew Tanenbaum was the architect from the start until version 5.5.\n\nMINIX\nIn 1987, Tanenbaum wrote a clone of UNIX, called MINIX (MINi-unIX), for the IBM PC. It was targeted at students and others who wanted to learn how an operating system worked. Consequently, he wrote a book that listed the source code in an appendix and described it in detail in the text. The source code itself was available on a set of floppy disks. Within three months, a Usenet newsgroup, comp.os.minix, had sprung up with over 40,000 subscribers discussing and improving the system. One of these subscribers was a Finnish student named Linus Torvalds, who began adding new features to MINIX and tailoring it to his own needs. On October 5, 1991, Torvalds announced his own (POSIX-like) kernel, called Linux, which originally used the MINIX file system but is not based on MINIX code.\n\nAlthough MINIX and Linux have diverged, MINIX continues to be developed, now as a production system as well as an educational one. The focus is on building a highly modular, reliable, and secure operating system. The system is based on a microkernel, with only 5000 lines of code running in kernel mode. The rest of the operating system runs as a number of independent processes in user mode, including processes for the file system, process manager, and each device driver. The system continuously monitors each of these processes, and when a failure is detected is often capable of automatically replacing the failed process without a reboot, without disturbing running programs, and without the user even noticing. MINIX 3, as the current version is called, is available under the BSD license for free.\n\nIn 2017, Google discovered that the Intel Management Engine runs MINIX in ring -3. After Tanenbaum read about this, he published an open letter to Intel, detailing conversations with Intel software engineers that occurred several years ago, where they wanted his assistance in modifying MINIX to work on \"some secret project\". He believes that Intel chose MINIX for this purpose because it is licensed under the BSD-3-Clause license, which allowed Intel to modify the MINIX source code without freely distributing their modified version. In his letter, Tanenbaum claims that MINIX is the most widespread operating system, and this is interpreted by the community as Tanenbaum believing that he has won the Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate. It is hard to know if MINIX or Linux is more popular, as Intel does not publish chipset sales figures, and there is no direct way to find the number of systems running Linux or MINIX. However, Linux has seen much more widespread use in the server space, is widely used in embedded systems, and also runs on all Android phones, which account for at least 3 billion active devices, meaning that it is likely that Linux is the most widespread operating system, although there is no concrete data to back up this claim.\n\nResearch projects\nTanenbaum has also been involved in numerous other research projects in the areas of operating systems, distributed systems, and ubiquitous computing, often as supervisor of PhD students or a postdoctoral researcher. These projects include:\n Amoeba\n Globe\n Mansion\n Orca\n Paramecium\n RFID Guardian\n Turtle F2F\n\nElectoral-vote.com\nIn 2004, Tanenbaum created Electoral-vote.com, a web site analyzing opinion polls for the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election, using them to project the outcome in the Electoral College. He stated that he created the site as an American who \"knows first hand what the world thinks of America and it is not a pretty picture at the moment. I want people to think of America as the land of freedom and democracy, not the land of arrogance and blind revenge. I want to be proud of America again.\" The site provided a color-coded map, updated each day with projections for each state's electoral votes. Through most of the campaign period Tanenbaum kept his identity secret, referring to himself as \"the Votemaster\" and acknowledging only that he personally preferred John Kerry. Mentioning that he supported the Democrats, he revealed his identity on November 1, 2004, the day before the election, and also stating his reasons and qualifications for running the website.\n\nThrough the site he also covered the 2006 midterm elections, correctly predicting the winner of all 33 Senate races that year.\n\nFor the 2008 elections, he got every state right except for Indiana, which he said McCain would win by 2% (Obama won by 1%) and Missouri, which he said was too close to call (McCain won by 0.1%). He correctly predicted all the winners in the Senate except for Minnesota, where he predicted a 1% win by Norm Coleman over Al Franken. After 7 months of legal battling and recounts, Franken won by 312 votes (0.01%).\n\nIn 2010, he correctly projected 35 out of 37 Senate races in the Midterm elections on the website. The exceptions were Colorado and Nevada.\n\nElectoral-vote.com incorrectly predicted Hillary Clinton would win the 2016 United States presidential election. The website incorrectly predicted Clinton would win Wisconsin, Michigan, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and Florida. Electoral-vote.com did not predict a winner for Nevada, which Clinton would win. The website predicted the winners of the remaining 44 states and the District of Columbia correctly.\n\nTanenbaum–Torvalds debate\nThe Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate was a famous debate between Tanenbaum and Linus Torvalds regarding kernel design on Usenet in 1992.\n\nAwards\n Fellow of the ACM\n Fellow of the IEEE for outstanding contributions to research and education in computer networks and operating systems.\n Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences\n IEEE Computer Society Tech. Committee on Distributed Processing Outstanding Technical Achievement Award, 2022\n Eurosys Lifetime Achievement Award, 2015\n Honorary doctorate from Petru Maior University, Targu Mures, Romania, 2011\n Winner of the TAA McGuffey award for classic textbooks for Modern Operating Systems, 2010\n Coauthor of the Best Paper Award at the LADC Conference, 2009\n Winner of a 2.5 million euro European Research Council Advanced Grant, 2008\n USENIX Flame Award 2008 for his many contributions to systems design and to openness both in discussion and in source\n Honorary doctorate from Polytechnic University of Bucharest, Romania\n Coauthor of the Best Paper Award at the Real-Time and Network Systems Conf., 2008\n Winner of the 2007 IEEE James H. Mulligan, Jr. Education Medal\n Coauthor of the Best Paper Award at the USENIX LISA Conf., 2006\n Coauthor of the Best Paper for High Impact at the IEEE Percom Conf., 2006\n Academy Professor, 2004\n Winner of the 2005 PPAP Award for best education on computer science software\n Winner of the 2003 TAA McGuffey award for classic textbooks for Computer Networks\n Winner of the 2002 TAA Texty Award for new textbooks\n Winner of the 1997 ACM SIGCSE for contributions to computer science education\n Winner of the 1994 ACM Karl V. Karlstrom Outstanding Educator Award\n Coauthor of the 1984 ACM SOSP Distinguished Paper Award\n\nHonorary doctorates\n\n On May 12, 2008, Tanenbaum received an honorary doctorate from Universitatea Politehnica din București. The award was given in the academic senate chamber, after which Tanenbaum gave a lecture on his vision of the future of the computer field. The degree was given in recognition of Tanenbaum's career work, which includes about 150 published papers, 18 books (which have been translated into over 20 languages), and the creation of a large body of open-source software, including the Amsterdam Compiler Kit, Amoeba, Globe, and MINIX.\n On October 7, 2011, Universitatea Petru Maior din Târgu Mureș (Petru Maior University of Târgu Mureș) granted Tanenbaum the Doctor Honoris Causa (honorary doctorate) title for his remarkable work in the field of computer science and achievements in education. The academic community is hereby honoring his devotion to teaching and research with this award. At the ceremony, the Chancellor, the Rector, the Dean of the Faculty of Sciences and Letters, and others all spoke about Tanenbaum and his work. The pro-rector then read the 'laudatio,' summarizing Tanenbaum's achievements. These include his work developing MINIX (the predecessor to Linux), the RFID Guardian, his work on Globe, Amoeba, and other systems, and his many books on computer science, which have been translated in many languages, including Romanian, and which are used at Petru Maior University.\n\nKeynote talks\nTanenbaum has been keynote speaker at numerous conferences, most recently\n ICDCS 2022 Bologna, Italy, July 12, 2022\n Qualcomm Security Summit San Diego, May 18, 2022\n RIOT Summit 2020 Online Event, September 14, 2020\n FrOSCon 2015 Sankt Augustin, Germany, August 22, 2015\n BSDCan 2015 Ottawa, Canada, June 12, 2015\n HAXPO 2015 Amsterdam May 28, 2015\n Codemotion 2015 Rome Italy, March 28, 2015\n SIREN 2010 Veldhoven, The Netherlands, November 2, 2010\n FOSDEM Brussels, Belgium, February 7, 2010\n NSCNE '09 Changsha, China, November 5, 2009\n E-Democracy 2009 Conference Athens, Greece, September 25, 2009\n Free and Open Source Conference Sankt Augustin, Germany, August 23, 2008\n XV Semana Informática of the Instituto Superior Técnico, Lisbon, Portugal, March 13, 2008\n NLUUG 25 year anniversary conference, Amsterdam, November 7, 2007\n linux.conf.au in Sydney, Australia, January 17, 2007\n Academic IT Festival in Cracow, Poland, February 23, 2006 (2nd edition)\n ACM Symposium on Operating System Principles, Brighton, England, October 24, 2005\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Minix Article in Free Software Magazine contains an interview with Andrew Tanenbaum\n \n\n1944 births\nAmerican political writers\nAmerican male non-fiction writers\nAmerican technology writers\nComputer systems researchers\nAmerican computer scientists\nFellows of the Association for Computing Machinery\nFellow Members of the IEEE\nFree software programmers\nKernel programmers\nLiving people\nMassachusetts Institute of Technology School of Science alumni\nMembers of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences\nMINIX\nScientists from New York City\nUniversity of California, Berkeley alumni\nAcademic staff of Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam\nInformation technology in the Netherlands\nComputer science educators\nJewish American writers\nEuropean Research Council grantees\n21st-century American Jews\nAmerican emigrants to the Netherlands", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baron%20Dawson
Baron Dawson may be: Baron Dawson (Peerage of Ireland), the third title of the Earl of Portarlington Baron Dawson of Penn, the former title of the Viscount Dawson of Penn
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baron%20Dawson", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Baron Dawson may be:\n\nBaron Dawson (Peerage of Ireland), the third title of the Earl of Portarlington\nBaron Dawson of Penn, the former title of the Viscount Dawson of Penn", "role": "assistant" } ]
Tennessee Commissioner of Tourist Development
The Tennessee Commissioner of Tourist Development is the head of Tennessee's Department of Tourist Development, which is concerned with attracting tourism to the state. The Commissioner is appointed by the governor of Tennessee and is a member of the governor's Cabinet, which meets at least once per month, or more often to the governor's liking. The Commissioner, in accordance with the rules of the state publications committee, acts through the tourism division of the Department to collect, compile, and distribute literature relating to the facilities, the advantages and attractions of the state, the historic, recreational, and scenic points and places of interest within the state, and the transportation and highway facilities of the state. The Commissioner is also authorized to form contracts with agencies of any type that will further objectives of advertising to Tennessee nonresidents, to compile information from state government branches for advertising purposes, and to accept unconditional gifts of money for the Department of Tourist Development's purposes. The position of Commissioner was created in 1976, along with the Department it heads. The current Commissioner under the Phil Bredesen administration, , is Susan Whitaker. The previous Commissioner under the Don Sundquist administration was John Wade. External links The Tennessee Department of Tourist Development website LexisNexis's archive of Tennessee Code, Title 4 The Department of Tourist Development website in 2002 Tourist Development Commissioner
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Tennessee Commissioner of Tourist Development", "role": "user" }, { "content": "The Tennessee Commissioner of Tourist Development is the head of Tennessee's Department of Tourist Development, which is concerned with attracting tourism to the state. The Commissioner is appointed by the governor of Tennessee and is a member of the governor's Cabinet, which meets at least once per month, or more often to the governor's liking.\n\nThe Commissioner, in accordance with the rules of the state publications committee, acts through the tourism division of the Department to collect, compile, and distribute literature relating to the facilities, the advantages and attractions of the state, the historic, recreational, and scenic points and places of interest within the state, and the transportation and highway facilities of the state.\n\nThe Commissioner is also authorized to form contracts with agencies of any type that will further objectives of advertising to Tennessee nonresidents, to compile information from state government branches for advertising purposes, and to accept unconditional gifts of money for the Department of Tourist Development's purposes.\n\nThe position of Commissioner was created in 1976, along with the Department it heads. The current Commissioner under the Phil Bredesen administration, , is Susan Whitaker. The previous Commissioner under the Don Sundquist administration was John Wade.\n\nExternal links\nThe Tennessee Department of Tourist Development website\nLexisNexis's archive of Tennessee Code, Title 4\nThe Department of Tourist Development website in 2002\n\n Tourist Development\nCommissioner", "role": "assistant" } ]
Casamari Abbey
Casamari Abbey is a Cistercian abbey in the Province of Frosinone, Lazio, Italy, about 10 kilometers (6 miles) east-south-east of Veroli. The abbey, mostly from 1203-1217, is a fine and very well preserved example of early Italian Gothic architecture in the Burgundian style of early-Gothic architecture, paralleled within Italy only by that of the Abbey of Fossanova. It was declared a National Monument in 1874. The abbey has a plan similar to the French contemporary ones, the entrance being a gate with a double arch. The interior has a garden whose central part is occupied by a cloister, of quadrangular shape, with four galleries having a semi-cylindrical ceiling. The chapter room has nine spans and four pilaster, and is used for meetings. The church can be accessed from the cloister. It has a basilica plan with a nave and two aisles; the façade has a large external portico, while behind the altar is the choir, added in 1954 and made by Vincenzo Domenico De Donatis from Sora (1886-1969) and his sons. The windows of the church are fitted with sheets of alabaster rather than glass panels. History It marks the site of Cereatae, the birthplace of Caius Marius, afterwards known, as inscriptions attest, as Cereatae Marianae, having been separated perhaps by the triumvirs from the territory of Arpinum. In the early Imperial times it was an independent community. Benedictine A chronicle of the abbey from the 13th century dates its founding to the 9th century as a Benedictine monastery with the same name. Initially a small community with a simple church dedicated to Saints John and Paul, the buildings were expanded in the mid-11th century by its then-Abbot Giovanni. That it became a sphere of influence for the region at that time is shown by the large number of donations it was receiving and its acquisition of many chapels in the area whose revenues contributed to the maintenance of the abbey. Cistercian The 12th century, however, saw a period of long decline for the abbey. Due to the severe financial crises which arose in the shift to a capital-based economy, the region underwent great instability. In the religious realm, the Church was suffering from the contending rule of Antipope Anacletus II and Pope Innocent II. During this period, one of the major religious figures of the day, St Bernard of Clairvaux, promoted the Cistercian reforms of monasticism as the best way to ensure fidelity of life and obedience to the Church. He himself arranged the incorporation of Casamari in the new order, officially listing it in the Cistercian directory as the 29th foundation of Citeaux. Under the Cistercians the abbey and its church were completely rebuilt between 1203 and 1217, in accordance with their own standards. In 1417 the abbey suffered major damage due to an assault by the army of Queen Joanna II of Naples, allied with the papacy, on the forces of Braccio da Montone which had occupied the monastic complex. The entire western wing of the abbey was destroyed in the battle. An equally major blow was soon given to the life of the monastic community in 1430, when Pope Martin V made his nephew, Cardinal Prospero Colonna, the commendatory abbot of Casamari, thereby giving him the control of the abbey's finances. By 1623 the community had been reduced to eight monks. As a result, it joined eight other abbeys to form the Roman Congregation for their mutual support. This union lasted until 1650. In 1717, the commendatory abbot at that time, Annibale Albani, made an attempt to reform and reinvigorate the community by introducing the Trappist reform, bringing several monks for this purpose from the Trappist monastery of Buonsollazzo in Tuscany, part of the Italian Congregation of St. Bernard. Suppression At the start of the 19th century, Italy found itself invaded by the forces of the First French Empire. In the course of the Napoleonic wars, several French soldiers stopped at the abbey on May 13, 1799, when returning from the assault on Naples. They were well received by the prior, Simon Cardon, a fellow Frenchman. Nevertheless, the soldiers proceeded to sack the abbey in next days, including the church, where they broke open the tabernacle and scattered the consecrated hosts on the floor. When Cardon and five of his fellow monks went to recover the hosts, they were shot by the soldiers. Declared martyrs, they were buried within the church itself, as opposed to the abbey graveyard, however the official pronouncement was issued in Vatican only in May 2020. Soon, though, the abbey, along with most other religious communities, was suppressed by a decree of Napoleon in 1811. Revival Within a few years, by 1814, some of the surviving monks returned to the abbey and were able to resume monastic life, now under the direct authority of the Holy See. In 1825 Pope Pius IX officially ended the office of commendatory abbot. The monks of Casamari incorporated the Monastery of San Domenico, near Sora, under their jurisdiction in 1833. Valvisciolo Abbey, near Sermoneta, also came under their authority in 1864 . At that point Casamari, along with its dependencies, was able to establish itself as an autonomous congregation, directly subject to the Holy See. Keeping their adherence to the Trappist reform, they resisted later pressures put on them at the start of the 20th century to join the Congregation of Subiaco. Congregation of Casamari In 1929 the Holy See formally recognized the Congregation of Casamari, and united it with the other congregations which form the Cistercian Order (though not the Trappists). The monks began to extend their work to include the pastoral care of nearby parishes and opened a seminary. At the invitation of Pope Pius XI they began to consider expansion to foreign missions. The Venerable Father Felix At this point in time, Father Felix Mary Ghebreamlak, a priest of the Ethiopian Catholic Church, was directed to Casamari, due to his desire to introduce Catholic monastic life to his country. The community there accepted his request to sponsor a community of the Order in Ethiopia and train the candidates for such a community. Ghebreamlak entered, along with 12 other Ethiopian Catholic men. Within a few years of his admission to the Order, Ghebreamlak was diagnosed with incurable tuberculosis. Allowed to profess religious vows on his deathbed, he died in 1934 and was buried at Casamari. The reputation he had for holiness of life drew the veneration of the Ethiopian clergy. The local Catholic Diocese, along with the Ethiopian Catholic Church, opened a process of investigating his life for possible canonization. The cause was eventually approved and accepted by the Holy See for further investigation. In 1957 the abbey church was designated a basilica minor by Pope Pius XII. Current status The abbey made its first overseas foundation in Ethiopia in 1940. There are now four monasteries of the congregation there, with some 100 native monks. Foundations were also made subsequently in Brazil and the United States. The total membership of the congregation numbers some 200 monks. The abbey notes that, with the exception of the three years that they were disbanded under Napoleon, there has been a continuous monastic presence there since its founding. The Abbot of the Abbey of Casamari, as of 2017, is the Right Reverend Abbot Dom Eugenio Romagnuolo, President of the Cistercian Congregation of Casamari. References External links Adrian Fletcher’s Paradoxplace - Casamari and Cistercian Abbey Pages – Photos Casamari Abbey Website The Abbey Of Casamari Christian monasteries established in the 9th century 13th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy Cistercian monasteries in Italy Monasteries in Lazio Gothic architecture in Lazio Churches in the province of Frosinone Veroli
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Casamari Abbey", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Casamari Abbey is a Cistercian abbey in the Province of Frosinone, Lazio, Italy, about 10 kilometers (6 miles) east-south-east of Veroli.\n\nThe abbey, mostly from 1203-1217, is a fine and very well preserved example of early Italian Gothic architecture in the Burgundian style of early-Gothic architecture, paralleled within Italy only by that of the Abbey of Fossanova. It was declared a National Monument in 1874.\n\nThe abbey has a plan similar to the French contemporary ones, the entrance being a gate with a double arch. The interior has a garden whose central part is occupied by a cloister, of quadrangular shape, with four galleries having a semi-cylindrical ceiling.\n\nThe chapter room has nine spans and four pilaster, and is used for meetings. The church can be accessed from the cloister. It has a basilica plan with a nave and two aisles; the façade has a large external portico, while behind the altar is the choir, added in 1954 and made by Vincenzo Domenico De Donatis from Sora (1886-1969) and his sons. The windows of the church are fitted with sheets of alabaster rather than glass panels.\n\nHistory\nIt marks the site of Cereatae, the birthplace of Caius Marius, afterwards known, as inscriptions attest, as Cereatae Marianae, having been separated perhaps by the triumvirs from the territory of Arpinum. In the early Imperial times it was an independent community.\n\nBenedictine\nA chronicle of the abbey from the 13th century dates its founding to the 9th century as a Benedictine monastery with the same name. Initially a small community with a simple church dedicated to Saints John and Paul, the buildings were expanded in the mid-11th century by its then-Abbot Giovanni. That it became a sphere of influence for the region at that time is shown by the large number of donations it was receiving and its acquisition of many chapels in the area whose revenues contributed to the maintenance of the abbey.\n\nCistercian\n\nThe 12th century, however, saw a period of long decline for the abbey. Due to the severe financial crises which arose in the shift to a capital-based economy, the region underwent great instability. In the religious realm, the Church was suffering from the contending rule of Antipope Anacletus II and Pope Innocent II. During this period, one of the major religious figures of the day, St Bernard of Clairvaux, promoted the Cistercian reforms of monasticism as the best way to ensure fidelity of life and obedience to the Church. He himself arranged the incorporation of Casamari in the new order, officially listing it in the Cistercian directory as the 29th foundation of Citeaux.\n\nUnder the Cistercians the abbey and its church were completely rebuilt between 1203 and 1217, in accordance with their own standards.\n\nIn 1417 the abbey suffered major damage due to an assault by the army of Queen Joanna II of Naples, allied with the papacy, on the forces of Braccio da Montone which had occupied the monastic complex. The entire western wing of the abbey was destroyed in the battle.\n\nAn equally major blow was soon given to the life of the monastic community in 1430, when Pope Martin V made his nephew, Cardinal Prospero Colonna, the commendatory abbot of Casamari, thereby giving him the control of the abbey's finances. By 1623 the community had been reduced to eight monks. As a result, it joined eight other abbeys to form the Roman Congregation for their mutual support. This union lasted until 1650.\n\nIn 1717, the commendatory abbot at that time, Annibale Albani, made an attempt to reform and reinvigorate the community by introducing the Trappist reform, bringing several monks for this purpose from the Trappist monastery of Buonsollazzo in Tuscany, part of the Italian Congregation of St. Bernard.\n\nSuppression\nAt the start of the 19th century, Italy found itself invaded by the forces of the First French Empire. In the course of the Napoleonic wars, several French soldiers stopped at the abbey on May 13, 1799, when returning from the assault on Naples. They were well received by the prior, Simon Cardon, a fellow Frenchman. Nevertheless, the soldiers proceeded to sack the abbey in next days, including the church, where they broke open the tabernacle and scattered the consecrated hosts on the floor. When Cardon and five of his fellow monks went to recover the hosts, they were shot by the soldiers. Declared martyrs, they were buried within the church itself, as opposed to the abbey graveyard, however the official pronouncement was issued in Vatican only in May 2020. Soon, though, the abbey, along with most other religious communities, was suppressed by a decree of Napoleon in 1811.\n\nRevival\nWithin a few years, by 1814, some of the surviving monks returned to the abbey and were able to resume monastic life, now under the direct authority of the Holy See. In 1825 Pope Pius IX officially ended the office of commendatory abbot. The monks of Casamari incorporated the Monastery of San Domenico, near Sora, under their jurisdiction in 1833. Valvisciolo Abbey, near Sermoneta, also came under their authority in 1864 . At that point Casamari, along with its dependencies, was able to establish itself as an autonomous congregation, directly subject to the Holy See. Keeping their adherence to the Trappist reform, they resisted later pressures put on them at the start of the 20th century to join the Congregation of Subiaco.\n\nCongregation of Casamari\nIn 1929 the Holy See formally recognized the Congregation of Casamari, and united it with the other congregations which form the Cistercian Order (though not the Trappists). The monks began to extend their work to include the pastoral care of nearby parishes and opened a seminary. At the invitation of Pope Pius XI they began to consider expansion to foreign missions.\n\nThe Venerable Father Felix\nAt this point in time, Father Felix Mary Ghebreamlak, a priest of the Ethiopian Catholic Church, was directed to Casamari, due to his desire to introduce Catholic monastic life to his country. The community there accepted his request to sponsor a community of the Order in Ethiopia and train the candidates for such a community. Ghebreamlak entered, along with 12 other Ethiopian Catholic men.\n\nWithin a few years of his admission to the Order, Ghebreamlak was diagnosed with incurable tuberculosis. Allowed to profess religious vows on his deathbed, he died in 1934 and was buried at Casamari. The reputation he had for holiness of life drew the veneration of the Ethiopian clergy. The local Catholic Diocese, along with the Ethiopian Catholic Church, opened a process of investigating his life for possible canonization. The cause was eventually approved and accepted by the Holy See for further investigation.\n\nIn 1957 the abbey church was designated a basilica minor by Pope Pius XII.\n\nCurrent status\nThe abbey made its first overseas foundation in Ethiopia in 1940. There are now four monasteries of the congregation there, with some 100 native monks. Foundations were also made subsequently in Brazil and the United States. The total membership of the congregation numbers some 200 monks. The abbey notes that, with the exception of the three years that they were disbanded under Napoleon, there has been a continuous monastic presence there since its founding.\n\nThe Abbot of the Abbey of Casamari, as of 2017, is the Right Reverend Abbot Dom Eugenio Romagnuolo, President of the Cistercian Congregation of Casamari.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Adrian Fletcher’s Paradoxplace - Casamari and Cistercian Abbey Pages – Photos\n Casamari Abbey Website\n The Abbey Of Casamari\n\nChristian monasteries established in the 9th century\n13th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy\nCistercian monasteries in Italy\nMonasteries in Lazio\nGothic architecture in Lazio\nChurches in the province of Frosinone\nVeroli", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabaptist%20Mennonite%20Biblical%20Seminary
Anabaptist Mennonite Biblical Seminary (AMBS) is an Anabaptist Christian seminary in Elkhart, Indiana, affiliated with Mennonite Church USA and Mennonite Church Canada. It was formerly known as Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary until its name was changed in 2012. The seminary offers a three-year Master of Divinity degree and two-year Master of Arts degree. It is accredited by the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada. History Anabaptist Mennonite Biblical Seminary has roots in two former Mennonite seminaries: Goshen Biblical Seminary of the Mennonite Church and Mennonite Biblical Seminary of the General Conference Mennonite Church. Goshen Biblical Seminary Goshen Biblical Seminary at Goshen College, a Mennonite Church school in Goshen, Indiana, was one of two institutions that joined to form AMBS. Goshen Biblical Seminary was the direct continuation of the Bible School that began at Elkhart Institute in Elkhart, Indiana in 1894, while Elkhart Institute was organized as an academy. In 1903, Elkhart Institute moved to Goshen, Indiana, became Goshen College, and was reorganized as a junior college; in 1910 Goshen College was reorganized as a senior college. From 1894 until 1933, the Bible School offered a two-year course of study leading to a diploma and served as the Bible department of the college. In 1933, the Bible School began offering a four-year ThB (Bachelor of Theology), which expanded to a five-year course in 1942. In 1944, the Bible School was organized as a separate school with its own dean. In 1946, the school began using the name Goshen Biblical Seminary and began offering a seven-year BD (Bachelor of Divinity) with four years of liberal arts and three years of Bible and theology. In 1949, a BRE (Bachelor of Religious Education) was added as a four-year program. In 1955, the Th.B. program was discontinued and the seminary was organized into graduate and undergraduate divisions. Harold S. Bender served as dean of the college and Bible School from 1931. Bender became dean of the seminary in 1944 when it was organized as a separate school and served until his death in 1962. In 1953-54, 67 students were enrolled. The total number of graduates from 1934-1956 was 190, with over 380 having matriculated. Goshen Biblical Seminary began aligning its academic program with that of Mennonite Biblical Seminary in 1958 and moved from Goshen to Mennonite Biblical Seminary's Elkhart campus after 1969. Mennonite Biblical Seminary Mennonite Biblical Seminary (MBS), a General Conference Mennonite Church institution in Chicago, Illinois, was the second school that became part of AMBS. The General Conference Mennonites had a history of educating pastors and church leaders which started with Wadsworth Institute (1868–1878), then Halstead Seminary (1883) the forerunner of Bethel College and Witmarsum Theological Seminary (1914–1931), part of Bluffton College. The Witmarsum school closed in 1931 for what was assumed to be a year or two during which a better location could be found and an association with an older seminary arranged. This would last until 1945 when a Chicago, Illinois, site was selected and an affiliation with Bethany Biblical Seminary was established. Mennonite Biblical Seminary was opened in September 1945 and used available space at Bethany for classes and student housing. By the fall of 1946 the seminary purchased property on the 4600 block of Woodlawn Avenue as it prepared for more students who were expected with the end of Civilian Public Service. Over the next six years most of the property on that block would become part of the Seminary. The school operated with five full-time faculty and two part-time administrative staff members. After the startup years, student enrollment averaged about 40 with about nine degrees granted each year. Each year about a dozen Mennonite students who were attending other Chicago schools were allowed to use Seminary apartments. In 1953, MBS worked together with Goshen Biblical Seminary to create a joint summer school for the following year. As this friendly exchange progressed throughout the next several years a desire for a larger inter-Mennonite seminary developed. This process was culminated in 1958 by which time the Chicago property had been sold and the Seminary moved to a new joint campus in Indiana. Association After the success of the 1954 cooperative summer school, the Goshen and Chicago seminaries started seriously exploring closer cooperation. Other Mennonite denominations were invited to explore what was hoped to be a larger inter-Mennonite school. Although the Evangelical Mennonite Church, Mennonite Brethren, Evangelical Mennonite Brethren and Brethren in Christ all showed initial interest, each of these bodies ultimately opted not to pursue this type of partnership. A plan was devised where each school would operate independently at a single site, sharing a library, a few joint courses, joint chapel services once a week and joint use of certain facilities. It was felt that the two denominations' respective constituencies would support this new venture only if the schools remained independent. This arrangement of two parallel schools is evident in the school's original plural name: Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminaries. The largest sticking point in the negotiations was selecting a suitable location. Although Bethel College in Kansas offered a site, this option was never seriously considered. The Goshen group wanted the seminary to be located on their existing campus at Goshen College in Indiana, believing their church members would not support a move. The General Conference Mennonites rejected this site for fear of being swallowed up by the larger group. Eventually an Elkhart, Indiana, site was chosen as a neutral location between the two schools. Ground breaking at the Elkhart property took place on September 3, 1957, and was essentially completed by the next August. A chapel was added and dedicated in June 1965. The Goshen Seminary received Association of Theological Schools accreditation in 1958 and Mennonite Biblical Seminary followed with accreditation in 1964. Over the years closer cooperation eventually eliminated the distinction between the two schools, and by 1994 they formally merged into the (now-singular) Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary. By 2002 the two Mennonite denominations themselves had joined to form a common structure, in which decades of cooperation between the two groups at AMBS had played a role. Institute of Mennonite Studies The Institute of Mennonite Studies (IMS) is the research and publishing arm of Anabaptist Mennonite Biblical Seminary. The Institute has fostered inter-Mennonite connections and scholarship advances in the areas of Anabaptist theology and history since 1958. Key Mennonite leaders such as theologian John Howard Yoder have been associated with IMS. The current director of IMS is Jamie Pitts. Notable faculty (past and present) Alan Kreider J. C. Wenger John Howard Yoder Library In 2007, AMBS completed a new building to house the library and bookstore. This building was the first theological library registered with the United States Green Building Council for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification. The building received a LEED Gold rating in 2009. The library construction included the installation of a "green landscape," including rain gardens surrounding most of the library's exterior and a prairie restoration project that restored significant portions of the campus ground to its original tall-grass prairie. In 2014, the library reported that it had 113,296 books and media in its physical library collections and 5754 books, databases, and media in its electronic library collections. References Footnotes Bibliography Pannabecker, Samuel Floyd (1975), Ventures of Faith: The Story of Mennonite Biblical Seminary, Mennonite Biblical Seminary. Further reading Pannabecker, Samuel Floyd (1975), Open Doors: A History of the General Conference Mennonite Church, Faith and Life Press. , pp. 368–374. External links Mennonite Church USA Universities and colleges affiliated with the Mennonite Church USA Education in Elkhart County, Indiana Seminaries and theological colleges in Indiana Buildings and structures in Elkhart, Indiana Mennonitism in the United States Universities and colleges established in 1894 1894 establishments in Indiana 1958 establishments in Indiana
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabaptist%20Mennonite%20Biblical%20Seminary", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Anabaptist Mennonite Biblical Seminary (AMBS) is an Anabaptist Christian seminary in Elkhart, Indiana, affiliated with Mennonite Church USA and Mennonite Church Canada. It was formerly known as Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary until its name was changed in 2012.\n\nThe seminary offers a three-year Master of Divinity degree and two-year Master of Arts degree. It is accredited by the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada.\n\nHistory\nAnabaptist Mennonite Biblical Seminary has roots in two former Mennonite seminaries: Goshen Biblical Seminary of the Mennonite Church and Mennonite Biblical Seminary of the General Conference Mennonite Church.\n\nGoshen Biblical Seminary\nGoshen Biblical Seminary at Goshen College, a Mennonite Church school in Goshen, Indiana, was one of two institutions that joined to form AMBS. Goshen Biblical Seminary was the direct continuation of the Bible School that began at Elkhart Institute in Elkhart, Indiana in 1894, while Elkhart Institute was organized as an academy. In 1903, Elkhart Institute moved to Goshen, Indiana, became Goshen College, and was reorganized as a junior college; in 1910 Goshen College was reorganized as a senior college. From 1894 until 1933, the Bible School offered a two-year course of study leading to a diploma and served as the Bible department of the college. In 1933, the Bible School began offering a four-year ThB (Bachelor of Theology), which expanded to a five-year course in 1942. In 1944, the Bible School was organized as a separate school with its own dean. In 1946, the school began using the name Goshen Biblical Seminary and began offering a seven-year BD (Bachelor of Divinity) with four years of liberal arts and three years of Bible and theology. In 1949, a BRE (Bachelor of Religious Education) was added as a four-year program. In 1955, the Th.B. program was discontinued and the seminary was organized into graduate and undergraduate divisions.\n\nHarold S. Bender served as dean of the college and Bible School from 1931. Bender became dean of the seminary in 1944 when it was organized as a separate school and served until his death in 1962. In 1953-54, 67 students were enrolled. The total number of graduates from 1934-1956 was 190, with over 380 having matriculated. Goshen Biblical Seminary began aligning its academic program with that of Mennonite Biblical Seminary in 1958 and moved from Goshen to Mennonite Biblical Seminary's Elkhart campus after 1969.\n\nMennonite Biblical Seminary\nMennonite Biblical Seminary (MBS), a General Conference Mennonite Church institution in Chicago, Illinois, was the second school that became part of AMBS. The General Conference Mennonites had a history of educating pastors and church leaders which started with Wadsworth Institute (1868–1878), then Halstead Seminary (1883) the forerunner of Bethel College and Witmarsum Theological Seminary (1914–1931), part of Bluffton College.\n\nThe Witmarsum school closed in 1931 for what was assumed to be a year or two during which a better location could be found and an association with an older seminary arranged. This would last until 1945 when a Chicago, Illinois, site was selected and an affiliation with Bethany Biblical Seminary was established.\n\nMennonite Biblical Seminary was opened in September 1945 and used available space at Bethany for classes and student housing. By the fall of 1946 the seminary purchased property on the 4600 block of Woodlawn Avenue as it prepared for more students who were expected with the end of Civilian Public Service. Over the next six years most of the property on that block would become part of the Seminary.\n\nThe school operated with five full-time faculty and two part-time administrative staff members. After the startup years, student enrollment averaged about 40 with about nine degrees granted each year. Each year about a dozen Mennonite students who were attending other Chicago schools were allowed to use Seminary apartments.\n\nIn 1953, MBS worked together with Goshen Biblical Seminary to create a joint summer school for the following year. As this friendly exchange progressed throughout the next several years a desire for a larger inter-Mennonite seminary developed. This process was culminated in 1958 by which time the Chicago property had been sold and the Seminary moved to a new joint campus in Indiana.\n\nAssociation\nAfter the success of the 1954 cooperative summer school, the Goshen and Chicago seminaries started seriously exploring closer cooperation. Other Mennonite denominations were invited to explore what was hoped to be a larger inter-Mennonite school. Although the Evangelical Mennonite Church, Mennonite Brethren, Evangelical Mennonite Brethren and Brethren in Christ all showed initial interest, each of these bodies ultimately opted not to pursue this type of partnership.\n\nA plan was devised where each school would operate independently at a single site, sharing a library, a few joint courses, joint chapel services once a week and joint use of certain facilities. It was felt that the two denominations' respective constituencies would support this new venture only if the schools remained independent. This arrangement of two parallel schools is evident in the school's original plural name: Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminaries.\n\nThe largest sticking point in the negotiations was selecting a suitable location. Although Bethel College in Kansas offered a site, this option was never seriously considered. The Goshen group wanted the seminary to be located on their existing campus at Goshen College in Indiana, believing their church members would not support a move. The General Conference Mennonites rejected this site for fear of being swallowed up by the larger group. Eventually an Elkhart, Indiana, site was chosen as a neutral location between the two schools.\n\nGround breaking at the Elkhart property took place on September 3, 1957, and was essentially completed by the next August. A chapel was added and dedicated in June 1965.\n\nThe Goshen Seminary received Association of Theological Schools accreditation in 1958 and Mennonite Biblical Seminary followed with accreditation in 1964.\n\nOver the years closer cooperation eventually eliminated the distinction between the two schools, and by 1994 they formally merged into the (now-singular) Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary. By 2002 the two Mennonite denominations themselves had joined to form a common structure, in which decades of cooperation between the two groups at AMBS had played a role.\n\nInstitute of Mennonite Studies\nThe Institute of Mennonite Studies (IMS) is the research and publishing arm of Anabaptist Mennonite Biblical Seminary. The Institute has fostered inter-Mennonite connections and scholarship advances in the areas of Anabaptist theology and history since 1958. Key Mennonite leaders such as theologian John Howard Yoder have been associated with IMS. The current director of IMS is Jamie Pitts.\n\nNotable faculty (past and present)\n\nAlan Kreider\nJ. C. Wenger\nJohn Howard Yoder\n\nLibrary \n\nIn 2007, AMBS completed a new building to house the library and bookstore. This building was the first theological library registered with the United States Green Building Council for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification. The building received a LEED Gold rating in 2009.\n\nThe library construction included the installation of a \"green landscape,\" including rain gardens surrounding most of the library's exterior and a prairie restoration project that restored significant portions of the campus ground to its original tall-grass prairie.\n\nIn 2014, the library reported that it had 113,296 books and media in its physical library collections and 5754 books, databases, and media in its electronic library collections.\n\nReferences\n\nFootnotes\n\nBibliography\n Pannabecker, Samuel Floyd (1975), Ventures of Faith: The Story of Mennonite Biblical Seminary, Mennonite Biblical Seminary.\n\nFurther reading\n Pannabecker, Samuel Floyd (1975), Open Doors: A History of the General Conference Mennonite Church, Faith and Life Press. , pp. 368–374.\n\nExternal links\n\nMennonite Church USA\nUniversities and colleges affiliated with the Mennonite Church USA\nEducation in Elkhart County, Indiana\nSeminaries and theological colleges in Indiana\nBuildings and structures in Elkhart, Indiana\nMennonitism in the United States\nUniversities and colleges established in 1894\n1894 establishments in Indiana\n1958 establishments in Indiana", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz%20Hommel
Fritz Hommel (31 July 1854 – 17 April 1936) was a German Orientalist. Biography Hommel was born on 31 July 1854 in Ansbach. He studied in Leipzig and was habilitated in 1877 in Munich, where in 1885, he became an extraordinary professor of Semitic languages. He became a full professor in 1892, and after his retirement in 1925, continued to give lectures at the University of Munich. He was the doctoral supervisor of Muhammad Iqbal, who wrote the thesis The Development of Metaphysics in Persia under his supervision. He was intrigued by linguistical problems, and also interested in the history of the Middle East and its connection with culture and intellectual life. He excelled in studies of cuneiform literature, ancient Arabic poetry, old Turkic inscriptions and Egyptian pyramid texts. He died on 17 April 1936 aged 81 in Munich. Works Among his better written efforts were a history of Babylonia and Assyria, Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens (1885) and a highly regarded work on the geography and history of the ancient Near East, titled: Grundriss der Geographie und Geschichte des Alten Orients (1904). Other significant writings by Hommel include: Die äthiopische Übersetzung des Physiologus (1877) – Ethiopian translation of the Physiologus Die Namen der Säugetiere bei den südsemitischen Völkern (1879). Zwei Jagdinschriften Asurbanipals (1879). Die semitischen Völker und Sprachen. Bd. 1 (1883) – Semitic peoples and languages. Die älteste arabische Baarlam-Version (1887) – The oldest Arabic version of Barlaam. Abriß der Geschichte des alten Orients (1887) – Outline on the history of the ancient Orient. Der babylonische Ursprung der ägyptischen Kultur (1892) – The Babylonian origin of Egyptian culture. Aufsätze und Abhandlungen arabistisch-Semitologischen Inhalts Bd. I-III (1892–1901) – Essays and treatises of Arabic-Semitological content. Südarabische Chrestomathie (1893) – South Arabian anthology. Sumerische Lesestücke (1894) – Sumerian readings. Geschichte des alten Morgenlandes (1904). Die altisraelische Überlieferung in inschriftlicher Beleuchtung (1896). Der Gestirndienst der alten Araber und die altisraelische Überlieferung (1900). Vier neue arabische Landschaftsnamen im Alten Testament (1901) – Four new Arab landscape names in the Old Testament. Zwei hundert sumero-türkische Wortvergleichungen (1915) – 200 Sumerian-Turkish word comparisons. References Citations Bibliography . Further reading List of published works copied from an equivalent article at the German Wikipedia, whose sources are listed as: Catalog of the German National Library Estate of Fritz Hommel at the Bavarian State Library German orientalists German scholars People from Ansbach People from the Kingdom of Bavaria Leipzig University alumni Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni Academic staff of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich 1854 births 1936 deaths German male non-fiction writers Paleolinguists Linguists of Sumerian
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz%20Hommel", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Fritz Hommel (31 July 1854 – 17 April 1936) was a German Orientalist.\n\nBiography \nHommel was born on 31 July 1854 in Ansbach. He studied in Leipzig and was habilitated in 1877 in Munich, where in 1885, he became an extraordinary professor of Semitic languages. He became a full professor in 1892, and after his retirement in 1925, continued to give lectures at the University of Munich. He was the doctoral supervisor of Muhammad Iqbal, who wrote the thesis The Development of Metaphysics in Persia under his supervision.\n\nHe was intrigued by linguistical problems, and also interested in the history of the Middle East and its connection with culture and intellectual life. He excelled in studies of cuneiform literature, ancient Arabic poetry, old Turkic inscriptions and Egyptian pyramid texts.\n\nHe died on 17 April 1936 aged 81 in Munich.\n\nWorks\nAmong his better written efforts were a history of Babylonia and Assyria, Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens (1885) and a highly regarded work on the geography and history of the ancient Near East, titled: Grundriss der Geographie und Geschichte des Alten Orients (1904). Other significant writings by Hommel include:\nDie äthiopische Übersetzung des Physiologus (1877) – Ethiopian translation of the Physiologus\nDie Namen der Säugetiere bei den südsemitischen Völkern (1879).\nZwei Jagdinschriften Asurbanipals (1879).\nDie semitischen Völker und Sprachen. Bd. 1 (1883) – Semitic peoples and languages.\nDie älteste arabische Baarlam-Version (1887) – The oldest Arabic version of Barlaam. \nAbriß der Geschichte des alten Orients (1887) – Outline on the history of the ancient Orient.\nDer babylonische Ursprung der ägyptischen Kultur (1892) – The Babylonian origin of Egyptian culture.\nAufsätze und Abhandlungen arabistisch-Semitologischen Inhalts Bd. I-III (1892–1901) – Essays and treatises of Arabic-Semitological content.\nSüdarabische Chrestomathie (1893) – South Arabian anthology.\nSumerische Lesestücke (1894) – Sumerian readings.\nGeschichte des alten Morgenlandes (1904).\nDie altisraelische Überlieferung in inschriftlicher Beleuchtung (1896).\nDer Gestirndienst der alten Araber und die altisraelische Überlieferung (1900).\nVier neue arabische Landschaftsnamen im Alten Testament (1901) – Four new Arab landscape names in the Old Testament.\nZwei hundert sumero-türkische Wortvergleichungen (1915) – 200 Sumerian-Turkish word comparisons.\n\nReferences\n\nCitations\n\nBibliography\n .\n\nFurther reading \n List of published works copied from an equivalent article at the German Wikipedia, whose sources are listed as:\n \n Catalog of the German National Library\n Estate of Fritz Hommel at the Bavarian State Library\n\nGerman orientalists\nGerman scholars\nPeople from Ansbach\nPeople from the Kingdom of Bavaria\nLeipzig University alumni\nLudwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni\nAcademic staff of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich\n1854 births\n1936 deaths\nGerman male non-fiction writers\nPaleolinguists\nLinguists of Sumerian", "role": "assistant" } ]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myrna%20Veenstra
Myrna Veenstra (born 4 March 1975) is a former field hockey player from the Netherlands. She was born in Goes and played 79 international matches for the Netherlands as a defender. During her international career, she scored one goal. Veenstra was a member of the Netherlands squad that won the bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. She made her first international appearance on 6 February 1997 in a friendly against South Africa. Her last match for the Dutch Women's Team came on 29 September 2000, when they faced Spain (2-0) during the bronze medal match at the Sydney Olympics. External links 1975 births Living people Dutch female field hockey players Field hockey players at the 2000 Summer Olympics Medalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics Olympic bronze medalists for the Netherlands Olympic field hockey players for the Netherlands Olympic medalists in field hockey Sportspeople from Goes
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myrna%20Veenstra", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Myrna Veenstra (born 4 March 1975) is a former field hockey player from the Netherlands. She was born in Goes and played 79 international matches for the Netherlands as a defender. During her international career, she scored one goal.\n\nVeenstra was a member of the Netherlands squad that won the bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. She made her first international appearance on 6 February 1997 in a friendly against South Africa. Her last match for the Dutch Women's Team came on 29 September 2000, when they faced Spain (2-0) during the bronze medal match at the Sydney Olympics.\n\nExternal links\n \n\n1975 births\nLiving people\nDutch female field hockey players\nField hockey players at the 2000 Summer Olympics\nMedalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics\nOlympic bronze medalists for the Netherlands\nOlympic field hockey players for the Netherlands\nOlympic medalists in field hockey\nSportspeople from Goes", "role": "assistant" } ]
Teach First
Teach First (also Teach First Cymru) is a social enterprise registered as a charity which aims to address educational disadvantage in England and Wales. Teach First coordinates an employment-based teaching training programme whereby participants achieve Qualified Teacher Status through the participation in a two-year training programme that involves the completion of a PGDE along with wider leadership skills training and an optional master's degree. Trainees are placed at participating primary and secondary schools where they commit to stay for the duration of the 2-year training programme. Eligible schools are those where more than half of the pupils come from the poorest 30% of families according to the Income Deprivation Affecting Children Index. Following completion of the two-year programme, participants become Teach First ambassadors. This network of ambassadors aims to address educational disadvantage either in school or in other sectors. Teach First is the largest recruiter of graduates in the United Kingdom, and was ranked 2nd only to PwC in The Times annual Top 100 Graduate Employers list in 2014 and 2015. The Teach First scheme has been met with some controversy and criticism since its inception, which has impeded its planned expansion into Scotland. In June 2020 Teach First dropped 120 trainees due to lack of training opportunities because of COVID-19, sending out a generic email. Some prospective trainees has already given up steady jobs in order to take up placements. History In the summer of 2001 Charles, Prince of Wales as president of Business in the Community hosted a group of business leaders and headteachers. At this event Ian Davis of McKinsey and Company agreed to produce a report on the question of why inner-London Schools were not doing as well as they could do, and what business could do to contribute to the improvement of London schools for the event organisers and London First. The report highlighted the problems with the quality of London's schools, particularly in inner London. It confirmed the link between poverty and educational outcomes and noted that the proportion of pupils on Free school meals in inner London was three times the national average. The report also highlighted how the scale of pupil mobility was inhibiting the progress of many young people. Fifteen per cent of students attending inner London schools were entering school, leaving school or changing schools during the school year. This cycle was affecting student performance at age 16. In terms of potential solutions McKinsey & Co. reinforced the value of a school being well led by a high quality head teacher, but also highlighted the importance of the quality of classroom teaching. The number of excellent teachers was, they reported, one of the strongest predictors of improved pupil performance, especially in challenging schools. Good teachers made an impact on pupil performance because they: Increased pupil motivation Improved knowledge transfer Provided good role models Gave more individual support to pupils Monitored pupils’ achievements systematically However, the high vacancy and turnover rates in London were making it difficult to build a group of skilled teachers. Salary levels were also part of the problem – but only a small part of it. Poor management, inadequate resources, long hours, taxing duties, poor student behaviour and a lack of professional opportunities also contributed to the large numbers of teachers leaving the profession. Building on the experience of Teach for America (which had been formed in 1990) McKinsey & Co. proposed creating a programme to recruit and train the best and brightest graduates and place them in London's disadvantaged and underperforming schools. One of the consultants involved in compiling the report, Brett Wigdortz, set about developing a business plan for a Teach for America style enterprise in London. In February 2002 Brett took a six-month sabbatical from McKinsey to develop a business plan for what was tentatively called Teach for London before it evolved to become Teach First. Teach First officially launched in July 2002, in Canary Wharf with a team of 11 committed employees led by Brett Wigdortz as CEO and Stephen O’Brien CBE & George Iacobescu CBE as co-chairs of the board of trustees. Canary Wharf Group and Citi become the first corporate supporters of Teach First. Teach First's first cohort of participants started to teach in 45 secondary schools in London. Haling Manor High School in Croydon was the first school to sign up to Teach First. It was based solely in London until September 2006 when it expanded into Greater Manchester schools. In 2007, Teach First collaborated with Teach for America to create Teach for All, a global network of independent social enterprises that are working to expand educational opportunity in their nations. Recruitment process To be eligible to apply to the Teach First Leadership Development Programme candidates need to have: a 2.1 degree or above. a degree or A-levels that satisfies Teach First's subject dependent requirements. Grade C (or equivalent) in GCSE Maths and English (Grade C in one Science GCSE is also required for Primary teaching eligibility)/ Grade B (or equivalent) in GCSE Maths and English to teach in Wales. flexibility to teach within any of the Teach First regions. The recruitment process begins by registering interest and then submitting an online application (within 12 weeks). If the online application is successful, candidates are invited to attend a one-day assessment centre consisting of a competency-based interview, a group case study exercise and the delivery of a sample teaching lesson. There are eight competencies assessed throughout the recruitment process. If successful at the assessment centre, candidates are then made a conditional offer to join Teach First dependent on a subject knowledge assessment and classroom observation period. Teach First Programme Participants teach in the same school throughout the two years. In the first year, participants work towards a PGDE whilst undertaking around 90% of a Newly Qualified Teacher (NQT) timetable, In their second year participants work as NQTs. Trainees are placed at participating primary and secondary schools where they commit to stay for the duration of the training programme. Eligible schools are those where more than half of the pupils come from the poorest 30% of families according to the Income Deprivation Affecting Children Index. Participants are paid and employed by the schools they are placed at. Following completion of the two-year programme, participants become Teach First ambassadors. This network of ambassadors aims to address educational disadvantage either in school or in other sectors. Summer Institute Before entering the classroom, participants attend a five-week Summer Institute. Four weeks of this is spent in their region and the final week at a residential course where they learn about the organisation's mission and develop their understanding of educational theory and practice to prepare them to begin teaching in the following September. Participants spend time training in the region in which they will teach, usually with an observation period in the school they will join after the summer. They then attend a residential course together as an entire cohort. Support Participants receive support in many areas of their training: Tutors All participants work with one of Teach First's university partners towards a PGDE and QTS (qualified teacher status) during their first year teaching. Mentors Partner schools allocate mentors to assist their trainee's development as a teacher. Participant Development Leads Teach First Participant Development Leads are all qualified teachers with leadership experience. They support and challenge participants throughout the two years. Leadership Development Throughout their two years teaching, participants have access to a range of leadership development opportunities. The two-year Leadership Development programme is designed to enable participants to develop the knowledge, skills and attributes for use inside and outside the classroom. This training is delivered through workshops, panel events and one to one coaching. For example, participants have access to qualified teacher-led training sessions to provide them with tools and strategies they can apply in their classrooms. They will also attend workshops and reflective seminars to help them develop a good understanding of their strengths and areas for development. In addition, they will have the opportunity to have a coach to help them overcome the challenges they face, as well as business school training to teach them the fundamental aspects of business theory and practice which they can apply to their school context. Participants also have the opportunity to apply to undertake a one-three week mini-internship during the school holidays – known as a Summer Project. These provide an opportunity to join one of Teach First's supporting or partner organisations to complete or contribute to a short-term goal or objective. Recruits also have the opportunity to complete a master's degree, starting in their second year on the programme through various partner universities. Expansion Regional Teach First was initially based solely in London, as part of the London Challenge initiative, until September 2006 when it expanded into Greater Manchester schools. The programme was subsequently extended to cover a total of 11 local areas: East Midlands, London, North East, North West, South Coast, South East, South West, East of England, West Midlands and Yorkshire and the Humber. In Wales Teach First was given a three-year contract by the Welsh Government to pilot a graduate training programme for three years from 2013 as Teach First Cymru. Teach First has not been established in Scotland, in 2013 the charity met with the General Teaching Council for Scotland (the independent body for teaching in Scotland) but was told the recruits would not be permitted to teach in Scottish schools, as the General Council will only allow those already holding teaching certificates to teach. The Educational Institute of Scotland opposed the expansion of Teach First into the country with The Herald describing Teach First as controversial. In 2017 Scottish universities offering teacher training unanimously agreed to not work with Teach First. In light of the Scottish Government putting out to tender a fast-track teacher training scheme. Cohort Since launching in 2002, Teach First has placed increasing numbers of participants in schools each year. Training provision Teach First expanded from recruiting for secondary school teaching into recruiting primary teachers in 2011. Recruitment Teach First is increasingly seen as attractive to young professionals and career changers with 22% of applicants in 2014 coming from these backgrounds. Teach First launched a new campaign in October 2015 which focuses less on the social reward aspects of teaching and more on the challenge of a teaching career, following research by the Behavioural Insights Team. Similar schemes School Direct and School-Centred Initial Teacher Training are school based schemes where participants can earn a salary during training. The Teach First model has also been applied in other areas of public sector recruitment with Frontline for children's social work, Think Ahead for mental-health social work, Police Now a two-year graduate leadership programme of the Metropolitan Police, and Unlocked Graduates for prison officers. Alumni ('Ambassadors') As of 2017, 26 ambassadors of the programme were in Head Teacher roles and 36 social enterprises had been founded by ambassadors. Seventeen of these are recognised as official 'Innovation Partners' including The Access Project, Boromi, The Brilliant Club, CPDBee, The Difference, Enabling Enterprise, First Story, Franklin Scholars, Frontline, Future Frontiers, The Grub Club, Hackney Pirates, Jamie's Farm, Maths with Parents, MeeTwo, Right to Succeed and Thinking Reading. Notable alumni of Teach First include: Josh MacAlister (2009 ambassador) - Founder and CEO of Frontline social work charity Stephanie Peacock (2010 ambassador) - Member of Parliament (MP) for Barnsley East William Wragg (2014 ambassador) - Member of Parliament (MP) for Hazel Grove Criticism As part of the Teach For All network, Teach First is subject to many of the same criticisms levelled at its main partner organisation Teach for America, and offshoots such as Teach First Norway and Teach First New Zealand. Criticisms have been raised about the cost effectiveness of Teach First, with training costs higher per participant when compared to other training routes. Teach First asks for the graduates it recruits to give two years of teaching, and so retention rates for Teach First are lower than other routes into teaching, forty per cent of Teach First participants stay in teaching after 5 years compared to much higher percentages (ranging from 62 to 70%) coming through PGCE and GTP programmes. It is anticipated and accepted that many of them will go on to careers in other sectors (hence the name, Teach First), also described as "teach first, then get a better job". The higher turnover rate and rapidly increasing cohort size of Teach First has been alleged as allowing schools to reduce their costs by employing teaching staff at unqualified teacher pay scales, it has been alleged that Teach First has been targeted by some academy school chains because of this. Teach First has been accused of elitism, and has also been accused of being biased to middle-class applicants within the application process. Teach First participants interviewed as part of an evaluation were predominantly middle‐class, possessing social and cultural capital which had facilitated their access to the Teach First scheme. A Study by London Metropolitan University found some recruits displayed patronising middle-class attitudes, coupled with a belief that they as graduates of prestigious universities, have much to offer but nothing to learn from low-income communities. In 2009 it was reported that Teach First participants were being placed in schools where GCSE grades were above the local and national averages, and not in the worst performing secondary schools. Education Data Surveys analysed the results of all the schools involved in Teach First and found 15 of the 79 London secondaries (19 per cent) had GCSE achievements above their local authority average, and 17 schools had results above the national average. In the North West, five Teach First schools, or 23 per cent, had exam results which were the same or better than the local authority average. In the Midlands, results at five schools, or 18 per cent, were the same or better than the local authority average and two had results at or above the national average, raising the question of why schools with GCSE results up to 80 and 70 per cent were taking part. In response Teach First said that exam results were not the "whole story" of the initiative, and the number of children claiming free school meals was as important in selecting schools to be involved. Stating "Teach First selects the schools into which it places exceptional graduates through consideration of a range of criteria that indicate the level of challenge experienced at the school, including the percentage of free schools meals, the exam results at GCSE, staff turnover and the difficulties experienced by schools in recruiting new teachers." Teach First's relationship with businesses and deferred entry schemes has opened it to suggestions that it operates as an elite graduate scheme for them to recruit from. Teach First has also been said to place too much emphasis on schools in London, to where it places 40% of its recruits. It has been subject to criticism that London and larger cities are able to attract the best graduates, but coastal and rural communities struggle to attract these graduates. Brett Wigdortz in response said "We made the same mistake many implementations make – starting in the place where it's easiest to implement things, the big cities, and taking a while to get to the areas which really need it". The Teach First model whereby teachers enter the classroom after only a six-week summer camp can leave recruits feeling their in-class levels of support as variable. A Teach First recruit has said the experience left her feeling expendable, saying the Teach First leadership were more focussed on expansion rather than the experience of recruits in a "survival of the fittest" atmosphere. Teach First had a 92% retention rate of recruits in 2012, with the recruit earning a "good" teacher label by observers. The so-called "London effect" where the capital has seen a turnaround in educational achievement since the millennium, which has seen Teach First (and other interventions such as the London Challenge and the rise of academies) being credited with the turnaround of education in London, has been analysed in an academic study as coming instead from gradual improvements in primary education in the capital. Teach First has been supported by politicians of the Labour, Conservative and Liberal Democrat parties. In 2017 the Journalist and director of the New Schools Network, Toby Young, attended a social mobility summit hosted by Teach First, who asked him to write a blog for them. Teach First disagreed with the content of the work submitted by Young, and published it with a rebuttal from another author working in the field. Teach First then decided that they were in error to publish the blog, even with a rebuttal, and removed it as being against their values and vision, stating that they did not want to act as a platform for the views contained therein. Toby Young claimed that he only found out about this decision via Twitter, and questioned why Teach First published it in the first place, stating that he felt as though he had been censored by the charity. A third party broadly agreed with Young's blog points, but found some merit in the rebuttal. Teach First apologised to Young and he accepted their apology. See also Tough Young Teachers – a BBC documentary following graduates on the Teach First programme References External links Teach First Official Website Organizations established in 2002 Educational organisations based in the United Kingdom United Kingdom educational programs Charities based in London 2002 establishments in the United Kingdom
[ { "content": "Given this input , return the associated information ie: the wiipedia entry : \n", "role": "system" }, { "content": "Teach First", "role": "user" }, { "content": "Teach First (also Teach First Cymru) is a social enterprise registered as a charity which aims to address educational disadvantage in England and Wales. Teach First coordinates an employment-based teaching training programme whereby participants achieve Qualified Teacher Status through the participation in a two-year training programme that involves the completion of a PGDE along with wider leadership skills training and an optional master's degree.\n\nTrainees are placed at participating primary and secondary schools where they commit to stay for the duration of the 2-year training programme. Eligible schools are those where more than half of the pupils come from the poorest 30% of families according to the Income Deprivation Affecting Children Index. Following completion of the two-year programme, participants become Teach First ambassadors. This network of ambassadors aims to address educational disadvantage either in school or in other sectors.\n\nTeach First is the largest recruiter of graduates in the United Kingdom, and was ranked 2nd only to PwC in The Times annual Top 100 Graduate Employers list in 2014 and 2015.\n\nThe Teach First scheme has been met with some controversy and criticism since its inception, which has impeded its planned expansion into Scotland.\n\nIn June 2020 Teach First dropped 120 trainees due to lack of training opportunities because of COVID-19, sending out a generic email. Some prospective trainees has already given up steady jobs in order to take up placements.\n\nHistory\nIn the summer of 2001 Charles, Prince of Wales as president of Business in the Community hosted a group of business leaders and headteachers. At this event Ian Davis of McKinsey and Company agreed to produce a report on the question of why inner-London Schools were not doing as well as they could do, and what business could do to contribute to the improvement of London schools for the event organisers and London First. The report highlighted the problems with the quality of London's schools, particularly in inner London. It confirmed the link between poverty and educational outcomes and noted that the proportion of pupils on Free school meals in inner London was three times the national average. The report also highlighted how the scale of pupil mobility was inhibiting the progress of many young people. Fifteen per cent of students attending inner London schools were entering school, leaving school or changing schools during the school year. This cycle was affecting student performance at age 16.\n\nIn terms of potential solutions McKinsey & Co. reinforced the value of a school being well led by a high quality head teacher, but also highlighted the importance of the quality of classroom teaching. The number of excellent teachers was, they reported, one of the strongest predictors of improved pupil performance, especially in challenging schools. Good teachers made an impact on pupil performance because they:\n\n Increased pupil motivation\n Improved knowledge transfer\n Provided good role models\n Gave more individual support to pupils\n Monitored pupils’ achievements systematically\n\nHowever, the high vacancy and turnover rates in London were making it difficult to build a group of skilled teachers. Salary levels were also part of the problem – but only a small part of it. Poor management, inadequate resources, long hours, taxing duties, poor student behaviour and a lack of professional opportunities also contributed to the large numbers of teachers leaving the profession. Building on the experience of Teach for America (which had been formed in 1990) McKinsey & Co. proposed creating a programme to recruit and train the best and brightest graduates and place them in London's disadvantaged and underperforming schools.\n\nOne of the consultants involved in compiling the report, Brett Wigdortz, set about developing a business plan for a Teach for America style enterprise in London. In February 2002 Brett took a six-month sabbatical from McKinsey to develop a business plan for what was tentatively called Teach for London before it evolved to become Teach First.\n\nTeach First officially launched in July 2002, in Canary Wharf with a team of 11 committed employees led by Brett Wigdortz as CEO and Stephen O’Brien CBE & George Iacobescu CBE as co-chairs of the board of trustees. Canary Wharf Group and Citi become the first corporate supporters of Teach First.\n\nTeach First's first cohort of participants started to teach in 45 secondary schools in London. Haling Manor High School in Croydon was the first school to sign up to Teach First. It was based solely in London until September 2006 when it expanded into Greater Manchester schools.\n\nIn 2007, Teach First collaborated with Teach for America to create Teach for All, a global network of independent social enterprises that are working to expand educational opportunity in their nations.\n\nRecruitment process\nTo be eligible to apply to the Teach First Leadership Development Programme candidates need to have: \n a 2.1 degree or above.\n a degree or A-levels that satisfies Teach First's subject dependent requirements.\n Grade C (or equivalent) in GCSE Maths and English (Grade C in one Science GCSE is also required for Primary teaching eligibility)/ Grade B (or equivalent) in GCSE Maths and English to teach in Wales.\n flexibility to teach within any of the Teach First regions.\n\nThe recruitment process begins by registering interest and then submitting an online application (within 12 weeks). If the online application is successful, candidates are invited to attend a one-day assessment centre consisting of a competency-based interview, a group case study exercise and the delivery of a sample teaching lesson. There are eight competencies assessed throughout the recruitment process. If successful at the assessment centre, candidates are then made a conditional offer to join Teach First dependent on a subject knowledge assessment and classroom observation period.\n\nTeach First Programme\nParticipants teach in the same school throughout the two years. In the first year, participants work towards a PGDE whilst undertaking around 90% of a Newly Qualified Teacher (NQT) timetable, In their second year participants work as NQTs. Trainees are placed at participating primary and secondary schools where they commit to stay for the duration of the training programme. Eligible schools are those where more than half of the pupils come from the poorest 30% of families according to the Income Deprivation Affecting Children Index. Participants are paid and employed by the schools they are placed at.\n\nFollowing completion of the two-year programme, participants become Teach First ambassadors. This network of ambassadors aims to address educational disadvantage either in school or in other sectors.\n\nSummer Institute\nBefore entering the classroom, participants attend a five-week Summer Institute. Four weeks of this is spent in their region and the final week at a residential course where they learn about the organisation's mission and develop their understanding of educational theory and practice to prepare them to begin teaching in the following September. Participants spend time training in the region in which they will teach, usually with an observation period in the school they will join after the summer. They then attend a residential course together as an entire cohort.\n\nSupport\nParticipants receive support in many areas of their training:\n\nTutors\nAll participants work with one of Teach First's university partners towards a PGDE and QTS (qualified teacher status) during their first year teaching.\n\nMentors \nPartner schools allocate mentors to assist their trainee's development as a teacher.\n\nParticipant Development Leads \nTeach First Participant Development Leads are all qualified teachers with leadership experience. They support and challenge participants throughout the two years.\n\nLeadership Development\nThroughout their two years teaching, participants have access to a range of leadership development opportunities.\nThe two-year Leadership Development programme is designed to enable participants to develop the knowledge, skills and attributes for use inside and outside the classroom. This training is delivered through workshops, panel events and one to one coaching. For example, participants have access to qualified teacher-led training sessions to provide them with tools and strategies they can apply in their classrooms. They will also attend workshops and reflective seminars to help them develop a good understanding of their strengths and areas for development. In addition, they will have the opportunity to have a coach to help them overcome the challenges they face, as well as business school training to teach them the fundamental aspects of business theory and practice which they can apply to their school context.\n\nParticipants also have the opportunity to apply to undertake a one-three week mini-internship during the school holidays – known as a Summer Project. These provide an opportunity to join one of Teach First's supporting or partner organisations to complete or contribute to a short-term goal or objective.\n\nRecruits also have the opportunity to complete a master's degree, starting in their second year on the programme through various partner universities.\n\nExpansion\n\nRegional\nTeach First was initially based solely in London, as part of the London Challenge initiative, until September 2006 when it expanded into Greater Manchester schools. The programme was subsequently extended to cover a total of 11 local areas: East Midlands, London, North East, North West, South Coast, South East, South West, East of England, West Midlands and Yorkshire and the Humber.\n\nIn Wales Teach First was given a three-year contract by the Welsh Government to pilot a graduate training programme for three years from 2013 as Teach First Cymru.\n\nTeach First has not been established in Scotland, in 2013 the charity met with the General Teaching Council for Scotland (the independent body for teaching in Scotland) but was told the recruits would not be permitted to teach in Scottish schools, as the General Council will only allow those already holding teaching certificates to teach. The Educational Institute of Scotland opposed the expansion of Teach First into the country with The Herald describing Teach First as controversial. In 2017 Scottish universities offering teacher training unanimously agreed to not work with Teach First. In light of the Scottish Government putting out to tender a fast-track teacher training scheme.\n\nCohort\nSince launching in 2002, Teach First has placed increasing numbers of participants in schools each year.\n\nTraining provision\nTeach First expanded from recruiting for secondary school teaching into recruiting primary teachers in 2011.\n\nRecruitment\nTeach First is increasingly seen as attractive to young professionals and career changers with 22% of applicants in 2014 coming from these backgrounds.\nTeach First launched a new campaign in October 2015 which focuses less on the social reward aspects of teaching and more on the challenge of a teaching career, following research by the Behavioural Insights Team.\n\nSimilar schemes \nSchool Direct and School-Centred Initial Teacher Training are school based schemes where participants can earn a salary during training. The Teach First model has also been applied in other areas of public sector recruitment with Frontline for children's social work, Think Ahead for mental-health social work, Police Now a two-year graduate leadership programme of the Metropolitan Police, and Unlocked Graduates for prison officers.\n\nAlumni ('Ambassadors') \nAs of 2017, 26 ambassadors of the programme were in Head Teacher roles and 36 social enterprises had been founded by ambassadors. Seventeen of these are recognised as official 'Innovation Partners' including The Access Project, Boromi, The Brilliant Club, CPDBee, The Difference, Enabling Enterprise, First Story, Franklin Scholars, Frontline, Future Frontiers, The Grub Club, Hackney Pirates, Jamie's Farm, Maths with Parents, MeeTwo, Right to Succeed and Thinking Reading.\n\nNotable alumni of Teach First include:\n Josh MacAlister (2009 ambassador) - Founder and CEO of Frontline social work charity\n Stephanie Peacock (2010 ambassador) - Member of Parliament (MP) for Barnsley East \n William Wragg (2014 ambassador) - Member of Parliament (MP) for Hazel Grove\n\nCriticism \n\nAs part of the Teach For All network, Teach First is subject to many of the same criticisms levelled at its main partner organisation Teach for America, and offshoots such as Teach First Norway and Teach First New Zealand. Criticisms have been raised about the cost effectiveness of Teach First, with training costs higher per participant when compared to other training routes.\n\nTeach First asks for the graduates it recruits to give two years of teaching, and so retention rates for Teach First are lower than other routes into teaching, forty per cent of Teach First participants stay in teaching after 5 years compared to much higher percentages (ranging from 62 to 70%) coming through PGCE and GTP programmes. It is anticipated and accepted that many of them will go on to careers in other sectors (hence the name, Teach First), also described as \"teach first, then get a better job\". The higher turnover rate and rapidly increasing cohort size of Teach First has been alleged as allowing schools to reduce their costs by employing teaching staff at unqualified teacher pay scales, it has been alleged that Teach First has been targeted by some academy school chains because of this.\n\nTeach First has been accused of elitism, and has also been accused of being biased to middle-class applicants within the application process. Teach First participants interviewed as part of an evaluation were predominantly middle‐class, possessing social and cultural capital which had facilitated their access to the Teach First scheme. A Study by London Metropolitan University found some recruits displayed patronising middle-class attitudes, coupled with a belief that they as graduates of prestigious universities, have much to offer but nothing to learn from low-income communities.\n\nIn 2009 it was reported that Teach First participants were being placed in schools where GCSE grades were above the local and national averages, and not in the worst performing secondary schools. Education Data Surveys analysed the results of all the schools involved in Teach First and found 15 of the 79 London secondaries (19 per cent) had GCSE achievements above their local authority average, and 17 schools had results above the national average. In the North West, five Teach First schools, or 23 per cent, had exam results which were the same or better than the local authority average. In the Midlands, results at five schools, or 18 per cent, were the same or better than the local authority average and two had results at or above the national average, raising the question of why schools with GCSE results up to 80 and 70 per cent were taking part.\n\nIn response Teach First said that exam results were not the \"whole story\" of the initiative, and the number of children claiming free school meals was as important in selecting schools to be involved. Stating \"Teach First selects the schools into which it places exceptional graduates through consideration of a range of criteria that indicate the level of challenge experienced at the school, including the percentage of free schools meals, the exam results at GCSE, staff turnover and the difficulties experienced by schools in recruiting new teachers.\"\n\nTeach First's relationship with businesses and deferred entry schemes has opened it to suggestions that it operates as an elite graduate scheme for them to recruit from.\n\nTeach First has also been said to place too much emphasis on schools in London, to where it places 40% of its recruits. It has been subject to criticism that London and larger cities are able to attract the best graduates, but coastal and rural communities struggle to attract these graduates. Brett Wigdortz in response said \"We made the same mistake many implementations make – starting in the place where it's easiest to implement things, the big cities, and taking a while to get to the areas which really need it\".\n\nThe Teach First model whereby teachers enter the classroom after only a six-week summer camp can leave recruits feeling their in-class levels of support as variable. A Teach First recruit has said the experience left her feeling expendable, saying the Teach First leadership were more focussed on expansion rather than the experience of recruits in a \"survival of the fittest\" atmosphere. Teach First had a 92% retention rate of recruits in 2012, with the recruit earning a \"good\" teacher label by observers.\n\nThe so-called \"London effect\" where the capital has seen a turnaround in educational achievement since the millennium, which has seen Teach First (and other interventions such as the London Challenge and the rise of academies) being credited with the turnaround of education in London, has been analysed in an academic study as coming instead from gradual improvements in primary education in the capital.\n\nTeach First has been supported by politicians of the Labour, Conservative and Liberal Democrat parties.\n\nIn 2017 the Journalist and director of the New Schools Network, Toby Young, attended a social mobility summit hosted by Teach First, who asked him to write a blog for them. Teach First disagreed with the content of the work submitted by Young, and published it with a rebuttal from another author working in the field. Teach First then decided that they were in error to publish the blog, even with a rebuttal, and removed it as being against their values and vision, stating that they did not want to act as a platform for the views contained therein. Toby Young claimed that he only found out about this decision via Twitter, and questioned why Teach First published it in the first place, stating that he felt as though he had been censored by the charity. A third party broadly agreed with Young's blog points, but found some merit in the rebuttal. Teach First apologised to Young and he accepted their apology.\n\nSee also\n Tough Young Teachers – a BBC documentary following graduates on the Teach First programme\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Teach First Official Website\n\nOrganizations established in 2002\nEducational organisations based in the United Kingdom\nUnited Kingdom educational programs\nCharities based in London\n2002 establishments in the United Kingdom", "role": "assistant" } ]